Introduction
1. Abraham Maslow, “October 5, 1966,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 2., ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 672.
Chapter 1: The Problem of Psychological Health
1. Abraham Maslow, “June 7, 1963,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 1, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 378.
2. Edward Hoffman, The Right to Be Human (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1988), 305.
3. Maslow, “December 23, 1967,” Journals, vol. 2, 866.
4. Robert L. Tonsetic, “The Bloodiest Day: December 6, 1967,” California Literary Review, http://calitreview.com/188.
5. Abraham Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, ed. B. G. Maslow (Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 1973), 35–36.
6. Ernest Havemann, “The Age of Psychology in the US,” Life 42, January 7, 1957, 68–70+, quotation from 72.
7. Ellen Herman, Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 2.
8. E. Brooks Holifield, A History of Pastoral Care in America: From Salvation to Self-Realization (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1983), 262.
9. Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 259.
10. Ibid., 262.
11. Ibid., 262.
12. Havemann, “The Age of Psychology in the US,” 68.
13. See Alfred Kazin, “The Freudian Revolution Analyzed,” New York Times Magazine, May 6, 1956, 22–40.
14. Nathan G. Hale, Jr., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 280.
15. Ibid., 282.
16. Ibid., 299.
17. Nathan G. Hale, Jr., in Sandler Gilman, Edward Shorter, Nathan G. Hale, Jr., Mervyn Jones, and Joseph Schwartz, “The Listener: United States of Analysis,” Independent on Sunday (London), October 31, 1999.
18. Hale, Rise and Crisis, 280.
19. John R. Seeley, “The Americanization of the Unconscious,” Atlantic Monthly, July 1961, 70.
20. Dan P. McAdams, The Redemptive Self: Stories Americans Live By (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 133.
21. Russell Jacoby, The Repression of Psychoanalysis: Otto Fenichel and the Political Freudians (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 23.
22. Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer, “Studies on Hysteria,” Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. XVII (London: Hogarth Press, 1955), 305.
23. Sigmund Freud as quoted in Yiannis Gabriel, Freud and Society (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), 93.
24. Ernest Havemann, “Where Does Psychology Go from Here?” Life, February 4, 1957, 68–88, quotation from 88.
25. Seeley, “The Americanization of the Unconscious,” 70.
26. Colin Wilson, New Pathways in Psychology: Maslow and the Post-Freudian Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC: Maurice Bassett, 2001), 166.
27. Abraham Maslow, “Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health,” in The Self: Explorations in Personal Growth, ed. Clark E. Moustakas (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956), 160–94. This article was originally published as Abraham Maslow, “Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health,” Personality Symposia: Symposium #1 on Values (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1950), 11–34.
28. Ibid., 161–62.
29. Ibid., 161.
30. Ibid., 160–94.
31. Ibid., 177.
32. Ibid., 180.
33. Ibid., 176.
34. Ibid., 187–88.
35. David Riesman with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denney, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1950), 9.
36. See William H. Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956).
37. Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized System (New York: Random House, 1960), 10–11.
38. Most work of this kind never received enough attention to have an impact on cultural understanding. These critics proved to be exceptions. In 1950, Yale University reluctantly published 2,000 copies of Riesman’s The Lonely Crowd. Within three years, Doubleday had licensed paperback rights, and within the decades that followed, the book sold well over a million copies—unheard of for an academic publication. Whyte’s book, though originally picked up by Doubleday, was also expected to be “a bust.” (Its first run was a “tiny” printing.) But just after its 1956 release, it hit the bestseller list and stayed there for seven months. Goodman’s Growing Up Absurd earned comparable popular attention, as did economist John Kenneth Galbraith’s 1952 American Capitalism and journalist Vance Packard’s 1957 The Hidden Persuaders (a book about media manipulation of the populace). Edwin McDowell, “Sometimes a Best Seller,” New York Times, May 10, 1981, Sunday Late City Final Edition; Robert J. Samuelson, “ ‘Organization Man’ Lives,” Washington Post, January 7, 1987; Michael T. Kaufman, “William H. Whyte, ‘Organization Man’ Author and Urbanologist, Is Dead at 81,” New York Times, January 13, 1999.
39. McDowell, “Sometimes a Best Seller.”
40. See Clark E. Moustakas, ed., The Self: Explorations in Personal Growth (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956).
41. The collection compiled writings by well-known psychologists (Gordon Allport, Carl Rogers, and Abraham Maslow), psychoanalysts (Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and Erich Fromm), and philosophers (Jean-Paul Sartre). Also included were the writings of psychiatrists, anthropologists, and education professors.
42. Clark E. Moustakas, “Explorations in Essential Being and Personal Growth,” in The Self, 279.
43. Maslow, “Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health,” in The Self, 160–94.
44. Maslow, “Personality Problems and Personality Growth,” in The Self, 235.
45. Ibid., 237.
46. Ibid., 234.
47. Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1955), 109.
48. Abraham Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being (New York: Van Nostrand, 1962), 5.
49. Abraham Maslow, “Creativeness, Autonomy, Self-Actualization, Love, Self, Being, Growth and Organismic People (Mailing List),” December 1959 (Maslow Papers, Box 449.19, “Miscellaneous #2” folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
50. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 208–09.
51. Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, 1955), 15.
52. Ibid., 28.
53. Ibid., 23.
54. Ibid., 33–66.
55. Ibid., 22.
56. Erich Fromm, Man for Himself (Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Publications, 1947), 15–16.
57. Daniel Burston, The Legacy of Erich Fromm (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 164–86.
58. Fromm, Sane Society, 22.
59. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954), 425–40.
60. Ibid.; Gordon W. Allport, ABC’s of Scapegoating (New York: Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith, 1948).
61. Allport, Nature of Prejudice, 12.
62. Ibid., 427–28.
63. Gordon W. Allport, The Individual and His Religion (New York: Macmillan, 1950), 58.
64. Fromm, Man for Himself, 97.
65. Rollo May, Man’s Search for Himself (New York: Dell, 1953), 44.
66. Ibid., 14.
67. Ibid., 17.
68. Ibid., 26.
69. Ibid., 22.
70. David Riesman with Nathan Glazer and Reuel Denny, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1967 reprint), xliii.
71. Fromm, Sane Society, 242.
72. Ibid., 312.
73. Sidney Jourard, Personal Adjustment: An Approach Through the Study of Healthy Personality (New York: Macmillan, 1958).
74. Ibid., 427.
75. Ibid., 433.
76. Ibid., 433–34.
77. Herman, Romance of American Psychology, 64–65.
78. Carl R. Rogers and John L. Wallen, Counseling with Returned Servicemen (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1946).
79. Ibid., 17.
80. Ibid., 6.
81. Carl R. Rogers, Client-Centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), 276.
82. Ibid., 218. Rogers further developed this idea in “Facilitation of Personal Growth,” School Counselor 2, no. 1 (January 1955).
83. Gordon W. Allport, Becoming: Basic Considerations for a Psychology of Personality (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1955), 1.
84. Ibid., 36.
Chapter 2: Common Ground
1. William James, “The Will to Believe,” The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (New York: Longmans, Green, 1897), 7.
2. Abraham Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, ed. B. G. Maslow (Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 1973), 68.
3. Henry Murray, notes (Henry A. Murray Papers, Conference Reports and Papers, early 1960s, Notes, “Psychology: advantages, values, disadvantage” folder, HUGFP 97.41, Box 2, Harvard University Archives).
4. Ibid.
5. Duane P. Schultz, A History of Modern Psychology (New York: Academic Press, 1969), 102.
6. See William James, Principles of Psychology (New York: Henry Holt, 1913).
7. William James, Psychology (London: Macmillan, 1892), 4.
8. Ibid., 1.
9. Mental philosophy held a position of esteem in American universities (courses on the subject had been considered essential to a proper education). Alfred H. Fuchs, “Contributions of American Mental Philosophers to Psychology in the United States,” in Evolving Perspectives on the History of Psychology, eds. Wade E. Pickren and Donald A. Dewsbury (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2002), 79–99.
10. Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1997), 15. Nineteenth-century psychiatric understandings were typically framed in physiological terms, often referring to the nervous system or to brain structures, but were heavily tinged with religious ideas. Explanations of mental illness ranged from the concept of bad humors or bad blood to the notion of satanic possession. Likewise, some psychiatric treatments of the nineteenth century reflected Puritan ideas of asceticism and redemption through suffering. Bloodletting, leeching, and mercury poisoning were common treatments for mental illness until the mid-nineteenth century. Lesser-known treatments included malaria fever therapy, insulin shock therapy, clitoral cauterization, sterilization, and hydrotherapy, which involved either continuous baths or tight wrapping in wet sheets. Malaria fever therapy was administered either by subcutaneous injection or by mosquitoes and was intended to cure syphilitic insanity through a course of 106-degree fevers. Insulin shock therapy brought patients to the brink of death and (ideally) back through fifty to sixty days spent in a coma. Charles E. Rosenberg, “The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America,” in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, eds. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 3–22; Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, 17, 39, 56, 165–68; Joel T. Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 96–98.
11. In 1844, the Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane was formed. In 1894, it changed its name to the American Medico-Psychological Association. In 1921, it became the American Psychiatric Association, which exists today. For a complete history of the American Psychiatric Association, see Walter E. Baron, The History and Influence of the American Psychiatric Association (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1987).
12. Louis D. Cohen, “The Academic Department,” in History of Psychotherapy: A Century of Change, ed. Donald K. Freedheim (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1992), 731–33. For an in-depth exploration of the American transition from the open university system, in which “truth” was broadly conceived, to the modern university system, in which “facts” and “values” were divided, see Julie A. Reuben, The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). American psychology departments were also shaped by German theoretical models. A number of the leading psychologists at the turn of the century—including G. Stanley Hall, James McKeen Cattell, and Lightner Witmer—had studied in the laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt, and others, including William James, had studied more broadly in Europe. Early American psychology took shape under the direct influence of European immigrants like Hugo Münsterberg and E. B. Titchener, who had been recruited to permanent posts at American universities for their expertise in scientific methods. Helmut E. Adler, “The European Influence on American Psychology: 1892 to 1942,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 727, no. 1 (1994): 113–20; Cohen, “Academic Department,” 734–36.
13. Ralph Barton Perry, The Thought and Character of William James (Boston: Little, Brown, 1935; Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 1996), 228. Citations refer to the Vanderbilt edition.
14. Frank McAdams Albrecht, “The New Psychology in America, 1880–1895” (PhD diss., Johns Hopkins University, 1960), 59–61.
15. Duane P. Schultz, A History of Modern Psychology, (New York: Academic Press, 1969), 118. Though the date of psychology’s birth as an academic discipline is at issue, most link it to the creation of Wilhelm Wundt’s psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1880. This date represents a break from the religiously and morally informed psychology that preceded it. Rand B. Evans argues, however, that academic psychology actually began decades earlier, as evidenced by the proliferation of psychology textbooks in the 1820s through the 1860s and in the inclusion of standard psychology courses even at the smallest colleges by the 1870s. Instead of marking the creation of a distinct discipline, Evans contends, the 1880s saw a dramatic shift in the philosophy and curriculum underlying academic psychology. Rand B. Evans, “The Origins of American Academic Psychology,” in Explorations in the History of Psychology in the United States, ed. Josef Brožek (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1984), 48–56.
16. It was actually a difficult task to break away from philosophy. There were only four universities with independent psychology departments by 1904, although thirty-four were created in the following ten years. Geraldine Jonçich, The Sane Positivist: A Biography of Edward L. Thorndike (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1968), 68.
17. Michael Sokal, “Origins and Early Years of the American Psychological Association: 1890 to 1906,” in The American Psychological Association: A Historical Perspective, eds. Rand B. Evans, Virginia Staudt Sexton, and Thomas C. Cadwallader (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1992), 43–71.
18. John D. Buenker, John C. Burnham, and Robert M. Crunden, Progressivism (Rochester, VT: Schenkman, 1986); Maureen Flanagan, America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s–1920s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 656.
19. William James (1909) as quoted in Margaret Donnelly, introduction to Reinterpreting the Legacy of William James, ed. Margaret Donnelly (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1992), 2.
20. Robert D. Richardson, William James: In the Maelstrom of American Modernism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006), 110. Neurasthenia was a psychological illness named by George Miller Beard in 1869. Its primary symptoms were fatigue and anxiety, which were thought to be associated with the stresses of the modern existence, namely increasing competition in the marketplace and the chaos of urbanization.
21. William James as quoted in Joseph Jastrow, “Has Psychology Failed?” American Scholar 4 (1935), 261.
22. Richardson, William James, 412–15; James’s writings on the intersection of religion and psychology include William James, The Will to Believe, and Other Essays in Popular Philosophy (New York: Longmans, Green, 1897); William James, Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections to the Doctrine (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1898); William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature (New York: Longmans, Green, 1902).
23. James, Varieties of Religious Experience.
24. Gordon Allport, “William James and the Behavioral Sciences,” Remarks at the installation of the Ellen Emmet Rand portrait of William James in Harvard’s William James Hall, November 5, 1965 (Papers of Gordon W. Allport, HUG 4.118.50, Box 5, Folder 154, Harvard University Archives).
25. Dorothy Ross, G. Stanley Hall: The Psychologist as Prophet (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 233.
26. Hall met his share of opponents, including colleagues like George Trumbull Ladd, whose recognition of philosophical questions infused his own empiricism. Ibid., 313. Ladd (1842–1921) was an American philosopher, schooled at Andover Theological Seminary, who taught at Yale and worked primarily in experimental psychology. He founded the psychology laboratory there and wrote several books, including Elements of Physiological Psychology (1887) and Knowledge, Life, and Reality (1909).
27. John A. Mills, Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 9–10.
28. Jonçich, Sane Positivist, 72, 87.
29. Edward L. Thorndike, Elements of Psychology (New York: A. G. Seiler, 1905).
30. Edward L. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies (New York: Macmillan, 1911).
31. Thomas Hardy Leahey, A History of Psychology: Main Currents in Psychological Thought, 6th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2003), 388.
32. John B. Watson, “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,” Psychological Review, 20 (1913): 158–77, http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm. Dating the emergence of behaviorism to Watson’s manifesto is contentious within the history of psychology. Max Meyer’s theory of behaviorism in The Fundamental Laws of Human Behavior (1911) predated the essay. And, in 1935, Jastrow wrote that “in any meaningful sense substantially all American psychologists were behaviorists long before 1912.” Mills, Control, 40; Jastrow, “Has Psychology Failed?” 264.
33. Watson, “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,” http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm.
34. Ibid., 40.
35. Thorndike, Animal Intelligence, 4.
36. Jonçich, Sane Positivist, 436.
37. John B. Watson, Psychological Care of Infant and Child (New York: Norton, 1928), 5–6.
38. John B. Watson, Behaviorism, rev. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930), 82.
39. H. L. Philp, Freud and Religious Belief (New York: Pitman, 1956), 129.
40. Peter Gay, A Godless Jew: Freud, Atheism, and the Making of Psychoanalysis (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 42.
41. James, Varieties of Religious Experience, 519.
42. Gay, Godless Jew, 30.
43. Referenced in Gerald E. Myers, “James and Freud,” Journal of Philosophy 87, no. 11 (November 1990): 593–99.
44. Jonçich, Sane Positivist, 422.
45. Howard Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers (New York: Delacorte, 1979), 54.
46. Nathan G. Hale, Jr., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
47. Ibid., 75.
Chapter 3: Higher, Better Leaders
1. Rollo May, The Courage to Create (New York: Norton, 1975), 100.
2. Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers, quote from 246.
3. Maslow, “November 8, 1964,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 1, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 568.
4. Maslow, “May 19, 1962,” Journals, vol. 1, 162.
5. Edward Hoffman, The Right to Be Human (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1988), 96–106.
6. Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers, 54.
