1. Jim Leeke, ed., A Hundred Days to Richmond: Ohio’s “Hundred Days” Men in the Civil War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 193.
2. Abraham Lincoln, Speech to the 164th Ohio Regiment, Washington, D.C., August 18, 1864, Lincoln, Abraham, 1809–1865, in Roy P. Basler, ed., Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953–1955), 7:504–5.
On the development of slavery in colonial Virginia, see Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 2003). For a history of the somewhat different course of slavery in colonial South Carolina, see Peter Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: Knopf, 1974). For a brief discussion of the crises leading to the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850 as well as that stemming from the Kansas-Nebraska Act, with their relevance to the coming of the Civil War, see Don E. Fehrenbacher, The South and Three Sectional Crises (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980). On Nat Turner’s Rebellion, see Stephen B. Oates, The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner’s Fierce Rebellion (New York: Harper & Row, 1975). On the abolitionist movement, see Frederick J. Blue, No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005). On the Nullification Crisis, see William W. Freehling, Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). On the Gag Rule and the long and determined fight against it by former president John Quincy Adams, see William Lee Miller, Arguing about Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress (New York: Knopf, 1996). On how the sectional expansion of the 1840s gave new urgency to the slavery controversy, see Steven E. Woodworth, Manifest Destinies: America’s Westward Expansion and the Road to the Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2010).
On the Compromise of 1850, see John C. Waugh, On the Brink of Civil War: The Compromise of 1850 and How It Changed the Course of American History (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003). The classic biography of Stephen A. Douglas is by Robert W. Johannsen (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973). Several works deal with Lincoln’s political career during the 1850s. For a classic account, see Don E. Fehrenbacher, Prelude of Greatness: Lincoln in the 1850’s (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1962). Two excellent recent books are John C. Waugh, One Man Great Enough: Abraham Lincoln’s Road to Civil War (Orlando: Harcourt, 2007), and Gary Ecelbarger, The Great Comeback: How Abraham Lincoln Beat the Odds to Win the 1860 Republican Nomination (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2008). A dated but still somewhat useable overview of the 1850s is David E. Potter’s The Impending Crisis, 1848–1861 (New York: Harper & Row, 1976). For a more modern treatment of the decade, see Eric H. Walther, The Shattering of the Union: America in the 1850s (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2004). On the Fire-Eaters, see Walther’s book of that title (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992). For a classic and still-profound treatment of the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, see Harry Jaffa, Crisis of the House Divided: An Interpretation of the Issues in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1959). For an excellent and thought-provoking modern treatment of the debates, see Allen Guelzo, Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates that Defined America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008).
1. Paul Leicester Ford, ed., The Works of Thomas Jefferson, Volume 12 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1905), 159.
2. Thomas Jefferson to John Holmes, April 22, 1820, Library of Congress.
3. Abraham Lincoln, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953), 2:461–62.
On John Brown and his raid on Harpers Ferry, see David S. Reynolds, John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights (New York: Vintage, 2006), and Evan S. Carton, Patriotic Treason: John Brown and the Soul of America (Lincoln, NE: Bison Books, 2009). On the entire secession crisis, see James L. Abrahamson, The Men of Secession and Civil War (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2000).
On Lincoln’s rise to the presidency, see John C. Waugh, One Man Great Enough: Abraham Lincoln’s Road to Civil War (New York: Harcourt, 2007); Gary Ecelbarger, The Great Comeback: How Abraham Lincoln Beat the Odds to Win the 1860 Republican Nomination (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2008); and Harold Holzer, Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004).
On the First Battle of Bull Run, see Ethan S. Rafuse, A Single Grand Victory: The First Campaign and Battle of Manassas (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2002), and William C. Davis, Battle at Bull Run: A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981).