7. Mary Harrington Hall and Abraham Maslow, “Overcoming Evil: An Interview with Abraham Maslow, Founder of Humanistic Psychology,” Psychology Today (1968, reprinted January, 1992): 4, http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/199201/abraham-maslow.
8. Ibid., 2.
9. For an exploration of the applications of Harlow’s work to humans, see: Deborah Blum, Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 2002).
10. Harry Harlow, Harold Uehling, and Abraham Maslow, “Delayed Reaction Tests on Primates from the Lemur to the Orangutan,” Journal of Comparative Psychology 13 (1932): 313–43.
11. Maslow published several articles from this work, including, but not limited to: Abraham Maslow, “Appetites and Hungers in Animal Motivation,” Journal of Comparative Psychology 20 (1935): 75–83; Abraham Maslow, “Self-Esteem (Dominance-Feeling) and Sexuality in Women,” Journal of Social Psychology 16 (1942): 259–94.
12. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 49–62.
13. Hall and Maslow, “Overcoming Evil,” 6.
14. Ibid., 6.
15. Maslow as quoted in Mildred Hardeman, “Dialogue with Abraham Maslow,” in Politics and Innocence: A Humanistic Debate, ed. Thomas Greening (Dallas: Saybrook Publishers, 1986), 75.
16. Brett King and Michael Wertheimer, Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Theory (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2005), 300; Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 92.
17. Anne Harrington, Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), xvi. Vitalism asserts that the life of an organism is partially self-determining and that life processes are not explicable by physiochemical laws. Hans Driesch published his main work on vitalism in 1905. See Hans Driesch, The History and Theory of Vitalism (London: Macmillan, 1914).
18. Although the translation of key Gestalt texts into English was slow in coming, Gestalt psychology reached America directly through the immigration of several key scholars who fled political instability in the 1920s and 1930s—namely, Wertheimer, Köhler, Kurt Koffka, and Kurt Goldstein. Koffka developed his theory of Gestalt psychology in Kurt Koffka, Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935; reprint, London: Routledge, 1999). For a first-hand look at Köhler’s theory of Gestalt psychology, and an account of his opposition to behaviorism, see: Wolfgang Köhler, Gestalt Psychology: An Introduction to New Concepts in Modern Psychology (1947; reprint, New York: Liverwright, 1970).
19. Herbert Spiegelberg, “Phenomenology in Psychology and Psychiatry: A Historical Introduction,” Northwestern University Studies in Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy, ed. John Wild (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1972), 67.
20. Wertheimer, “Experimental Studies,” 1037. Max Wertheimer laid the foundation for Gestalt psychology in his 1912 article “Experimental Studies on the Seeing of Motion,” in which he advanced a theory of apparent motion, focused on holistic human visual perception, in which the parts of an image were automatically incorporated into an understanding of the whole. Impressed by the psychical phenomena behind visual perception, Wertheimer wrote, “One sees motion. [ . . . ] One does not merely see that the object is now some place else than before, and so knows that it has moved [ . . . ], rather one [actually] sees the motion.” Max Wertheimer, “Experimental Studies on the Seeing of Motion,” reprinted in Classics in Psychology, ed. Thorne Shipley (New York: Philosophical Library, 1961), 1032, 1037. Wertheimer, “Experimental Studies in the Seeing of Motion,” 1032.
21. Mary Henle, preface to Molly Harrower, Kurt Koffka: An Unwitting Self-Portrait (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 1983), iii.
22. Abraham Maslow as quoted in King and Wertheimer, Max Wertheimer & Gestalt Theory, 300.
23. Kurt Koffka, Principles of Gestalt Psychology (1935; reprint, London: Routledge, 1999), 13–18, quotation from 18. Despite his apparent disdain for American science, Koffka traveled to the United States in 1924, serving as a visiting professor at Cornell University and lecturing. He maintained intellectual connections with Wertheimer and Köhler through his returns to Europe for lectures and through Köhler’s sabbatical year spent teaching at Clark University, also in 1924–25. In 1927, Koffka permanently settled in the U.S., accepting a professorship at Smith College, in Northampton, Massachusetts. King and Wertheimer, Max Wertheimer, 233–37.
24. Hall and Maslow, “Overcoming Evil,” 6.
25. Ibid., 5.
26. Harrington, Reenchanted Science, xx.
27. Ibid., 114.
28. Ibid., 145–51.
29. Jastrow, “Has Psychology Failed?” 264.
30. Ibid., 264–65.
31. Maslow, “August 25, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 1059.
32. Abraham Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, ed. B. G. Maslow (Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 1973, 7–19.
33. Ibid., 7, 19.
34. Edward Hoffman, The Right to Be Human (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1988), 13.
35. James Klee as quoted in Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow, 11.
36. Maslow as quoted in Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 123.
37. Ibid., 187. The article was originally published as: Abraham Maslow, “Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health,” Personality Symposia: Symposium #1 on Values (New York: Grune and Straton, 1950), 11–34.
38. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 161.
39. Maslow was finally promoted nine years after taking a position at Brooklyn College.
40. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 161.
41. Ibid., 196.
42. Ibid., 194–96.
43. Ibid., 196.
44. Ibid., 201.
45. Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality (1954; reprint, New York: Harper & Row, 1970).
46. Abraham Maslow, “Eupsychia—The Good Society,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 1, no. 2 (1961): 1–11.
47. Kurt Goldstein, The Organism: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from Pathological Data in Man (1939; reprint, New York: Zone Books, 1995), 162.
48. Abraham Maslow, “Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review 50, no. 4 (1943): 370–96, quotation from 383.
49. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 149–80, quotation from 155.
50. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 266.
51. Maslow, “October 10, 1961,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 1, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 123.
52. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 205–7.
53. Eugene T. Gendlin, foreword to Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, An Oral History, by Carl R. Rogers and David E. Russell (Roseville, CA: Penmarin Books, 2002), http://www.focusing.org/gendlin_foreword_to_cr.html.
54. Howard Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers (New York: Delacorte, 1979), 59.
55. Ibid., 67.
56. Carl R. Rogers, “Personality Adjustment Inventory” (New York: Association Press, 1931). This is a slightly revised form of “A Test of Personality Adjustment,” also created in 1931.
57. Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers, 75.
58. Carl R. Rogers, Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1942), 87–90.
59. Ibid., 273.
60. Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers, 137.
61. Ibid., 154–55.
62. “Medicine: Person to Person,” Time, July 1, 1957.
63. Thomas Greening, “Reflections on the Depressed and Dying: The Case of Carol,” in Existential-Integrative Psychotherapy: Guideposts to the Core of Practice, ed. Kirk J. Schneider (New York: Routledge, 2008), 343.
64. Thomas Greening, telephone interview with author, April 15, 2011.
65. Ibid.
66. Thomas Greening, e-mail to author, June 22, 2011.
67. Myron Sharaf, Fury on Earth: A Biography of Wilhelm Reich (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1994), 234–35.
68. Hellmuth Kaiser, “Emergency,” Psychiatry 25 (1962): 97–118.
69. Theodor Reik, Listening with the Third Ear (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), 145.
70. Greening, interview, April 15, 2011.
71. Robert H. Abzug, Rollo May and the Meaning of Life: An American Epic (New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming). Page numbers refer to manuscript.
72. Rollo May, The Meaning of Anxiety (1950; reprint, New York: Norton, 1977), 331–37.
73. Abzug, Rollo May, 290.
74. Ibid., 314.
75. Rollo May, Man’s Search for Himself (New York: Dell, 1953), 35.
76. Ibid., 80.
77. “February 9, 1950: ‘Communists in Government Service,’ McCarthy Says,” United States Senate history website, accessed July 8, 2012, http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Communists_In_Government_Service.htm.
78. Murrow proclaimed, “We will not walk in fear, one of another. We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason, if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine, and remember that we are not descended from fearful men.” Edward R. Murrow, transcript of “A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy,” See It Now, CBS-TV, March 9, 1954, http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/murrowmccarthy.html.
79. May, Man’s Search for Himself, 36–37.
80. Rollo May, “Contributions of Existential Psychotherapy” in Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology, eds. Rollo May, Ernest Angel, and Henri F. Ellenberger (New York: Basic Books, 1958), 37–68.
81. May, introduction to Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology, eds. Rollo May, Ernest Angel, and Henri F. Ellenberger (New York: Basic Books, 1958), 7.
82. Scientism, the idea that natural science has authority over all other interpretations, was often used pejoratively to indicate the inappropriateness of prioritizing the scientific method over all other approaches to the study of man. Gregory R. Peterson, “Demarcation and the Scientistic Fallacy,” Journal of Religion and Science 38, no. 4 (2003): 751–61.
83. May, introduction to Existence, 8–9.
84. Phenomenology was broad and dynamic, and the father of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, himself reportedly passed through three stages of subtheoretical orientation to the philosophy. Husserl’s first phase has been classified as descriptive phenomenology (what he also terms “prephenomenology”), his second phase as transcendental phenomenology, and his third phase as the radicalization of his transcendental phenomenology. Although Husserl’s phenomenology progressed through three stages, his transcendental phenomenology, stage two, proved most influential on the application of phenomenology to psychology and psychiatry and later to the practice of humanistic psychology. Thaddeus E. Weckowicz, “The Impact of Phenomenological and Existential Philosophies on Psychiatry and Psychotherapy,” in Humanistic Psychology: Concepts and Criticisms, eds. Joseph R. Royce and Leendert P. Mos (New York: Plenum Press, 1981), 57.
85. May, introduction to Existence, 8.
86. Herbert Spiegelberg, Phenomenology in Psychology and Psychiatry: A Historical Introduction, Northwestern University Studies in Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy, ed. John Wild (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1972), 195.
87. May, introduction to Existence, 8.
88. Ibid., 7.
89. Henri F. Ellenberger, “A Clinical Introduction to Psychiatric Phenomenology and Existential Analysis,” in Existence: A New Dimension in Psychiatry and Psychology, eds. Rollo May, Ernest Angel, and Henri F. Ellenberger (New York: Basic Books, 1958), 119.
90. Viktor Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy (New York: Washington Square, 1963), 104–9.
91. Friedrich Nietzsche as quoted in Viktor Frankl, The Doctor and the Soul: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy (New York: Knopf, 1955), 54.
92. May, introduction to Existence, 12.
Chapter 4: Self, Being, and Growth People
1. Maslow, “November 26, 1960,” Journals, vol. 1, 81.
2. Richard Farson, “Carl Rogers: Quiet Revolutionary,” in Carl Rogers: The Man and His Ideas, ed. Richard I. Evans (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1975), xxxiii.
3. Abzug, Rollo May, 306–9.
4. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 211.
5. Maslow, “July 11, 1966,” Journals, vol. 2, 746.
6. Ibid.
7. Abraham Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, ed. B. G. Maslow (Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 1973), 8.
8. In spite of his lack of higher education, Sutich was grandfathered into the APA and became a licensed therapist in the state of California. He ultimately completed the requirements for a PhD at the Humanistic Psychology Institute of San Francisco (later Saybrook Graduate School) a day before his death on April 9, 1976. “Anthony ‘Tony’ Sutich: 1907–1976,” Transpersonal Psychology Pioneers, http://www.atpweb.org/pioneers/pioneerssutich.html.
9. Anthony Sutich, “Proposed Improvement in Terminology in relation to Personal Psychological Problems,” Psychological Records 4 (1941), 375–87.
10. Anthony Sutich, “The Growth-Experience and the Growth-Centered Attitude,” Journal of Psychology 28, no. 2 (1949), 293–301.
11. Ibid.
12. Peggy Granger, “Another View of Tony Sutich,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 16 (July 1976), 7–12, quotation from 8.
13. Anthony Sutich, introduction to Readings in Humanistic Psychology, eds. Anthony Sutich and Miles A. Vich (New York: Free Press, 1969), 4.
14. Granger, “Another View,” 8.
15. Maslow as quoted in Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 263.
16. Will Hardy, Greater Greater Detroiters: They Light Up Our Life (Detroit: Hardywill Group, 1983), 50–65.
17. Association for Humanistic Psychology, “Humanistic Psychology Overview,” Association of Humanistic Psychology website, accessed December 15, 2010, http://www.ahpweb.org/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&layout=item&id=14&Itemid=24http://www.ahpweb.org/aboutahp/whatis.html.
18. Roy José DeCarvalho, The Founders of Humanistic Psychology (New York: Praeger, 1991), 7–15.
19. Sutich, “Introduction,” Readings in Humanistic Psychology, 8.
20. Gordon Allport, notes, “Conference on Humanistic Psychology: Old Saybrook, Conn., Nov 27–29,” November 30, 1964 (Papers of Gordon W. Allport, Humanistic Psychology Conference folder, HUG 4118.50, Box 4, Harvard University Archives).
21. Eugene Taylor, interview by author, Cambridge, MA, September 29, 2005.
22. Maslow, “May 26, 1963,” Journals, vol. 1, 312.
23. “Cumulative Contents, 1961–1990,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology, vol. 30, no. 4 (Fall 1990), 70–112. For examples of early explorations of sensitivity training, see: James V. Clark, “Authentic Interaction and Personal Growth in Sensitivity Training Groups,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology, vol. 3, no. 1 (Spring 1963): 1–13; James. F. T. Bugental and Robert Tannenbaum, “Sensitivity Training as Being Motivation,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology, vol. 3, no. 1 (Spring 1963): 76–85.
24. See “Cumulative Contents, 1961–1990.”
25. Sutich, introduction to Readings in Humanistic Psychology, 7.
26. DeCarvalho, Founders of Humanistic Psychology, 7–15.
27. Sonoma State College (now Sonoma State University) was originally an offshoot of the California State College system designed specifically for the education of teachers and founded on principles uniquely compatible with those of the still-embryonic humanistic psychology movement.
28. Association of Humanistic Psychology, “A Chronology of AHP’s Annual Conferences,” Association of Humanistic Psychology website, accessed May 1, 2008, www.ahpweb.org/aboutahp/ahpcronology.html.
29. DeCarvalho, Founders of Humanistic Psychology, 7–15.
30. Abraham Maslow, “June 15, 1959,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 1, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 26.
31. Eugene Taylor, Shadow Culture (Washington, DC: Counterpoint, 2000), 271.
32. Edward Hoffman, The Right to Be Human (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1988), 184.
33. Robert H. Abzug, Rollo May and the Meaning of Life: An American Epic (New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming), 256. Page numbers refer to manuscript.
34. Ibid., 266.
35. Victor Yalom, “An Interview with James Bugental,” Existential-Humanistic Psychotherapy, http://www.psychotherapy.net/interview/James_Bugental.
36. Gordon Allport, Personality and Social Encounter (Boston: Beacon, 1960), 282.
37. Mitchell G. Ash, “Psychology and Politics in Interwar Vienna: The Vienna Psychological Institute, 1922–1942,” in Psychology in Twentieth-Century Thought and Society, eds. Mitchell G. Ash and William R. Woodward (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 157.
38. Ibid., 151.
39. Charlotte Bühler, “Humanistic Psychology as a Personal Experience,” Interpersonal Development 4 (1973–74): 197–214, quotation from 199.
40. See Charlotte Bühler and Marianne Marschak, “Basic Tendencies of Human Life,” in The Course of Human Life: A Study of Goals in the Humanistic Perspective, eds. Charlotte Bühler and Fred Massarik (New York: Springer, 1968), 92–102.
41. Maslow, “November 4, 1969,” Abraham H. Maslow, 65.
42. U.S. Department of Energy, “United States Nuclear Tests July 1945 through September 1992,” December 2000, accessed June 24, 2012, http://www.nv.doe.gov/library/publications/historical/DOENV_209_REV15.pdf.
43. Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow, 38.
44. For more on Americans’ response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, see Alice L. George, Awaiting Armageddon: How Americans Faced the Cuban Missile Crisis (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
45. See Charles W. Eagles, The Price of Defiance: James Meredith and the Integration of Ole Miss (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).
46. Pressured by civil rights activists to squash insidious prejudice and to liberate its victims, the government finally began to enforce court orders to end segregation and started to correct injustices. (For example, Executive Order 11063, which Kennedy issued in November 1962, mandated an end to discrimination in housing based on race, color, creed, or national origin.)
47. Carl R. Rogers, Carl Rogers: Dialogues, eds. Howard Kirschenbaum and Valerie Land Henderson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 83.
48. Martin Luther King, Jr., “Towards Freedom,” transcript of speech, Dartmouth College, May 23, 1962, http://www.dartmouth.edu/~towardsfreedom/transcript.html.
49. Students for a Democratic Society, “Port Huron Statement,” 1962, http://www.h-net.org/~hst306/documents/huron.html.
50. Maslow, “September 20, 1966,” Journals, vol. 1, 668.
51. Gordon Allport, ”Psychiatry in Neurotic America” (unpublished notes), Law School Forum December 1950 (Papers of Gordon W. Allport, HUG 4118.50, Box 5, Folder 177, Harvard University Archives).
52. Gordon Allport, Personality and Social Encounter, 234.
53. Gordon Allport, Pattern and Growth in Personality (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1961), 275–307.
54. Maslow, “April 16, 1959,” Journals, vol. 1, 52.
55. Maslow, “December 16, 1961, Journals, vol. 1, 239.
56. Maslow, “November 5, 1961,” Journals, vol. 1, 130.
57. Sidney Jourard, Personal Adjustment: An Approach Through the Study of Healthy Personality (New York: Macmillan, 1958), 1–6. Jourard published several significant texts in humanistic psychology in the 1960s and 1970s. These included The Transparent Self (1964), Disclosing Man to Himself (1968), Self-Disclosure (1971), and Healthy Personality (1974, the year of his death). For a full bibliography of his professional publications, see Anne C. Richards, Tiparat Schumrum, and Lisa C. Sheehan-Hicks, “Chronological Bibliography of the Professional Publications of Sidney M. Jourard,” http://www.sidneyjourard.com/sidbib.htm.
58. Sidney M. Jourard, “Notes on the Quantification of Wellness,” prepared for meeting of the Subcomittee on the Quantification of Wellness of the United States Department of Health and Human Services’ National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics, Washington, DC, November 18, 1958 (Murphy Papers, Box 1076, Sidney Jourard folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron), 4.
59. Ibid., 11.
60. Jourard, Personal Adjustment, xi.
61. Maslow, “January, 13, 1961,” Journals, vol. 1, 90.
62. Carl R. Rogers, “Toward Becoming a Fully Functioning Person,” in Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming: A New Focus for Education, ed. Arthur W. Combs (Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1962), 21–33.
63. Implicit in this interpretation was their notion that human beings possessed a characteristic “nature” that was independent of childhood experiences (as psychoanalysts assumed) and environmental conditions (as behaviorists argued). Roy José DeCarvalho, The Founders of Humanistic Psychology (New York: Praeger, 1991), 138–41.
64. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin and the Foundations of Inequality Among Men, ed. N. K. Singh (New Delhi: Global Vision, 2006), 54.
65. Bruce Wochholz, “40th Anniversary of the Perspective on ahpweb.org,” AHP Perspective, August–September 2003, 7. (Original source not cited.)
66. Rollo May, “The Problem of Evil: An Open Letter to Carl Rogers,” Politics and Innocence: A Humanistic Debate, ed. Thomas Greening (Dallas: Saybrook Publishers, 1986), 12–23, quotation from 13.
67. Maslow, “October 19, 1967, Journals, vol. 2, 832–33.
68. Maslow, “May 19, 1962,” Journals, vol. 1, 162.
69. Ibid., “Problem of Evil,” 17.
70. Ibid., 13.
71. Ibid., 18–19.
72. Gordon Allport, unpublished notes, “Conference on Humanistic Psychology: Old Saybrook, Conn., Nov 27–29,” November 30, 1964 (Papers of Gordon W. Allport, Humanistic Psychology Conference folder, HUG 4118.50, Box 4, Harvard University Archives).
73. See Sandler Gilman, Edward Shorter, Nathan G. Hale, Jr., Mervyn Jones, and Joseph Schwartz, “The Listener: United States of Analysis,” Independent on Sunday (London), October 31, 1999. See also Nathan G. Hale, Jr., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
Chapter 5: Eupsychian Visions
1. B. F. Skinner, Walden Two (New York: Macmillan, 1948), 240.
2. C. Wright Mills, “Letter to the New Left,” New Left Review 1, no. 5 (September–October 1960), http://www.marxists.org/subject/humanism/mills-c-wright/letter-new-left.htm.
3. Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality (1954; reprint, New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 277.
4. Abraham Maslow, “April 14, 1969,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 2, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 957.
5. Abraham Maslow, “Self-Actualizing People: A Study of Psychological Health,” Motivation and Personality, 175–76.
6. Maslow, “April 22, 1968,” Journals, vol. 2, 962.
7. Abraham Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, ed. B. G. Maaslow (Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 1973), 84.
8. Abraham Maslow, Eupsychian Management: A Journal (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin and Dorsey Press, 1965), xi.
9. Cited in Joyce Milton, The Road to Malpsychia (San Francisco: Encounter, 2002), 10; See also Abraham Maslow, “Eupsychia—The Good Society,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 1, no. 2 (October 1961), 1–11.
10. B. F. Skinner, About Behaviorism (New York: Knopf, 1974), 11.
11. Christopher M. Aanstoos, “Cognitive Science and Technological Culture: A Humanistic Response,” in The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research, and Practice, eds. Kirk J. Schneider, James F. T. Bugental, and J. Fraser Pierson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 213.
12. John A. Mills, Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 23–24.
13. Skinner introduced his concept of the air crib to the public with the 1945 article “Baby in a Box.” The crib, where Skinner’s daughter Deborah was housed for eleven months, reportedly saved his wife time and effort, and decreased her stress. He described Deborah as always cheerful, never sick, and certainly not neglected. She was removed from the crib on numerous occasions throughout the day, when she was fed and changed (a total time expenditure averaging one and a half hours per day). And, as the need for social stimulation developed, he planned to lengthen this time. B. F. Skinner, “Baby in a Box,” Ladies’ Home Journal, October 1945, http://www.uni.edu/~maclino/cl/skinner_baby_in_a_box.pdf.
Skinner’s article, though intriguing, aroused extensive criticism. In 1971, Deborah described the ensuing fallout. “It was spread around,” she said, “that because of the box I had become psychotic, had to be institutionalized, and had even attempted suicide.” On the contrary, at twenty-seven she was a well-adjusted art student in London. “Behavior: A Skinnerian Innovation: Baby in a Box,” Time, September 20, 1971, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909996,00.html.
14. Skinner, About Behaviorism, 263.
15. B. F. Skinner in Carl R. Rogers, Carl Rogers: Dialogues, eds. Howard Kirschenbaum and Valerie Land Henderson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 81. Skinner explained, in his introduction to the 1976 edition of Walden Two, that the book was largely ignored until the late fifties, when behavior modifcation gained popularity.
16. Skinner, Walden Two, 28.
17. Skinner in Carl Rogers: Dialogues, 93.
18. Ibid., 86.
19. Ibid., 118.
20. The debate took place at the University of Minnesota, Duluth, from June 11–12, 1962. Carl Rogers: Dialogues, 82.
21. Rogers in Carl Rogers: Dialogues, 83.
22. Skinner in Carl Rogers: Dialogues, 110.
23. Rogers in Carl Rogers: Dialogues, 86.
24. Skinner in Carl Rogers: Dialogues, 92.
25. John R. Anderson, Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications, 6th ed. (New York: Worth, 2004), 10.
26. John B. Watson, Behaviorism, rev. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930), 5–6.
27. Anderson, Cognitive Psychology, 9.
28. George A. Miller, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing,” Psychological Review 63, no. 2 (1956): 81–97.
29. Donald E. Broadbent, Perception and Communication (London: Pergamon, 1958).
30. Noam Chomsky, “A Review of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior,” Language 35, no. 1 (1959): 26–58.
31. Albert Ellis, Humanistic Psychotherapy: The Rational-Emotive Approach (New York: Julian, 1973), 1.
32. Michael E. Bernard, Rationality and the Pursuit of Happiness: The Legacy of Albert Ellis (Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), 6.
33. Ibid., 14; Ellis, Humanistic Psychotherapy, 4.
34. Skinner as cited in Aanstoos, “Cognitive Science,” 213.
35. Maslow, “April 16, 1959,” Journals, vol. 1, 52.
36. Maslow, “1965,” Abraham H. Maslow, 67.
37. Maslow, “Self-Actualizing People,” Motivation and Personality, 149.
38. Ibid., 149.
39. Edward Hoffman, The Right to Be Human (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1988), 261–63.
40. Ibid., 267–70.
41. Carl Rogers as quoted in Howard Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers (New York: Delacorte, 1979), 291.
42. Ibid., 316–17.
43. Ibid., 317–18.
44. Richard Farson, telephone interview with author, October 5, 2005; for an example of Koch’s work, see Sigmund Koch and David E. Leary, eds., A Century of Psychology as Science (New York: McGraw Hill, 1985).
45. Carl Rogers, “Carl Rogers to Friends, July 22, 1963” (Papers of Gordon W. Allport, Correspondence, Folder Ro-Rz, HUG 4118.10, Box 46, Harvard University Archives).
46. Richard Farson, “The Case for Independent Institutes,” Voice of San Diego, April 18, 2005, accessed July 8, 2012, http://www.voiceofsandiego.org/uncategorized/article_002ad7b3-accd-566b-8af5-8a7cf75c1ab9.html.
47. Ibid.
48. Rogers, “Carl Rogers to Friends.”
49. Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers, 316.
50. Stanley Krippner, interview with author, San Francisco, June 24, 2005; Stanley Krippner, “Curriculum Vitae,” http://www.stanleykrippner.com/papers/VITAE.2003.htm.
51. George Leonard, telephone interview with author, April 5, 2006.
52. Abraham Maslow, “Some Basic Propositions of Growth and Self-Actualization Psychology,” in The Maslow Business Reader, ed. Deborah C. Stephens (New York: Wiley, 2000), 31.
Chapter 6: Resacralizing Science
1. Abraham Maslow, “January 30 1965,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 1, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 452.
2. Abraham Maslow, The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance (Chicago: Harper and Row, 1966), xv.
3. Roy José DeCarvalho, The Founders of Humanistic Psychology (New York: Praeger, 1991), 159–216.
4. Howard Kirschenbaum, On Becoming Carl Rogers (New York: Delacorte, 1979), 319–94.
5. Maslow, “August 21, 1961,” Journals, vol. 1, 113.
6. Maslow, “August 30, 1962,” Journals, vol. 1, 189–90.
7. Maslow, “May 9, 1966,” Journals, vol. 1, 730.
8. Eugene Taylor, “ ‘What Is Man, Psychologist, That Thou Art So Unmindful of Him?’: Henry A. Murray on the Historical Relation Between Classical Personality Theory and Humanistic Psychology,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 40, no. 3 (Summer 2000): 29–42.
9. Ibid., 32.
10. Ibid., 31–32.
11. DeCarvalho, Founders of Humanistic Psychology, 10.
12. Henry Murray, “A Preliminary Sub-Symposium” (Henry A. Murray Papers, HUGFP 97.45.16, Box 6, Old Saybrook, A Preliminary Sub-Symposium folder).
13. Ibid.
14. Henry Murray, “Psychology and the University,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 34 (October 1935): 803–17. Quotations are from Murray’s archival manuscript. Henry Murray, “Psychology and the University” (Henry A. Murray Papers, Psychology and the University, 1930–1950 folder, HUGFP 97.45.20, Harvard University Archives).
15. Ibid.
16. Rollo May, “Intentionality, the Heart of Human Will,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 5, no. 2 (October 1965): 202.
17. Ibid.
18. Edward Shoben, “Psychology: Natural Science or Humanistic Discipline?” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 5, no. 2 (October 1965): 217. Shoben was an academic psychologist best known for his application of learning theory to the processes of psychotherapy. Patrick M. Grehan, “Edward Shoben, Jr.: Overlooked Pioneer of Psychotherapy Integration,” Journal of Psychotherapy Integration 19, no. 2 (June 2009): 140–51.
19. Shoben, “Psychology,” 217.
20. Ibid., 218.
21. Maslow, “April 1, 1963,” Journals, vol. 1, 297–98.
22. Rogers also affirmed Maslow’s view. “We have suffered enough,” he said, “from the dogmatism of an unscientific Freudianism which initially enlightened us and then bound us into a rigid straitjacket.” He argued that Freud’s overelaboration of the subjective was as imprisoning as the confines of an impersonal science-like behaviorism. Carl R. Rogers, “Some Thoughts Regarding the Current Philosophy of the Behavioral Sciences,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 5, no. 2 (October 1965): quotation from 184.
23. Ibid., 184.
24. René Dubos, “Humanistic Biology,” American Scientist 53 (March 1965): 4–19, accessed June 1, 2010, http://www.westga.edu/~psydept/os2/os1/dubos.htm.
25. Carol L. Moberg, René J. Dubos: Friend of the Good Earth: Microbiologist, Medical Scientist, Environmentalist (Herndon, VA: ASM, 2005), 121.
26. Dubos is best known for his Pulitzer Prize–winning book So Human an Animal: How We Are Shaped by Surroundings and Events (New York: Scribner, 1968).
27. Moberg, René J. Dubos, 136.
28. Ibid., 133.
29. Dubos, “Humanistic Biology.”
30. Abraham Maslow, “Humanistic Science and Transcendent Experiences,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 5, no. 2 (October 1965): 219.
31. Ibid., 219.
32. Ibid., 222.
33. Ibid., 177–78.
34. Ibid.
35. Rogers, “Some Thoughts,” quotations from 186 and 189.
36. Maslow, “October 8, 1964,” Journals, vol. 1, 422.
37. The conference actually concluded with a panel led by Charlotte Bühler. However, no records seem to exist on this dialogue.
38. George Kelly, “The Threat of Aggression,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 5 no. 2 (October 1965): 201.
39. Ibid., 199.
40. See George Kelly, A Theory of Personality: The Psychology of Personal Constructs (New York: Norton, 1963).
41. Forrest G. Robinson, Love’s Story Told: A Life of Henry A. Murray (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 354.
42. Nina Murray (wife of Henry Murray), interview with author, Cambridge, MA, January 3, 2005.
43. Robinson, Love’s Story Told, 354.
44. Maslow, “November 27–29, 1964,” Journals, vol. 1, 436.
45. Gordon Allport, ”Psychiatry in Neurotic America” (unpublished notes), Law School Forum December 1950 (Papers of Gordon W. Allport, HUG 4118.50, Box 5, Folder 177, Harvard University Archives).
Chapter 7: Spreading the News
1. Abraham Maslow, Eupsychian Management: A Journal (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin and Dorsey, 1965), 247.
2. The EEOC’s powers were initially weak, and in the early years they prioritized race-based complaints over matters of discrimination against women.
3. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963–1969, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office 1965–70), 704–6, http://www.h-net.org/~hst306/documents/great.html.
4. Lord Taylor, “Deep Analysis of the American Mind,” New York Times, February 23, 1964, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive/pdf?res=F10716F9385F137A8EDDAA0A94DA405B848AF1D3.
5. Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr., “A Brief History of Psychology at Texas A&M University,” Texas A&M Department of Psychology website, http://psychology.tamu.edu/TAMUph.htm.
6. “General Catalog for California State University, Fresno: 1964–1965,” California State University, Fresno, website, http://www.csufresno.edu/catoffice/archives/oldcourses/6465/psychcrs.html.
7. See Eric Berne, Games People Play: The Basic Handbook of Transactional Analysis (1964; reprint, New York: Ballantine, 1996); William Glasser, Reality Therapy: A New Approach to Psychiatry (New York: Harper & Row, 1965).
8. For overviews of these techniques, see Richard Fisch, John H. Weakland, and Lynn Segal, The Tactics of Change: Doing Therapy Briefly (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982); Virginia Satir, M. Gomori, John Banmen, Jane Gerber, and Maria Gomori, The Satir Model: Family Therapy and Beyond (Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books, 1991); Nick Totton, Body Psychotherapy: An Introduction (Maidenhead, UK: Open University, 2003).
9. Ibid.
10. See Carl R. Rogers, “Significant Learning in Therapy and in Education,” Educational Leadership 16, no. 4 (1959): 232–42.
11. See Carl R. Rogers, “Psychology and Teacher Training,” in Five Fields and Teacher Education, eds. D. B. Gowan and C. Richardson (Ithaca, NY: Project One Publications, Cornell University, 1965); Carl R. Rogers, “The Facilitation of Significant Learning,” in Contemporary Theories of Instruction, ed. L. Siegel (San Francisco: Chandler, 1967); Carl R. Rogers, “A Plan for Self-Directed Change in an Educational System,” Educational Leadership 24, no. 8 (1967): 717–31; Carl R. Rogers, “What Psychology Has to Offer to Teacher Education,” in Teacher Education and Mental Health—Association for Student Teaching (Cedar Falls, IA: State College of Iowa, 1967), 37–57.
12. Carl R. Rogers, “Regarding Learning and Its Facilitation,” in Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education Might Become (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1969), http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/learning.html.
13. See Patricia Albjerg Graham, Progressive Education from Arcady to Academe: A History of the Progressive Education Association, 1919–1955 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1967).
14. Carl R. Rogers, “Personal Thoughts on Teaching and Learning,” in Freedom to Learn, http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/learning.html.
15. Carl R. Rogers, “Psychology and Teacher Training,” quotation from 60.
16. Ibid., quotation from 62.
17. Ibid., 63 and 77.
18. John Rowan, “Humanistic Education,” in A Guide to Humanistic Psychology, accessed May 1, 2008, http://www.ahpweb.org/rowan_bibliography/chapter17.html.
19. See Lucila Telles Rudge, “Holistic Education: An Analysis of Its Pedagogical Application” (PhD diss., Ohio State University, 2008).
20. Maslow, Eupsychian Management, 2.
21. Ibid., 247.
22. Edward Hoffman, The Right to Be Human (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1988), 268–70.
23. Ibid., 268–69.
24. Maslow as quoted in Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 273–74.
25. Abraham Maslow, The Maslow Business Reader, ed. Deborah C. Stephens (New York: Wiley, 2000), 7.
26. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 160, 57.
27. Abraham Maslow, Religions, Values, and Peak-Experiences (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1964), 4.
28. Ibid., xii.
29. Ibid., 22–23.
30. “Coast Group Spearheads a Movement Seeking Clue to Human Feelings,” New York Times, October 8, 1967.
31. LeRoy Aden, “On Carl Rogers’ Becoming,” Theology Today 36, no. 4 (January 1980): 556–59.
32. David. A. Steere, “Supervising Pastoral Counseling,” Clinical Handbook of Pastoral Counseling, vol. 3, eds. Robert J. Wicks, Richard D. Parsons, Donald Capps (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2003), 372.
33. See Carroll A. Wise, Pastoral Counseling: Its Theory and Practice (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1951; Paul E. Johnson, Person and Counselor: Responsive Counseling in the Christian Context (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1967).
34. Joe Boone Abbott as quoted in Allison Buice, “Pastoral Counselors Increasing in Number,” Spartanburg Herald-Journal, June 27, 1987, B3.
35. American Association of Pastoral Counselors, “Brief History on Pastoral Counseling,” http://www.aapc.org/about-us/brief-history-on-pastoral-counseling.aspx.
36. Chris Mikul, The Cult Files: True Stories from the Extreme Edges of Religious Belief (Sydney: Murdoch Books, 2008), electronic edition.
37. Ibid.
38. Abraham Maslow, “August 13, 1965,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 1, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 542.
39. Ibid., 542–43.
40. Mikul, Cult Files.
41. Maslow, “January 14, 1966,” Journals, vol. 1, 586.
Chapter 8: From the Ivory Tower to the Golden Coast
1. Bob Dylan, “Lay, Lady, Lay,” Nashville Skyline, Columbia Records, April 1969.
2. Edward Hoffman, The Right to Be Human (Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1988), 272.
3. Richard Atcheson, “Big Sur: Coming to My Senses,” Holiday, March 1968, 22.
4. Jeffrey Kripal, “Mesmer to Maslow: Psychologies of Energy and Consciousness,” in The Enlightenment of the Body: A Nonordinary History of Esalen (unpublished manuscript, 2005).
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
7. Abraham Maslow, “April 30, 1970,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 2, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 1287.
8. Maslow, “September 19, 1967,” Journals, vol. 2, 828.
9. Maslow, “April 22, 1962,” Journals, vol. 1, 164.
10. Barclay James Erickson, “The Only Way Out Is In: The Life of Richard Price,” in On the Edge of the Future: Esalen and the Evolution of American Culture, eds. Jeffrey Kripal and Glenn W. Shuck (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 132–64, 150–52.
11. Price’s father had abandoned his own mother’s Orthodox Judaism and was nonpracticing, while Price’s mother—somewhat late in life—decided to baptize the children and join the Episcopalian church to protect the family from the anti-Semitic orientation of their exclusive Chicago neighborhood. Erickson, “The Only Way Out Is In,” 134–43.
12. Ibid., 150–52.
13. Ann Taves, “Michael Murphy and the Natural History of Supernormal Human Attributes,” in On the Edge of the Future, 226.
14. At the time of Murphy’s trip, Sri Aurobindo had been dead five years, but his spiritual partner and successor, Mirra Alfassa, known as “the Mother,” remained at the ashram. Murphy had direct connection with Aurobindo’s ideas through his writing in The Life Divine. According to Kripal, Murphy experienced the religious dimensions of the text he studied in a “classically mystical epistemological structure.” Jeffrey Kripal, “Reading Aurobindo from Stanford to Pondicherry,” in On the Edge of the Future, 108.
15. Sri Aurobindo, “The Human Mind,” in The Hour of God: Selections from His Writings, compiled and with an introduction by Manoj Das (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1995), 215.
16. Walter Anderson, Upstart Spring: Esalen and the American Awakening (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1983), 119.
17. Sri Aurobindo, “The Yoga and Its Objects,” 1912, http://surasa.net/aurobindo/yoga-obj.html.
18. Kripal, “Reading Aurobindo,” 99–131. For a thorough history of Esalen, see Jeffrey Kripal, Esalen: America and the Religion of No Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).
19. Kripal, Esalen, 439; Anderson, Upstart Spring, 68–72.
20. Despite his background, Harmon had branched out into multidisciplinary study. The seminar was intended to explore conceptual changes in psychology. It included a list of recommended readings in interdisciplinary psychological speculation. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 68.
21. Adams had a private practice and Bateson worked for the Veterans Administration hospital, both in Palo Alto, CA. “The Human Potentiality: A Seminar Series,” brochure, Big Sur Hot Springs, Fall 1962.
22. Gerald Heard had immigrated to the United States with his best friend Aldous Huxley in 1937. Beginning in 1942, he oversaw Trabuco College, a progressive/visionary experiment in the study of comparative religion. He continued to write and publish extensively, both fiction and nonfiction, into the 1960s. Timothy Miller, “Notes on the Prehistory of the Human Potential Movement: The Vedanta Society and Gerald Heard’s Trabuco College,” in On the Edge of the Future, 86–90.
23. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 72.
24. “Human Potentiality: A Seminar Series.”
25. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 70–71.
26. Ibid., 72.
27. Robert Masters and Jean Houston, The Varieties of Psychedelic Experience: The Classic Guide to the Effects of LSD on the Human Psyche (1966; reprint, Rochester, VT: Park Street, 2000), 7–12.
28. Masters and Houston, Psychedelic Experience, 7–12.
29. Abraham Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being (New York: Van Nostrand, 1962), 103–14.
30. Albert Hofmann, LSD: My Problem Child, trans. Jonathan Ott (1980; reprint, Saline, MI: McNaughton & Gunn, 2005), 47.
31. Ibid., 49–50.
32. Craig S. Smith, “Nearly 100, LSD’s Father Ponders His ‘Problem Child,’ ” New York Times, January 7, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/07/international/europe/07hoffman.html?_r=1&oref=slogin.
33. Hofmann, LSD, 24–25.
34. R. Gordon Wasson, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” Life, June 10, 1957, http://www.imaginaria.org/wasson/life.htm.
35. Hofmann, LSD, 11–12.
36. Sidney Katz, “My Twelve Hours as a Madman,” Maclean’s, October 1, 1953, 9–11, 46–55, http://www.macleans.ca/article.jsp?content=20070921_160239_7188.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.
39. Hofmann, LSD, 27.
40. For examples of this research see Harold A. Abramson, “Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy with LSD,” in The Use of LSD in Psychotherapy, ed. Harold A. Abramson (New York: Josiah Macy, Jr., Foundation, 1960), 25–80; Arthur L. Chandler and Mortimer A. Hartman, “Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) as a Facilitating Agent in Psychotherapy,” Archives of General Psychiatry 2, no. 3 (1960): 286–99; and Humphry Osmond, “A Review of the Clinical Effects of Psychotomimetic Agents,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 66, no. 3 (1957): 418–34.
41. For more on the research performed in the fifties with schizophrenics and alcoholics, see Edward Baker, “LSD Psychotherapy; LSD Psycho-Exploration: Three Reports,” in The Use of LSD in Psychotherapy and Alcoholism, ed. Harold A. Abramson (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967), 191–207; Humphry Osmond and John Smythies, “Schizophrenia: A New Approach,” Journal of Mental Science 98 (April 1952): 309–15.
42. Janice Hopkins Tanne, “Obituary for Humphry Osmond,” British Medical Journal, 328 (March 2004): 713; Abram Hoffer, “Treatment of Alcoholism with Psychedelic Therapy,” in Psychedelics: The Uses and Implications of Hallucinogenic Drugs, eds. Bernard Aaronson and Humphry Osmond (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1970), 357–66.
43. Timothy Leary, High Priest (Berkeley, CA: Ronin, 1995), 12.
44. Ibid., 13.
45. Hofmann, LSD, 94–95.
46. Prior to Leary’s research, various studies had established the safety and psychotherapeutic promise of psychedelics. In mid-1960, researcher Sidney Cohen established the feasibility of psychedelic experimentation with his large-scale study of side effects. He documented psychotic episodes as occurring in approximately 1.8 per thousand cases, attempted suicides in 1.2 per thousand, and successful suicides in 0.4 per thousand. Jay Stevens, Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1987), 173.
47. Ibid., 138–58.
48. Stanley Krippner, “Dancing with the Trickster: Notes for a Transpersonal Autobiography,” International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 21 (2002): 1–18, http://www.stanleykrippner.com/papers/autobiogood.htm.
49. Stanley Krippner, interview with author, San Francisco, June 24, 2005.
50. Krippner, “Dancing with the Trickster.”
51. Krippner, interview.
52. Maslow, “December 24, 1961,” Journals, vol. 1, 242.
53. Abraham Maslow, Religions, Values, and Peak-Experiences (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1964), 27.
54. Maslow, December 7, 1968, Journals, vol. 2, 1092.
55. Rollo May to Charles C. Dahlberg, New York, September 18, 1965 (Rollo May Papers, HPA Mss 45, Box 12:9, Answered Correspondence 1964–1965 folder, Humanistic Psychology Archives, Department of Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara).
56. Timothy Leary, “The Religious Experience: Its Production and Interpretation,” eds. Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner, and Gunther M. Weil, The Psychedelic Reader: Classic Selections from The Psychedelic Review, the Revolutionary 1960s Forum of Psychopharmacological Substances (Secaucus, NJ: Citadel, 1993), 178.
57. Reverend Mike Young as quoted in Jeanne Malmgren, “The Good Friday Marsh Chapel Experiment: Tune In, Turn on, Get Well?” St. Petersburg Times, November 27, 1994, http://www.csp.org/practices/entheogens/docs/young-good_friday.html.
58. Emma Harrison, “A Mind-Drug Link to Religion Seen,” New York Times, August 31, 1963 in ProQuest Historical Newspapers, the New York Times (1851–2003), 28.
59. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 72.
60. “Human Potentiality: A Seminar Series.”
61. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 79.
62. Huxley published two books in the mid-fifties that explored psychedelic use: Aldous Huxley, Doors of Perception (New York: Harper, 1954) and Aldous Huxley, Heaven and Hell (New York: Harper, 1956).
63. Aldous Huxley, Island (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 141.
64. See Huxley, Doors of Perception.
65. Kripal, Esalen, 132–43; Anderson, Upstart Spring, 108.
66. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 269.
67. Michael Murphy in Scott London, “The Mysterious Powers of Body and Mind: An Interview with Michael Murphy” (1996), interview conducted in Santa Barbara, CA and adapted from the radio series Insight & Outlook, http://www.scottlondon.com/interviews/murphy.html.
68. Maslow, “April 22–23, 1965,” Journals, vol. 1, 608.
69. Martin A. Lee and Bruce Schlain, Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond (New York: Grove, 1985), 81.
70. Robert Greenfield, Timothy Leary: A Biography, (New York: Harcourt, 2006), 124.
71. Leary describes the reason for his dismissal from Harvard as due, in part, to the politically risky nature of his research. Timothy Leary, Testimony of Timothy Leary in the Chicago Seven Trial, transcript, http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Leary.html.
72. Psychedelic use was legally limited to experimental settings in 1963 and possession became illegal in 1966. Lee and Schlain, Acid Dreams, 92, 131.
73. John Osmundsen, “Harvard Study Sees Benefit in Use of Mind Drugs,” New York Times, May 15, 1965.
74. In spite of his doubts, Maslow remained committed to Leary and Al-pert’s right to conduct research on psychedelics. In July 1965, Maslow flew to Washington, DC, to testify on behalf of Richard Alpert, whose experimental methods had been called into question by the ethics board of the American Psychological Association. Maslow defended Alpert’s right to engage in unorthodox scientific methods and argued that there was potential value in psychedelic experimentation. Maslow, “July 16, 1965,” Journals, vol. 1, 527.
75. Maslow, “December 10, 1964,” Journals, vol. 1, 440.
76. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 43–44. First published in 1937 in German as Nachfolge.
77. Maslow, “Drugs—Critique,” November 29, 1966 (Maslow Papers, Box M 449.7, LSD [drugs] folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
78. Ibid.
79. Maslow, letter to Paula Gordon, May 11, 1966 (Maslow Papers, Box M 397, Miscellaneous Correspondence folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
80. Maslow, letter to Rabbi Zalman Schachter, October 24, 1963 (Maslow Papers, Box M 449.7, LSD [drugs] folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
81. Lee and Schlain, Acid Dreams, 82.
82. Ibid., 81.
83. Stevens, Storming Heaven, 273–75.
84. Graham B. Blaine, Jr., “Moral Questions Stir Campuses: Sex, Drugs and Psychoses Posing New Problems,” New York Times, January 16, 1964.
85. Timothy Leary as quoted in Robert E. Dallos, “Dr. Leary Starts New ‘Religion’ With ‘Sacramental’ Use of LSD,” New York Times, September 20, 1966.
86. Leary as quoted in Stevens, Storming Heaven, 326. According to Leary, “Turn on means to go beyond your secular tribal mind to contact the many levels of divine energy which lie within your consciousness; tune in means to express and to communicate your new revelations in visible acts of glorification, gratitude and beauty; drop out means to detach yourself harmoniously, tenderly and gracefully from your worldly commitments until your entire life is dedicated to worship and search.” Ibid., 326.
87. Maslow, “December 20, 1960,” Journals, vol. 1, 82.
88. Abraham Maslow, “Resistance to Enculturation,” Journal of Social Issues 7 (1951): 26–29.
89. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 192.
90. Abraham Maslow as quoted in Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 192.
91. Timothy Leary, Turn On, Tune In, Drop Out (first published as The Politics of Ecstasy, 1968; reprint, Oakland, CA: Ronin Publishing, 1999), 6.
92. William Borders, “LSD Psychologist Arrested Again; Dr. Leary, the ex-Harvard Teacher, Seized in Raid on Dutchess Mansion,” New York Times, April 18, 1966.
93. “Jury Inquiry Balked by Aide of Dr. Leary,” New York Times, July 16, 1966, 20.
94. Stevens, Storming Heaven, 337.
95. Ibid., 274.
96. Ibid., 273–75.
97. Ibid., 279.
98. “Broken Chromosomes: Some Evidence,” Science News, November 11, 1967; “Cell Damage from LSD,” Time, March 24, 1967, 46+; Samuel Irwin and Jose Egozcue, “Chromosomal Abnormalities in Leukocytes from LSD-25 Users,” Science 157 (July 21, 1967), 313–14; Maimon M. Cohen, Michelle J. Marinello, and Nathan Back, “Chromosomal Damage in Human Leukocytes Induced by Lysergic Acid Diethylamide,” Science 155 (March 17, 1967), 1417–19.
99. “LSD and the Unborn,” Newsweek, September 18, 1967; “LSD and the Unborn,” Time, August 11, 1967; E. M. Brecher, “LSD: Danger to Unborn Babies,” McCall’s, September 1967, 70–1+.
100. “New Reports on Rising Problem: Use of LSD,” U.S. News & World Report, April 10, 1967; Margaret Mead, “Should We Have Laws Banning the Use of LSD?” Redbook, January 1968.
101. Stevens, Storming Heaven, 285.
102. Lyndon B. Johnson, “Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union,” January 17, 1968, http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/680117.asp.
103. “President Urges a National Drive on Narcotics Use,” New York Times, July 15, 1969, 1.
104. Allen Ginsberg, “Graffiti 12th Cubicle Men’s Room Syracuse Airport,” November 11, 1969, Collected Poems 1947–1997 (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006), 535.
105. George Leonard, Walking on the Edge of the World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988), 80.
106. Stevens, Storming Heaven, x.
107. Leonard, Walking on the Edge, 80.
108. Stevens, Storming Heaven, xii.
109. Joan Didion, “Slouching Towards Bethlehm,” Saturday Evening Post, September, 23, 1967, vol. 240 (19), 25-94. Reprinted in Joan Didion, Slouching Towards Bethlehem (New York: Noonday Press, 1968), quotation from 85.
110. Leonard, Walking on the Edge, 80.
111. Maslow, “July 9, 1967,” Journals, vol. 2, 775.
112. Walter Anderson, interview with author, San Francisco, April 26, 2005.
113. Jeffrey Klein, “Esalen Slides Off the Cliff,” Mother Jones, December 1979, 26–45, quotation from 30.
114. “A Chronology of AHP’s Annual Conferences,” Association of Humanistic Psychology website, accessed December 15, 2011, http://ahpweb.org/aboutahp/ahpcronology.html.
115. The office doubled as director John Levy’s base of operations for San Francisco Venture, an organization devoted to psychospiritually oriented groups and programs with and for the residents of the “ghetto area” in which it was located. John Levy, telephone interview with author, September 20, 2005.
116. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 2.
Chapter 9: The Sledgehammer Approach to Human Growth
1. Rick Tarnas, 1978, http://www.esalen.org/air/essays/tarnas_1978.html.
2. John Heider, “HumPot Papers,” unpublished manuscript, Esalen 1967–1971, 13.
3. Ibid., 15.
4. Ibid., 14.
5. Ibid., 39.
6. Ibid., 38.
7. George Leonard, telephone interview with author, April 5, 2006.
8. See William C. Schutz, Joy: Expanding Human Awareness (New York: Grove, 1967).
9. William C. Schutz as quoted in Peter Friedberg, http://www.esalen.org/air/essays/will_schutz.html.
10. NTL’s mission, when established in 1947, was to study and apply group work as a social “technology.” NTL hoped “to advance, through improved theories and practices of human relations education, the productivity and quality of human relations in all areas of social life.” H. A. Thalen, for the Committee, “Proposed Bylaws of the National Training Laboratories,” November 27, 1955 (NTL Papers, Box M226, NTL Historical Documents Folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
11. “What Is Sensitivity Training?” NTL Institute Bulletin 2, no. 2 (April 1968) (NTL Papers, Box M223, NTL Special Reports folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron). Focused on will and intention, NTL was premised on the idea that a sense of control over one’s destiny was integral to realization of one’s “human potential.” By connecting individuals more fully to the social experience of their work and improving their group and individual functioning, NTL intended to facilitate self-actualization. Evelyn Hooker, “Theory Session 1: The Meaning of Laboratory Training,” June 27, 1955 (NTL Papers, Box M227, NTL in Group Development folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
12. Abraham Maslow, “Journal Notes on the T-Groups,” Bethel, Maine, June 16, 1968 (Maslow Papers, M449.3, T Groups Folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
13. Rogers himself published a book called On Encounter Groups in 1970. Carl R. Rogers, On Encounter Groups (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).
14. Carl R. Rogers, “Carl Rogers Describes His Way of Facilitating Encounter Groups,” American Journal of Nursing 71, no. 2 (February 1971): 275–79, quotation from 279.
15. Walter Anderson, Upstart Spring: Esalen and the American Awakening (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1983), 152–56.
16. Heider, “HumPot Papers,” 39.
17. Tom Wolfe, “The Me Decade and the Third Great Awakening,” in Mauve Gloves & Madmen, Clutter & Vine (New York: Bantam, 1977), 126–70, quotation from 135.
18. Abraham Maslow, “September 19, 1967,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 2, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 827.
19. Leo E. Litwak, “A Trip to Esalen Institute—Joy Is the Prize,” New York Times, December 31, 1967, 8, 28–29, quotation from 8.
20. Ibid., quotation from 29.
21. Jeffrey Kripal and Glenn W. Shuck, eds., On the Edge of the Future: Esalen and the Evolution of American Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 6.
22. Jeffrey Kripal, Esalen: America and the Religion of No Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 158–59.
23. Heider, “HumPot Papers,” 47.
24. “Seminars,” brochure, Big Sur Hot Springs, Winter–Spring 1964.
25. Heider, “HumPot Papers,” 9.
26. Laura Perls as quoted in Kripal, Esalen, 161; Robert Shilkret, interview with author, South Hadley, MA, September 17, 2005. Professor Robert Shilkret of Mount Holyoke College remembers Fritz Perls’s appearance in 1966 as “very California.” Addressing a crowd at Boston University’s student center, Perls arrived unreasonably late and spoke for a very short time, in spite of the high (five-dollar) cost of admission. Perls announced, “Maybe some of those here tonight are somewhat disappointed. . . . That’s right. And now you’re learning.”
27. Gordon Wheeler, “Spirit and Shadow: Esalen and the Gestalt Model,” in On the Edge of the Future, 173–74.
28. Kripal, Esalen, 163.
29. Maureen O’Hara, interview with author, San Francisco, CA, April 29, 2005.
30. Michael Murphy, afterword to Kripal and Shuck, On the Edge of the Future, 308.
31. Jeffrey Kripal, “Esalen Goes to the City: The San Francisco Center (1967–1975),” in The Enlightenment of the Body: A Nonordinary History of Esalen (unpublished manuscript, 2005), 12.
32. For Perls’s first book on Gestalt, see Frederick Perls, Ralph F. Hefferline, and Paul Goodman, Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality (New York: Dell, 1951).
33. Frederick Perls, The Gestalt Approach and Eye Witness to Therapy (Ben Lomond, CA: Science and Behavior Books, 1973), 3–4.
34. For thousands of Americans, “Gestalt psychology” was reduced to Perls’s interpretive techniques, to the exclusion of the more comprehensive and empirically validated bases of Gestalt theory as developed in Europe during the early twentieth century. Petruska Clarkson and Jennifer Mackewn, Fritz Perls (London: Sage, 1993), 142. One critic, in attempting to distinguish Gestalt therapy from what he termed “Perls-ism,” noted that Perls’s Gestalt therapy was more accurately a “biological-hedonistic existentialism.” He specifically identified three aspects of Perls’s theory and practice that were not a part of proper Gestalt therapy: specifically his anti-intellectual attitude, his view of maturity as “hedonistic isolation,” and his “unsupportive stance as a therapist.” J. Dublin, “Existential-Gestalt Therapy versus ‘Perls-ism,’ ” in The Growing Edge of Gestalt Therapy, ed. Edward W. L. Smith (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1976), 141–45. Those versed in the Gestalt model also recognized the incompleteness of Perls’s brand of Gestalt, which was a “come to your senses” approach, absent of the political and philosophical components that defined the approaches of Gestalt psychologists like Paul Goodman. Wheeler, “Spirit and Shadow,” 182. Perls’s most purely, and perhaps only truly, Gestalt principles were his focus on the “here and now,” present needs and beliefs as syntheses of past experiences, the immediacy of self-expression, and the contention that all perception was interpretation.
35. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 133.
36. Ibid., 132–33.
37. Frederick Perls, Gestalt Therapy Verbatim, ed. John O. Stevens (Lafayette, CA: Real People, 1969), 4.
38. Anonymous patient as quoted in David Allyn, Make Love, Not War: The Sexual Revolution: An Unfettered History (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000), 204.
39. Ibid., 247.
40. In his journalistic coverage of the thirteenth annual AHP convention for the Mountain Gazette, Mike Moore describes Esalen as the “proving ground for experiments in the new therapy: encounter, Gestalt, meditation, the healing baths, and the sensuous massage—all that we called ‘touchie-feelie’ a few years ago.” See Mike Moore, “Breaking Free from the Human Potential Movement,” Mountain Gazette, October 1975, 17–23.
41. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 199–202.
42. Abraham Maslow, “Notes on T-groups,” unpublished paper (Maslow Papers, Box M449.3, T-groups folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron), 7.
43. Perls as quoted in Kripal, Esalen, 157.
44. Leonard, interview, April 5, 2006.
45. Kripal, Esalen, 167.
46. Leonard, interview, April 5, 2006.
47. See Schutz, Joy: Expanding Human Awareness.
48. Leonard, Walking on the Edge, 301.
49. Heider, “HumPot Papers,” 152.
50. Scott London, “The Mysterious Powers of Body and Mind: An Interview with Michael Murphy” (1996), interview conducted in Santa Barbara, CA, and adapted from the radio series Insight & Outlook, http://www.scottlondon.com/interviews/murphy.html.
51. James V. McConnell “Psychoanalysis Must Go” Esquire, October 1968, 176+, quotation from 176.
52. Lewis R. Wolberg, introduction to Inside Psychotherapy: Nine Clinicians Tell How They Work and What They Are Trying to Accomplish, ed. Adelaide Bry (New York: Basic, 1972), ix.
53. Albert Ellis, Humanistic Psychotherapy: The Rational-Emotive Approach (New York: McGraw-Hill Books, 1971), 1.
54. Ibid., 9.
55. Carol Magai and Jeannette M. Haviland-Jones, The Hidden Genius of Emotion: Lifespan Transformations of Personality (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 442.
Chapter 10: Such Beauty and Such Ugliness
1. Leonard Cohen, “Bird on the Wire,” Songs from a Room, Columbia Records, 1969.
2. Carol Magai and Jeannette M. Haviland-Jones, The Hidden Genius of Emotion: Lifespan Transformations of Personality (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 184.
3. Ibid., 170.
4. John Heider, “HumPot Papers,” unpublished manuscript, Esalen 1967–1971, 161.
5. Ibid., 73.
6. Ibid., 73.
7. Walter Anderson, Upstart Spring: Esalen and the American Awakening (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1983), 145–46, quotation from 145.
8. Michael Murphy as quoted in George Leonard, Walking on the Edge of the World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988), 207.
9. Jeffrey Kripal, Esalen: America and the Religion of No Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 132–34.
10. Leonard, Walking on the Edge, 302.
11. Abraham Maslow, “Politics 3,” in Politics and Innocence: A Humanistic Debate, ed. Thomas Greening (Dallas: Saybrook Publishers, 1989), 80.
12. Abraham Maslow, “May 9, 1968,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 2, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 920.
13. Abraham Maslow, Religions, Values, and Peak-Experiences (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1964), 27; Maslow, “February 3, 1965,” Journals, vol. 1, 452.
14. Maslow, “Jan 18, 1968,” Journals, vol. 2, 907.
15. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 181. Brain researcher Lois Delattre first introduced Michael Murphy and George Leonard at her home in Telegraph Hill in 1965. Leonard, interview, April 5, 2006.
16. Ibid., 181.
17. Ibid., 199–202.
18. Maslow, “August 18, 1968,” Journals, vol. 2, 981.
19. Maslow, “April 6, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 953.
20. David Dempsey, “Love and Will and Rollo May,” New York Times, March 28, 1971, SM29.
21. John Levy, telephone interview with author, September 20, 2005.
22. Jeffrey Kripal, “Reading Aurobindo from Stanford to Pondicherry,” in On the Edge of the Future, 126.
23. George Leonard, telephone interview with author, April 5, 2006.
24. Ibid.; Anderson, Upstart Spring, 161.
25. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 161.
26. Look was a weekly national magazine, published in Des Moines, Iowa, from 1937 to 1971.
27. Leonard, interview with author, April 5, 2006.
28. Ibid.
29. Price Cobbs, interview with author, San Francisco, CA, June 23, 2005.
30. Leonard, Walking on the Edge, 266.
31. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 162.
32. Cobbs, interview.
33. Leonard, Walking on the Edge, 265.
34. Price Cobbs, My American Life: From Rage to Entitlement (New York: Atria, 2006), 191.
35. Esalen Seminars Brochure, Summer 1967.
36. Cobbs, My American Life, 192.
37. Cobbs, interview.
38. Cobbs, My American Life, 194.
39. Ibid., 196.
40. Ibid.
41. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 163.
42. Cobbs, My American Life, 196.
43. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 163.
44. Ibid.
45. Cobbs, My American Life, 197.
46. Cobbs, interview.
47. Leonard hoped to extend the lessons of black-white encounter to the highest echelons of American society. He expediently drafted a letter to the president, enjoining Richard Nixon himself to participate in a series of black-white encounter groups to be held at the White House. The letter contained several signatures, including those of top leaders of the Martin Luther King administration, but was never answered by the White House. Leonard, Walking on the Edge, 323–24.
48. William H. Grier and Price Cobbs, Black Rage (New York: Basic Books, 1968), 179.
49. Ibid., 178–79.
50. Alvin F. Poussaint and Amy Alexander, Lay My Burden Down: Unraveling Suicide and the Mental Health Crisis Among African-Americans (Boston: Beacon, 2000), 64.
51. For a comprehensive look at historical racial research, see: William H. Tucker, The Science and Politics of Racial Research (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996). The medical establishment’s racism had been demonstrated in practice as well as in theory. The Tuskegee syphilis study was the final straw for many blacks who had come to perceive American medical institutions as threatening and authoritarian. Beginning in 1932, government researchers conducted a long-term study (initially intended to extend for six months) of the effects of syphilis on a group of black men in Alabama. The study continued for forty years, during which time participants were not informed of their diagnosis, but were told they had “bad blood,” a vernacular term used to describe a variety of ailments. Participants were also denied penicillin, which had become an acceptable and effective form of treatment around 1945. In July 1972, the Associated Press broke the story, making it public knowledge that 399 syphilitic black men had gone untreated, and many had died, for the purposes of an ad hoc government study that lacked a documented protocol. “U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/; James H. Jones, Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (New York, Free Press, 1981), 204.
52. Poussaint and Alexander, Lay My Burden Down, 105.
53. Ibid., 110, 105.
54. Ibid., 101–10, quotation from 105.
55. Ibid., 80, 105.
56. The Moynihan report, released in 1965, had increased the alienation that many blacks felt from the social sciences in general with its heavy reliance on damage imagery. In detailing the fragmented self-concepts of black Americans, the report aroused in blacks a pointed suspicion of attempts to address their “pathology.” It wasn’t until the mid-1970s, when humanistic psychology’s cultural power had already begun to decline, that the social sciences began to represent the black psyche in nonpathological ways. Daryl Michael Scott, Contempt and Pity: Social Policy and the Image of the Damaged Black Psyche, 1880–1996 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 183. This distrust contributed to the broader frustration that blacks were increasingly experiencing with the white coalition, and caused many to turn away from even the most serious efforts to meaningfully consider race. Although some clinicians attempted, in the 1960s, to formulate a “black psychology,” redefining normal black behavior and revising ill-suited language, their efforts received little attention from blacks at the time. Poussaint and Alexander, Lay My Burden Down, 74–75.
57. Lewis M. Killian, Impossible Revolution, Phase 2: Black Power and the American Dream (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1975), 129.
58. Samuel DuBois Cook, “The Tragic Myth of Black Power,” New South 21 (Summer 1969), 59. Some blacks openly abandoned integrationist efforts, arguing that all-black coalitions would be better able to fully devote themselves to the expedient amelioration of racial inequality. Frustrated with the limited impact of the organization and seeking a novel strategy, SNCC expelled its white members in 1966 and supplanted its integrationist platform with a black power agenda. SNCC’s position paper on this decision defends the action by arguing that the intimidating influence of whites had created an “unrealistic” racial atmosphere. SNCC enjoined whites to form their own coalitions in support of racial equality, but justified their exclusive policies as necessary to force social change. Charles V. Hamilton, “An Advocate of Black Power Defines It,” in Black Power: The Radical Response to White America, ed. Thomas Wagstaff (Beverly Hills, CA: Glencoe Press, 1969), 124–37; SNCC Position Paper (1966), “Who Is the Real Villain—Uncle Tom or Simon Legree?” in Black Power, 111–18.
59. L. T. Benjamin, Jr. and E. M. Crouse, “The American Psychological Association’s Response to Brown v. Board of Education: The Case of Kenneth B. Clark,” American Psychologist 57, no. 1 (2002): 38–50.
60. The Clark doll studies suggested that black children with low self-esteem tended to prefer white dolls. The findings were published as three articles: K. B. Clark and M. K. Clark, “The Development of Consciousness of Self and the Emergence of Racial Identification in Negro Preschool Children,” Journal of Social Psychology 10 (1939): 591–99; K. B. Clark and M. K. Clark, “Segregation as a Factor in the Racial Identification of Negro Pre-school Children: A Preliminary Report,” Journal of Experimental Education 8, (1939): 161–63; K. B. Clark and M. K. Clark, “Skin Color as a Factor in Racial Identification of Negro Preschool Children,” Journal of Social Psychology 11 (1940): 159–69.
61. Kenneth Clark to Herbert Kelman, January 7, 1965, as quoted in Wade E. Pickren and Henry Tomes, “The Legacy of Kenneth B. Clark to the APA: The Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology,” American Psychologist 57, no. 1 (January 2002), 51.
62. Adelbert Jenkins, “A Humanistic Approach to Black Psychology,” in Black Psychology, ed. Reginald L. Jones (Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry, 1991), 184.
63. William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 57–60.
64. Jenkins, “A Humanistic Approach to Black Psychology,” 79–81.
65. Ibid., 92.
66. Robert V. Guthrie, “The Psychology of African Americans: An Historical Perspective,” in Black Psychology, 36.
67. Jenkins, “A Humanistic Approach to Black Psychology,” 101.
68. Abraham Maslow, “The Unnoticed Revolution 2,” February 5, 1969 (Maslow Papers, Box 414, Lectures [AHAP] folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
69. “Cumulative Contents, 1961–1990,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 30, no. 4 (Fall 1990): 70–112.
70. Killian, The Impossible Revolution, 78.
71. Cobbs, interview.
72. Krippner, interview.
73. Ibid.
74. Carl R. Rogers, “Some Social Issues Which Concern Me,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 12, no. 2 (Fall 1972): 48.
75. Carl R. Rogers, “On No Longer Being Ashamed of America,” in Politics and Innocence, 23–32.
76. Maureen O’Hara, interview, April 29, 2005.
77. Virginia Satir, interview with Judith Goodman, November 1977 (Virginia Satir Collection, HPA Mss 45, Box 5: 36, Humanistic Psychology Archives, Department of Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara).
78. Joyce Milton argues that humanistic psychologists, including Maslow and Rogers, were overly naïve and idealistic when it came to political concerns. Her criticism, though, must be taken in the context of her general disapproval of the humanistic psychology movement and of the negative bias she projects throughout her book. See Joyce Milton, The Road to Malpsychia: Humanistic Psychology and Our Discontents (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003). The remarks of Virginia Satir, Stanley Krippner, and Price Cobbs (detailed later in this chapter) suggest that many humanistic psychologists were realistic about the limitations of their theory.
79. Bryce Nelson, “Psychologists: Searching for Social Relevance at APA Meeting,” Science, New Series 165, no. 3898 (September 12, 1969): 1101–4; David B. Baker, “The Challenge of Change: Formation of the Association of Black Psychologists,” in Handbook of Psychology, ed. Irving B. Weiner (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2003), 492–94.
80. Nelson, “Psychologists,” 1101; Ida Harper Simpson and Richard L. Simpson, “The Transformation of the American Sociological Association,” Sociological Forum 9, no. 2, Special Issue: “What’s Wrong with Sociology?” (June 1994): 259–78.
81. Lauren Wispe et al. reported that between 1920 and 1966, twenty-five of the nation’s largest PhD programs in psychology granted more than ten thousand doctoral degrees, with only ninety-three going to blacks. L. Wispe, J. Awkard, M. Hoffman, P. Ash, L. H. Hicks, and J. Porter, “The Negro Psychologist in America,” American Psychologist 24, no. 2 (February 1969): 142–50.
82. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 153.
83. Numerous sources describe the primacy of racial issues in America in the 1960s. For examples, see August Meier, John Bracey, Jr., and Elliott Rudwick, eds., Black Protest in the Sixties (New York: Markus Wiener, 1991); Rhoda Blumberg, Civil Rights: The 1960s Freedom Struggle (Boston: Twayne, 1984); and Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Knopf, 2006).
84. In 1964, even the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was preparing to investigate the Ku Klux Klan. Killian, The Impossible Revolution, 85. For a contextualization of the 1960s civil rights activity within the events of the 1950s, see Aldon D. Morris, Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984).
85. Milton J. Rosenberg, as quoted in Nelson, “Psychologists,” 1101.
86. George Miller, as quoted in Nelson, “Psychologists,” 1103.
87. Sigmund Koch, as quoted in Nelson, “Psychologists,” 1103–4.
88. Several sources refer to the phenomenon of racial tokenism, a practice in which “token” blacks are included in an organization, or in which racial issues are paid superficial attention as a token of an organization’s commitment to diversity. Yolanda Niemann describes the psychological effects of such tokenism, which include isolation, exaggeration of difference, and general distress in “The Psychology of Tokenism: Psychosocial Realities of Faculty of Color,” in Handbook of Racial and Ethnic Minority Psychology, eds. Guillermo Bernal, Joseph E. Trimble, Ann Kathleen Burlew, and Frederick T. L. Leong (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), 100–101. Also, several scholars cite racial tokenism as a catalyst in the black power movement. See Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1967) and Killian, Impossible Revolution.
89. Cobbs, interview.
90. Daryl Scott writes that by the 1960s, “The lower class was becoming increasingly synonymous with black.” Scott, Contempt and Pity, 144.
91. Historian David Allyn argues that the “unprecedented prosperity” into which adults came of age in the late sixties was responsible for their ability to “put aside practical concerns about the future in order to savor life’s pleasures and live according to their ideals.” David Allyn, Make Love, Not War: The Sexual Revolution: An Unfettered History (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000), 80. Further, Roger Kimball identifies the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s to be fixed to the middle class, in part because of the easier access the middle class had to new forms of birth control, like the pill. Roger Kimball, The Long March: How the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s Changed America (San Francisco: Encounter, 2000), 147.
92. David Allyn locates much of the impetus for nudity and toplessness (particularly in the form of topless bars, increasingly revealing swimwear, and nude bathing) in the ennui of the middle class in the early 1960s. Allyn, Make Love, Not War, 28.
93. From the late 1960s to the mid-1970s, nudity was mainly being used as a symbolic form of protest in high-culture mediums, namely avant-garde theater on and off Broadway. These displays were intended more as an attack on bourgeois morality than as a defense of civil liberties. Allyn, Make Love, Not War, 124.
94. David Allyn describes the heated nature of sexual stereotypes for black men in the late 1960s. He claims that black nationalists tended to exploit, rather than challenge, stereotypes, only heightening the tensions surrounding black male sexuality in white culture. Allyn, Make Love, Not War, 91.
95. Several sources discuss the myth of black male hypersexuality and the black male response to the existence of the myth. See Beth Day, “The Hidden Fear,” in The Black Male in America, eds. Doris Y. Wilkinson and Ronald L. Taylor (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977), 193–206; Grier and Cobbs, Black Rage; bell hooks, We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity (New York: Routledge, 2004).
96. Cobbs, My American Life, 192.
97. Cobbs, interview.
98. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 15.
99. Leo Litwak, “A Trip to Esalen Institute—Joy Is the Prize,” New York Times, December 31, 1967, reprinted (with changes) in Gerald Walker, ed., Best Magazine Articles: 1969 (New York: Crown, 1968), 126.
100. Kripal, Esalen, 186.
101. Ibid., 187.
102. “Esalen Encounter Groups, Summer Series 1968: Four Racial Confrontation Workshops,” registration forms.
103. George Leonard, telephone interview with author, April 27, 2005.
104. Anderson, Upstart Spring, 198.
105. Ibid., 198.
106. David Price, e-mail to author, April 25, 2006.
107. Ibid.
108. George Leonard, interview with author, Mill Valley, CA, April 27, 2006.
109. Cobbs’s personal activism strayed quickly from the facilitation of black-white encounter, which he only performed for a couple years. After publishing Black Rage in 1968, he found himself in high demand from corporations who sought assistance in addressing the complexity of blacks moving into professional positions. By the early 1970s, Cobbs decided his time could be best spent consulting for nationwide corporations in an effort to increase their sensitivity to racial issues, and he abandoned both his private psychiatric practice and his involvement in encounter groups. He continued to publish books, including Price Cobbs and Judith Turnock, Cracking the Corporate Code: The Revealing Success Stories of 32 African-American Executives (New York: American Management Association, 2003).
110. Leonard, interview, April 18, 2006.
Chapter 11: The Postmortem Years
1. Abraham Maslow, “1970” in Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, ed. B. G. Maslow (Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 1973), 29.
2. Christopher M. Aanstoos, Ilene Serlin, and Thomas Greening, “History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association,” in Unification Through Division: Histories of the Divisions of the American Psychological Association, vol. 5, ed. Donald Dewsbury (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2000), 8.
3. Donadrian Rice, telephone interview with author, June 2, 2011.
4. Christopher M. Aanstoos, “The West Georgia Story,” Humanistic Psychologist 17, no. 1 (1989): 77–85.
5. Gibson’s intention was for the new division to serve as a bridge between AHP and APA, representing the interests of the many individuals who had membership in both organizations. Belief in the wisdom of this union, however, was not uniform; certain members, including Mike Arons, argued that the creation of another organization of humanistic psychology would “dilute” the movement. Aanstoos, Serlin, and Greening, “History of Division 32,” 9–10.
6. Division 32 reached a peak of 1,150 members in 1977.
7. Aanstoos, Serlin, and Greening, “History of Division 32,” 21.
8. Statement by John Levy, Executive Officer, Association of Humanistic Psychology, “The Humanistic Psychology Institute,” undated, from Eleanor Criswell’s personal files.
9. Eleanor Criswell, telephone interview with author, July 30, 2011.
10. In August 1969 the American Association of Humanistic Psychology voted to change its name to the Association of Humanistic Psychology, out of respect for increasingly evident international interest. The change was officially filed with the State of California in December 1969. Bonnie Davenport, AHP member services, e-mail message to author, February 2, 2007.
11. Ibid.; “History of the Humanistic Psychology Institute,” reported by Eleanor Criswell, Executive Board Meetings, February 9–10, 1974, from Eleanor Criswell’s personal files. Criswell never viewed the institute as an intellectual counterweight to the experiential elements, but instead saw it as an umbrella under which all varieties of humanistic work could be sheltered. While HPI was, at times, vulnerable to warring factions of academics vs. experientialists, both sides were supported under the institute’s commitment to psychological practices that were relevant to lived experience. Still, the emphases of HPI vacillated between the theoretical and the practical, depending on the leadership at the time. After Criswell stepped down, her husband, Tom Hanna, a philosophy professor and administrator, took over, reinforcing the institute’s theoretical and philosophical underpinnings. When he left in 1975, Don Polkinghorne became director. Like Hanna, he considered himself a phenomenologist, but he supplanted Hanna’s philosophical interests with a focus on qualitative methods. This track was reinforced by the addition to the faculty of Duquesne psychologist Amedeo Giorgi, who had recently published Psychology as a Human Science. In the years to follow, HPI would undergo many such shifts and endure the tumult that came with the range of humanistic interests represented by its board, directors, and faculty. Criswell, interview; Maureen O’Hara, telephone interview with author, July 29, 2011.
12. Abraham Maslow, “February 12, 1970,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 2, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 996.
13. Maslow, “March 1, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 947.
14. Maslow, “December 21, 1968,” Journals, vol. 2, 942.
15. Maslow, “February 12, 1970,” Journals, vol. 2, 996.
16. Ibid., 997.
17. Maslow, “May 9, 1966,” Journals, vol. 2, 730.
18. Maslow, “May 2, 1966,” Journals, vol. 1, 620.
19. Maslow, “September 15, 1966,” Journals, vol. 1, 664.
20. Maslow, “May 9, 1966,” Journals, vol. 2, 730.
21. “APA History,” American Psychological Association website, http://www.apa.org/about/archives/apa-history.aspx.
22. Maslow, “July 8, 1966,” Journals, vol. 2, 740.
23. Frank Manuel, as quoted in Abraham Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, ed. B. G. Maslow (Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 1973), 5.
24. Maslow, “January 17, 1968,” Journals, vol. 2, 1009.
25. Edward Hoffman, “Abraham Maslow: A Biographical Sketch,” in Future Visions: The Unpublished Papers of Abraham Maslow, ed. Edward Hoffman (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 13.
26. David Dempsey, “Love and Will and Rollo May,” New York Times, March 28, 1971, SM29. In 1974, Love and Will again appeared in the New York Times, on a list of books that had received “uncommonly large print orders”—an estimated 400,000 copies—in the prior month. “Paperback Best Sellers,” New York Times, March 10, 1974, 379.
27. Rollo May, Psychology and the Human Dilemma (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1967), 25.
28. Ibid., 174–75.
29. Ibid., 4.
30. Rollo May, Love and Will (New York: Norton, 1969), 20 and 308.
31. Ibid., 324–25.
32. Abraham Maslow, The Farther Reaches of Human Nature (New York: Viking, 1971), 335.
33. Ibid., 334.
34. Ibid., 335.
35. Ibid., 336.
36. Grahame Miles, Science and Religious Experience: Are They Similar Forms of Knowledge? (Portland, OR: Sussex Academic, 2007), 210.
37. See Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill, 1960).
38. Maslow, Farther Reaches, 273–79.
39. Maslow, “January 22, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 946.
40. Maslow, “January 18, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 945.
41. Hoffman, Right to Be Human, 316.
42. Ibid., 945.
43. Maslow, “May 5, 1970,” Journals, vol. 2, 1294.
44. Frank Manuel as quoted in Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, 4.
45. Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, 29.
46. James Klee as quoted in Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, 12.
47. Ricardo Morant as quoted in Maslow, Abraham H. Maslow: A Memorial Volume, 28.
48. Maslow, “July 30, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 980.
49. Maslow, “April 22, 1962,” Journals, vol. 1, 62.
50. Maslow, Farther Reaches, 286.
Chapter 12: A Delicious Look Inward
1. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (1963; reprint, New York: Dell, 1974), 521.
2. Natalie Rogers, telephone interview with author, September 2, 2005.
3. Richard Farson, telephone interview with author, October 5, 2005.
4. “Women in AHP,” audiotape of panel proceedings, AHP Annual Convention, 1984, Boston, MA, provided to the author by Natalie Rogers.
5. Ibid.
6. Leila J. Rupp and Verta Taylor, Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women’s Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 16. Elaine Tyler May cites McCarthyism, in particular, as contributing to the reassertion of the domestic ideal, as nonconforming women tended to be viewed with suspicion. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 13.
7. Robert Coughlan, “Changing Roles in Modern Marriage,” Life, December 24, 1956, 108–18, quotation from 110.
8. Olive Banks, Faces of Feminism: A Study of Feminism as a Social Movement (New York: St. Martin’s, 1981), 210.
9. For an overview of the sexual revolution in America, see David Allyn, Make Love, Not War: The Sexual Revolution: An Unfettered History (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000). For a more pointed history of birth control in America, see Linda Gordon, Woman’s Body, Woman’s Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America (New York: Penguin, 1976). For an overview of research on women’s sexuality, beginning with the groundbreaking studies of Alfred Kinsey in the 1950s and William Masters and Virginia Johnson in the 1960s, see Kristine M. Baber and Katherine R. Allen, Women and Families: Feminist Reconstructions (New York: Guilford, 1992), 61–66.
10. Allyn, Make Love, Not War, 168–70. The Kinsey reports and the work of Masters and Johnson were published as Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy, and Clyde E. Martin, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1948); Institute for Sex Research, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1953); and William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, Human Sexual Response (Boston: Little, Brown, 1966).
11. Allyn, Make Love, Not War, 34.
12. Allyn, Make Love, Not War, 10–14. For the original novel, see Helen Gurley Brown, Sex and the Single Girl (New York: Giant Cardinal, 1962). Allyn also describes how Brown’s book served as a guide for young women negotiating the waters of sexual experimentation and spawned other nonfiction books offering similar advice. The advice in Joan Garrity’s The Sensuous Woman, published in 1969 under the pen name “J,” explicitly offered itself as a set of instructions that women could use to construct bold new sexual identities. Other manual-style books that followed included Dr. David Reuben’s book Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid to Ask), published in 1969, and Alex Comfort’s bestseller The Joy of Sex: A Gourmet Guide to Love Making, published in 1972.
13. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Norton, 1963), quotation from 77.
14. Friedan, however, was wary of forging too close a bond between psychology and the political interests of the women’s liberation movement. As a former labor union activist, she was conscious of the need to place women’s problems in the context of society and the economy, and as a psychology graduate student, she had always been careful to keep politics out of her psychology. In fact, Friedan’s motivation for leaving her graduate program had been her prioritization of the heated struggles occurring in the public arena. Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making of the Feminine Mystique (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998), 84 and 99.
15. Friedan, Feminine Mystique, 319.
16. Joyce Milton credits Maslow, through his influence on Friedan, with shaping the entire women’s liberation movement. Maslow’s model of self-actualization, she argues, became the dominant view in female psychology (a role that endures to the present). Joyce Milton, The Road to Malpsychia: Humanistic Psychology and Our Discontents (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), 210.
17. Horowitz, Betty Friedan, 46.
18. Ibid., 311.
19. Ironically, Friedan’s representation of her own experience in The Feminine Mystique was somewhat inauthentic and contrived, in that she had not been the naïve housewife whose visions were clouded by the feminine mystique, but a political individual whose activist experiences in the 1940s and 1950s yielded her poignant cultural analyses in the early sixties. For more on this see Horowitz, Betty Friedan.
20. Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York: Viking, 2000), 6.
21. Kathleen C. Berkeley, The Women’s Liberation Movement in America (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999), 19–20.
22. “Women in Congress,” http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0801429.html.
23. Barbara Sinclair Deckard, The Women’s Movement: Political, Socioeconomic, and Psychological Issues (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 345–48.
24. Anita Shreve, Women Together, Women Alone: The Legacy of the Consciousness-Raising Movement (New York: Viking, 1989), 83.
25. Harriet G. Lerner, The Dance of Deception: A Guide to Authenticity and Truth-Telling in Women’s Relationships (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 61–62.
26. Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women’s Liberation (New York: McKay, 1975), 118.
27. Shreve, Women Together, 198.
28. The formal introduction of CR by the women’s movement occurred in 1968 at the first national women’s liberation conference in Chicago, at which two hundred women from thirty-seven states and Canada met to discuss feminist concerns. Ibid., 6–12.
29. Ibid., 12 and 53.
30. Ibid., 10.
31. Kathie Sarachild as quoted in Alice Echols, Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 87.
32. Echols, Daring to Be Bad, 87.
33. Shreve, Women Together, 86.
34. The persistent debate over CR was enough to split several feminist organizations, including the New York Radical Women—an early feminist group formed in 1967. In 1969, the feminist group Redstockings became the new home for CR group advocates and actively promoted its use. CR opponents, who frequently defined themselves as socialist feminists, formed the Women’s International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell (WITCH) when the New York Radical Women dissolved. Echols, Daring to Be Bad, 86.
35. Ibid., 30.
36. Maureen O’Hara and Gillian Proctor, “An Interview with Dr. Maureen O’Hara: A Pioneer Person-Centred Therapist and Feminist Reflects on 30 Years of Process and Progress,” in Encountering Feminism: Intersections between Feminism and the Person-Centred Approach, eds. Gillian Proctor and Mary Beth Napier (Ross-on-Wye, UK: PCCS Books, 2004), 60.
37. Ibid., 61.
38. Ibid., 60.
39. Natalie Rogers, telephone interview with author, September 2, 2005.
40. Maureen O’Hara, interview with author, San Francisco, CA, April 29, 2005.
41. O’Hara and Proctor, “Interview,” 60.
42. Natalie Rogers, interview.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. Carl R. Rogers as quoted in Milton, Road to Malpsychia, 158.
48. Natalie Rogers, interview.
49. Carl R. Rogers, Carl Rogers on Personal Power (New York: Delacorte, 1977), ix.
50. According to Stanley Krippner, May had always written exclusively for men, and had failed to consider the unique circumstances and psychological reality of women. When Krippner saw him speak at Sonoma State College in 1966, though, May was struggling to incorporate women in his analyses, mainly by employing nongendered pronouns. The 1967 publication of May’s Psychology and the Human Dilemma also testifies to May’s newfound sensitivity to gender issues: his introduction bears the footnote “Some of these essays were written before the time when we began to realize that ‘man’ did not embrace ‘woman’ . . .” Stanley Krippner, interview with author, San Francisco, June 24, 2005; Rollo May, Psychology and the Human Dilemma (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1967), ix.
51. Carolyn Morell, “Love and Will: A Feminist Critique,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 13, no. 2 (April 1973): 35–46, quotation from 35.
52. Morell, “Love and Will,” 42.
53. Rollo May, “Response to Morell’s ‘Love and Will: A Feminist Critique,’ ” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 13, no. 2 (April 1973), 47–50, quotations from 47.
54. Ilene Serlin and Eleanor Criswell, “Humanistic Psychology and Women: A Critical-Historical Perspective,” in A Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research, and Practice, eds. Kirk J. Schneider, James F. T. Bugental, and J. Fraser Pierson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 30.
55. Milton, Road to Malpsychia, 210.
56. Abraham Maslow, “Dominance, Personality and Social Behavior in Women,” Journal of Social Psychology 10, (February 1939): 3–39.
57. Evidence of his persistent interest in feminism can also be found in Maslow’s journals, as well as in his archival files. (He often clipped and saved magazine articles related to feminism.) For examples, see Abraham Maslow, “December 27, 1967” and “March 22, 1969,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 2, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 837, 1139.
58. Maslow did, however, include a few women in his list of self-actualized individuals: he claimed that Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Ruth Benedict (anthropologist and former mentor to Maslow) had achieved self-actualization.
59. Maslow, “March 22, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 1139–40.
60. Deckard, The Women’s Movement, 386.
61. Naomi Weisstein, “Psychology Constructs the Female,” in Woman in Sexist Society: Studies in Power and Powerlessness, eds. Vivian Gornick and Barbara K. Moran (1971; reprint, New York: New American Library, 1972), 144.
62. Maslow, “January 8, 1963,” Journals, vol. 1, 218.
63. Deckard, The Women’s Movement, 350.
64. Serlin and Criswell, “Humanistic Psychology and Women,” 30.
65. Twice there were female and male copresidents. Female presidents post-1976 include Jean Houston, Jacquelin Doyle, Virginia Satir, Peggy Taylor, Lonnie Barbach, Frances Vaughan, Elizabeth Campbell, Maureen O’Hara, Sandy Friedman, Ann Weiser Cornell, M. A. Bjarkman, Jocelyn Olivier, and Katy Brant. Serlin and Criswell, “Humanistic Psychology and Women,” 30.
66. Ibid., 32.
67. Jackie Doyle, interview with author, Tiberon, CA, April 28, 2005.
68. Mike Moore, “Breaking Free from the Human Potential Movement,” Mountain Gazette, October 1975, 23.
Chapter 13: Intellectual Slippage
1. Bob Dylan, “Last Thoughts on Woodie Guthrie,” first recited April 12, 1963, New York City’s Town Hall, later released in The Bootleg Series: Volumes 1–3 (Rare and Unreleased) 1961–1991, Columbia Records, 1991.
2. Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Politics, and Society (New York: Free Press, 2001), 161.
3. Terry H. Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 246.
4. Schulman, Seventies, 17.
5. William J. McKeachie, “Psychology in America’s Bicentennial Year,” American Psychologist 31, no. 12, December (1976): 819–33, quotation from 820; Larry Van Dyne, “For Some Reason, Psychology Is Popular,” New York Times, November 9, 1975, Op-Ed, 16.
6. Steven Starker “Self-Help Treatment Books: The Rest of the Story,” American Psychologist 43, vol. 7 (July 1988): 599; James J. Forest, “Self-Help Books,” American Psychologist 43, no. 7 (July 1988): 599.
7. James J. Forest, “Self-Help Books,” 599.
8. Maureen O’Hara, interview with author, August 30, 2011.
9. Maureen O’Hara, “Oberlin T-group,” unpublished personal paper, undated.
10. Maureen O’Hara, interview, August 30, 2011.
11. Maureen O’Hara, interview with author, May 13, 2011.
12. Leo Litwak, “ ‘Rolfing,’ ‘Aikido,’ Hypnodramas, Psychokinesis, and Other Things Beyond the Here and Now,” New York Times Magazine, December 17, 1972, 18–38, quotation from 19.
13. Robert Reinhold, “Humanistic Psychology Shows Its Force,” New York Times, September 4, 1970, 13.
14. Tom Wolfe, “The Me Decade and the Third Great Awakening,” in Mauve Gloves & Madmen, Clutter & Vine (New York: Bantam, 1977), 117–18.
15. Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice, film directed by Paul Mazursky (Los Angeles: Columbia Pictures, released September 17, 1969).
16. Jane O’Reilly, “Why the Heartland Doesn’t Deserve New York,” New York Magazine, July 10, 1972, 52–53, quotation from 52.
17. Ibid.
18. Lawrence Solomon as quoted in Reinhold, “Humanistic Psychology,” 13.
19. Reinhold, “Humanistic Psychology,” 13.
20. David Dempsey, “Love and Will and Rollo May,” New York Times, March 28, 1971, SM29.
21. Litwak, “ ‘Rolfing,’ ”19.
22. Ibid.
23. Richard Farson, telephone interview with author, October 5, 2005.
24. Maslow, “September 19, 1967,” The Journals of A. H. Maslow, vol. 1, ed. Richard J. Lowry (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979), 287.
25. Bernard G. Rosenthal, “The Nature and Development of the Encounter Group Movement” (Maslow Papers, Box M449.30, Esalen Crit. folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron), 14.
26. Richard Farson, “The Technology of Humanism,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 18, no. 2 (1978): 5–35, quotation from 7.
27. Ibid., 16–17.
28. Rosenthal, “Nature and Development of the Encounter Group Movement,” 12.
29. Ibid., 27.
30. Ibid., 20.
31. Farson, interview.
32. Eugene Taylor, interview with author, Cambridge, MA, September 29, 2005.
33. May to Massarik, Allen and Levy, November 6, 1971 (May Papers, HPA Mss 46, Humanistic Psychology Archives, Department of Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara).
34. Ibid.
35. George Leonard, Walking on the Edge of the World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988), 369.
36. Rollo May, “Remarks to AHP,” January 29, 1981 (May Papers, HPA Mss 46, Box 155: 8, Speeches for H. Psych—My Speeches to AHP, Humanistic Psychology Archives, Department of Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara).
37. Ibid.
38. Maslow, “August 30, 1962,” Journals, vol. 1, 189–90.
39. Forrest G. Robinson, Love’s Story Told: A Life of Henry A. Murray (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), 354.
40. Farson, “Technology of Humanism,” 6.
41. Ibid., 5.
42. Richard Farson to the members of AHP, undated (Association of Humanistic Psychology Papers, HPA MSS1, Theory Conference Folder, Humansitic Psychology Archives, Department of Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara).
43. Rollo May to Fred Massarik, Melanie Allen, and John Levy, November 6, 1971 (Association for Humanistic Psychology Papers, Box H9, Correspondence: Rollo May folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
44. Farson, interview.
45. “Rollo May and Tony Athos in Conversation,” typed manuscript, undated (Association of Humanistic Psychology Papers, Box H25, Theory Conference folder, Humanistic Psychology Archives, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
46. Maslow, “March 3, 1969,” Journals, vol. 2, 949.
47. Richard Farson to the Members of AHP, undated.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Rollo May, opening remarks, “Edited Theory Conference Transcript,” Tucson, Arizona, April 4–6, 1975, ed. Rick Gilbert (May Papers, HPA MSS46, Box 155:9, Humanistic Psychology Archives, Department of Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara), 5.
52. Participants included: Melanie Allen, Anthony Athos, Gregory Bateson, Kenneth Benne, James Bugental, Arthur Deikman, Joan Grof, Stan Grof, Charles Hampden-Turner, Willis Harmen, Stanley Krippner, Norma Lyman, Fred Massarik, Floyd Matson, Rollo May, Claudio Naranjo, John Perry, Carl Rogers, Jonas Salk, Frank Severin, Elizabeth Simpson, Brewster Smith, Huston Smith, and Nora Weckler. Rick Gilbert, “Edited Theory Conference Transcript.”
53. Ibid.
54. Brewster Smith, “Prefaces to a Discussion of Humanism and Science in Humanistic Psychology: Position Paper for the Conference on Theory in Humanistic Psychology” and Melanie Allen, “Toward a Theory of Humanistic Psychology: Keeping the System Open,” April 4–6, 1975 (Association for Humanistic Psychology Collection, Box H 13, AHP Theory Conference folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron). Brewster Smith provided an important link between humanistic psychology and mainstream psychology. He served as APA president in 1978, and was the third humanistic psychologist to be president of APA (the first being Rogers in 1947 and the second being Maslow in 1968). Melanie Allen collaborated with her close friend and associate Charlotte Bühler on Introduction to Humanistic Psychology in 1972. Her participation in AHP dropped off shortly after the theory meeting. Thomas Greening, e-mail to author, February 10, 2008; “Former APA Presidents,” APA website, http://www.apa.org/about/governance/president/past-presidents.aspx. See also Charlotte Bühler and Melanie Allen, Introduction to Humanistic Psychology (Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1972).
55. Smith, “Prefaces to a Discussion of Humanism and Science in Humanistic Psychology.”
56. Charles Hampden-Turner, “Sailing Between Scylla and Charybdis or the Equal and Opposite Cop-Out” (Association for Humanistic Psychology Collection, Box H25, Theory Conference, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron). In 1971, Hampden-Turner published Radical Man, a key book that related humanistic psychology to human behavior in the realms of business and politics. See Charles Hampden-Turner, Radical Man: The Process of Psycho-Social Development (New York: Doubleday, 1971).
57. Willis Harman, “Notes on a Theory of Humanistic Psychology” (Association for Humanistic Psychology Collection, Box H 13, AHP Theory Conference folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron). Of this ideal, Rollo May explained, “I prefer not to call what we seek a new subjectivity, for that puts us in the same old dilemma. We make the same mistake then that the people who are devoted to objectivity make, except we use the opposite word. We need to find a dimension in the human being below pure subjectivity and pure objectivity.” May, “Theory Conference Transcript,” 3–5.
58. Ibid., 3–5.
59. Ibid., 2.
60. Ibid., 3.
61. Ibid., 5.
62. Floyd Matson, “Notes Toward a Theory” (Association for Humanistic Psychology Collection, Box H 13, AHP Theory Conference folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron). Matson’s key books during the time include: Floyd Matson, The Broken Image (New York: Braziller, 1964); Floyd Matson, ed., Being, Becoming and Behavior: The Psychological Sciences (New York: Braziller, 1967); and Floyd Matson, The Idea of Man (New York: Delacorte Press, 1976).
63. Ibid.
64. Gregory Bateson, “Theory Conference Transcript,” 19.
65. “Rollo May and Tony Athos in Conversation.”
66. May, “Theory Conference Transcript,” 46.
67. Smith, “Theory Conference Transcript,” 47.
68. Carl Rogers, “Theory Conference Transcript,” 64–65.
69. Carl Rogers to Members of the AHP Theory Conference, memo (Association for Humanistic Psychology Collection, Box H 13, AHP Theory Conference folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
70. Fred Massarik to Carl Rogers, May 27, 1975 (Rogers Papers, HPA MSS 32, Humanistic Psychology Archives, Department of Special Collections, Donald C. Davidson Library, University of California, Santa Barbara).
71. Farson, interview.
72. Ibid.
73. Richard Farson, “Carl Rogers, Quiet Revolutionary,” in Carl Rogers: The Man and his Ideas, ed. Richard I. Evans (New York: Dutton, 1975), xx.
74. Ibid., xli.
75. Ibid., 18–19.
76. Ibid., 21.
77. Peter Marin, “The New Narcissism,” Harper’s Magazine, October 1975, 45–56, quotation from 46.
78. Mike Moore, “Breaking Free from the Human Potential Movement,” Mountain Gazette, October 1975, 21.
79. Ibid., 21.
80. Ibid.
81. Dempsey, “Love and Will.”
82. Jean Millay, Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1999), 95–99.
83. Tom Wolfe, In Our Time (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1980), 10.
84. Paul Bindram in Inside Psychotherapy: Nine Clinicians Tell How They Work and What They Are Trying to Accomplish, ed. Adelaide Bry (New York: Basic, 1972), 143-62.
85. Abraham Maslow, Letter to Paul Bindrim, February 13, 1968 (Maslow Papers, Box M445, Nudity folder, Archives of the History of American Psychology, Center for the History of Psychology, University of Akron).
86. Webster Schott, “Inside Psychotherapy” (review), Saturday Review, August 19, 1972, 61–62, quotation from 62.
87. “A Chronology of AHP’s Annual Conferences,” Association of Humanistic Psychology website, www.ahpweb.org/aboutahp/ahpcronology.html
88. Christopher M. Aanstoos, Ilene Serlin, and Thomas Greening, “History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association,” in Unification Through Division: Histories of the Divisions of the American Psychological Association, vol. 5, ed. Donald Dewsbury (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2000), 22.
89. Maureen O’Hara, interview, May 13, 2011.
90. Aanstoos, Serlin, and Greening, “History of Division 32,” 22.
Chapter 14: What Remains
1. Carl R. Rogers, A Way of Being (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980), 49.
2. William Kessen, “Pastor and Professor,” New York Times, March 18, 1979.
3. “Carl R. Rogers, 85, Leader in Psychotherapy, Dies,” New York Times, February 6, 1987.
4. Ibid.
5. Rogers, A Way of Being, ix.
6. “Carl R. Rogers, 85, Leader in Psychotherapy, Dies.”
7. Robert Abzug, interview with author, Austin, TX, August 26, 2011.
8. Rollo May, Freedom and Destiny (New York: Norton, 1981), 5.
9. David Dempsey, “Love and Will and Rollo May,” New York Times, March 28, 1971.
10. “Books of the Times,” New York Times, November 21, 1981, accessed on December 1, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/1981/11/21/books/books-of-the-times101739.html?scp=5&sq=rollo+may&st=nyt
11. Ibid.
12. Daniel Goleman, “Esalen Wrestles with a Staid Present,” New York Times, December 10, 1985, Section C, Page 1, Column 1.
13. Ibid.
14. Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Politics, and Society (New York: Free Press, 2001), 185.
15. Brian Willats, Breaking Up Is Easy to Do (Lansing, MI: Michigan Family Forum, 1995), citing statistics from National Center for Health Statistics, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
16. John Updike, Rabbit Is Rich (New York: Knopf, 1981), 3.
17. Norman Mailer as quoted in “Mailer on the ’70s—Decade of ‘Image, Skin Flicks and Porn,’ ” U.S. News & World Report, December 10, 1979, 57.
18. Ronald Reagan as quoted in Haynes Johnson, Sleepwalking Through History: America in the Reagan Years (New York: Norton, 1991), 79.
19. Ibid., 28, 34–35.
20. Rogers, Way of Being, 51.
21. Bryce Nelson, “Despite a Blur of Change, Clear Trends Are Emerging in Therapy,” New York Times, March 1, 1983.
22. Jeffrey Kripal, Esalen: America and the Religion of No Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 331–38.
23. Goleman, “Esalen Wrestles,” 1.
24. Bob Morris, “Divine Reinvention,” New York Times, March 2, 1995.
25. The turn of the century found most humanistic psychologists employed at private institutes and professional schools, most notably the Saybrook Institute (which was founded in 1970 by AHP as the Humanistic Psychology Institute, but later changed its name to heighten its mainstream appeal). Christopher M. Aanstoos, Ilene Serlin, and Thomas Greening, “History of Division 32 (Humanistic Psychology) of the American Psychological Association,” in Unification Through Division: Histories of the Divisions of the American Psychological Association, vol. 5, ed. Donald Dewsbury (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2000), 22.
26. Thomas Greening, e-mail to author, February 3, 2007.
27. Richard W. Robins, Samuel D. Gosling, and Kenneth H. Craik, “An Empirical Analysis of Trends in Psychology,” American Psychologist 54, no 2. (February 1999), http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/faculty/gosling/reprints/AmPsych99Trends.pdf.
28. Richard Farson, telephone interview with author, October 5, 2005.
29. Richard Farson, “Carl Rogers, Quiet Revolutionary,” in Carl Rogers: The Man and His Ideas, ed. Richard I. Evans (New York: Dutton, 1975), xxx.
30. Howard Kirschenbaum, introduction to The Carl Rogers Reader, eds. Howard Kischenbaum and Valerie Land Henderson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), xi–xii.
31. A. Weick, C. Rapp, W. P. Sullivan, and W. Kisthardt, “A Strengths Perspective for Social Work Practice,” Social Work 34, no. 6 (1989): 350–54.
32. See Barry A. Farber, Self-Disclosure in Psychotherapy (New York: Guilford Press, 2006).
33. R. R. Greene, “The Social Work Interview: Legacy of Carl Rogers and Sigmund Freud,” in Human Behavior Theory: A Diversity Framework, ed. R. R. Greene (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994), 40–41.
34. Ibid., 37–47.
35. E. Brooks Holifield, A History of Pastoral Care in America: From Salvation to Self-Realization (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1983), 277.
36. Ibid., 295–99; LeRoy Aden, “On Carl Rogers’ Becoming,” Theology Today 36, no. 4 (January 1980): 556–59.
37. George Leonard, Walking on the Edge of the World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988), 326.
38. James F. T. Bugental, “Rollo May (1909–1994),” American Psychologist 51, no. 4 (April 1996): 418.
39. Holifield, History of Pastoral Care, 297. May’s ideas of empathy were most clearly articulated in Rollo May, The Art of Counseling (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1939).
40. Rollo May, Psychology and the Human Dilemma (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1967), x. For a more contemporary exploration of the problems May considers, see James Hillman and Michael Ventura, We’ve Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy and the World Keeps Getting Worse (New York: HarperCollins, 1993).
41. Eugene I. Taylor and Frederick Martin, “Humanistic Psychology at the Crossroads,” The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Leading Edges in Theory, Research and Practice, eds. Kirk J. Schneider, James F. T. Bugental, and J. Fraser Pierson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 23. Taylor and Martin argue that when humanistic psychology was “absorbed into the psychotherapeutic counterculture,” it “fractionated” into three unintegrated streams, all of which existed outside of academia. These included meditation and altered states of consciousness (which became transpersonal psychology); bodywork and group dynamics (which included the encounter groups and corporate interests); and human science (which consisted of political psychology and cultural criticism). The authors attributed this division to Maslow and Sutich’s prioritization of the spiritual and their subsequent decision, in 1969, to transfer their loyalties to transpersonal psychology.
42. Gordon Wheeler, “Spirit and Shadow: Esalen and the Gestalt Model,” in On the Edge of the Future: Esalen and the Evolution of American Culture, eds. Jeffrey Kripal and Glenn W. Shuck (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 173–74.
43. Christopher Lasch, Minimal Self: Psychic Survival in Troubled Times (New York: Norton, 1984), 211.
44. James Pawelski, “The Promise of Positive Psychology for the Assessment of Character,” Journal of College and Character 4, no. 6 (2003), http://journals.naspa.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1361&context=jcc. Seligman first described “positive psychology” in his 1998 presidential address to the APA. Martin E. P. Seligman, “The President’s Address,” http://www.positivepsychology.org/aparep98.htm.
45. Martin E. P. Seligman and Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, “Positive Psychology: An Introduction,” American Psychologist 55, no. 1 (January 2000): 7.
46. Martin E. P. Seligman, “Positive Psychology, Positive Prevention, and Positive Therapy,” in Positive Psychological Assessment: A Handbook of Models and Measures, eds. Shane J. Lopez and C. R. Snyder (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003), 3.
47. Joyce Milton, The Road to Malpsychia: Humanistic Psychology and Our Discontents (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), 288.
48. Pawelski, “Promise of Positive Psychology.”
49. Ibid.; See Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman, Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
50. Milton, Road to Malpsychia, 288–89.
51. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, “Positive Psychology,” 7.
52. Ibid.
53. Stewart Shapiro, “Illogical Positivism,” American Psychologist 56, no. 1 (January 2001): 82.
54. Martin E. P. Seligman and Mihaly Cskszentmihalyi, “Reply to Comments,” American Psychologist 56, no. 1 (January 2001): 89.
55. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, preface to Handbook of Humanistic Psychology, xv. At the same time, Csikszentmihalyi also respectifully distanced himself from the “leanness” of the humanistic psychology movement’s rigorous cumulative research findings.
56. Milton, Road to Malpsychia, 289.
57. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, “Positive Psychology,” 5.
58. Bill O’Connell, Solution-Focused Therapy (London: Sage, 1998), 1; Karen Christensen and David Levinson, eds., Encyclopedia of Community: From Village to the Virtual World (London: Sage, 2003), 262–63.
59. For a good description of the strengths perspective, see Dennis Saleebey, “Introduction: Power in the People,” in The Strengths Perspective in Social Work Practice, 2nd ed., ed. Dennis Saleebey (New York: Longman, 1997), 3–20.
60. Ann Weick, “Issues in Overturning a Medical Model of Social Work Practice,” Social Work 28, no. 6 (1983): 467–71.
61. Saleeby, introduction to Strengths Perspective, 8–9.
62. Weick, “Issues in Overturning,” 467.
63. Weick et al., “Strengths Perspective,” 351.
64. Farson, “Carl Rogers,” xxx–xxxvi, quotation from xxx.
65. For a good overview of the impact of humanistic psychology in the workplace and the research associated with it, see Alfonso Montuori and Ronald Purser, “Humanistic Psychology in the Workplace,” in Handbook of Humanistic Psychology.
66. Because of its continued popularity, Eupsychian Management was reprinted with commentary in 1998 as Maslow on Management. Many of Maslow’s letters and journal entries were published in a 2000 collection The Maslow Business Reader. Abraham Maslow, Eupsychian Management: A Journal (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin and Dorsey, 1965); Abraham Maslow, Maslow on Management (New York: Wiley, 1998); Abraham Maslow, Maslow Business Reader.
67. Isaac Prilleltensky, “Humanistic Psychology, Human Welfare and the Social Order,” Journal of Mind and Behavior 13, no. 4 (1992): 319.
68. Richard Farson, “The Technology of Humanism,” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 18, no. 2 (1978): 21.
69. Ibid.
70. Prilleltensky, “Humanistic Psychology,” 319.
71. At the same time, as Maureen O’Hara points out, the act of giving workers freedom is not necessarily negated by the instrumentality of the act. Even if you give people freedom with the goal of making profit, she argues, you’re still giving them freedom, and that inevitably affects the quality of their lives. Maureen O’Hara, telephone interview with author, May 13, 2011.
72. M. Wilson, “DSM-III and the Transformation of American Psychiatry: A History,” American Journal of Psychiatry 150, no. 3 (1993): 399–410.
73. Gary Greenberg, Manufacturing Depression: The Secret History of a Modern Disease (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 63.
74. Ibid., 64.
75. Seligman broadly defines happiness as a sense of satisfaction that derives from pleasure, engagement, and affiliation. Martin E. P. Seligman, Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment (New York: Free Press, 2002), 275.
76. Elizabeth Kolbert, “Everybody Have Fun: What Can Policymakers Learn from Happiness Research?” The New Yorker, March 22, 2010, http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2010/03/22/100322crbo_books_kolbert?currentPage=all#ixzz0lwgHfkOM; Derek Bok, The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010).
77. Frank C. Richardson, Blaine J. Fowers, and Charles B. Guignon, Re-envisioning Psychology: Moral Dimensions of Theory and Practice (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999), 157.
78. Ibid., 2–3.
79. Ibid., 4–6.
80. See Hillman and Ventura, We’ve Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy.
81. Peggy Rosenthal, Words and Values: Some Leading Words and Where They Lead Us (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 37–38.
82. Jonah Lehrer, “Depression’s Upside,” New York Times, February 25, 2010.
83. See Allan V. Horowitz and Jerome C. Wakefield, The Loss of Sadness: How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow into Depressive Disorder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
84. Frank Furedi, Therapy Culture: Cultivating Vulnerability in an Uncertain Age (London: Routledge, 2004), 14–15.
85. Malcolm Gladwell, “Getting Over It,” The New Yorker, November 8, 2004, http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/11/08/041108fa_fact1?currentPage=1#ixzz0mKtwoZn1.