1. Abraham Lincoln, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953), 4:271.
2. Lincoln, Collected Works, 8:332 (emphasis in the original).
3. Some have claimed that Taney did not assert that this was true but rather only claimed that it was the opinion at the time of the writing of the Constitution. In fact, Taney quoted it approvingly and implied that since it was, in his opinion, the belief at the time of the founding, it should still prevail in his day.
4. Lincoln, Collected Works, 4:532.
On the dispute within the Confederate high command regarding the responsibility for the failure to reap major dividends from the victory at Bull Run, see Steven E. Woodworth, Davis and Lee at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995).
On George B. McClellan, see Stephen W. Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1988), the definitive biography of this troubled general. For a contrarian (favorable) interpretation of McClellan, see Ethan S. Rafuse, McClellan’s War: The Failure of Moderation in the Struggle for the Union (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005).
For an outstanding treatment of all aspects of the events surrounding the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, see William Garrett Piston and Richard W. Hatcher III, Wilson’s Creek: The Second Battle of the Civil War and the Men Who Fought It (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000). On the end of Kentucky neutrality, see Steven E. Woodworth, Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990).
On Ulysses S. Grant, see Brooks D. Simpson, Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, 1822–1865 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), the first volume of an anticipated two-volume biography and much of the best work on Grant. On Grant’s operations around Cairo and in command of what was to become the Army of the Tennessee, see Steven E. Woodworth, Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865 (New York: Knopf, 2006).
On the Joint Committee for the Conduct of the War, see Bruce Tap, Over Lincoln’s Shoulder: The Committee on the Conduct of the War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998).
On naval operations in the Civil War, see Spencer C. Tucker, A Short History of the Civil War at Sea (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002). For a specialized account of blockade-running, see Stephen R. Wise, Lifeline of the Confederacy: Blockade Running during the Civil War (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988).
For a discussion of Union policy toward the black residents of the Port Royal enclave, see Willie Lee Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1964).
On Confederate efforts to use cotton as a source of diplomatic leverage, see Frank L. Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931). On U.S. foreign relations during the war, see Howard Jones, Union in Peril: The Crisis over British Intervention in the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999); R. J. M. Blackett, Divided Hearts: Britain and the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001); Norman Ferris, Desperate Diplomacy: William H. Seward’s Foreign Policy (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976); and Dean B. Mahin, One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1999). On the work of the outstanding U.S. minister to Britain during the war, see Martin B. Duberman, Charles Francis Adams, 1807–1886 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961). On the Trent Affair itself, see Norman Ferris, The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977).
1. Alexander H. Stephens, “Cornerstone Address, March 21, 1861,” in The Rebellion Record: A Diary of American Events with Documents, Narratives, Illustrative Incidents, Poetry, etc., vol. 1, ed. Frank Moore (New York: O. P. Putnam, 1862), 44–46.
2. James D. Richardson, A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, vol. 6 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1907), 430.
3. Hammond’s complete speech can be found in Selections from the Letters and Speeches of the Hon. James H. Hammond, of South Carolina (New York: John F. Trow & Co., 1866), 311–22.
4. Jasper Ridley, Lord Palmerston (New York: Dutton, 1971), 554.
5. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 330.
On Lincoln’s relations with his generals and his efforts to get action out of McClellan, see T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and His Generals (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 19). On Davis’s struggles with Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston, see Steven E. Woodworth, Davis and Lee at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995). On Davis’s relations with Albert Sidney Johnston, see Woodworth, Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990).
On the battles of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson, see B. Franklin Cooling, Forts Henry and Donelson—The Key to the Confederate Heartland (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987); Spencer C. Tucker, Andrew Foote: Civil War Admiral on Western Waters (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2000); and Kendall D. Gott, Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry-Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862 (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003). On the role of what would become the Confederate Army of Tennessee in this and subsequent campaigns, see Thomas Lawrence Connelly, Army of the Heartland: The Army of Tennessee, 1861–1862 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967). For the role of the opposing Union army that was to become the Army of the Tennessee in this and subsequent campaigns, see Steven E. Woodworth, Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865 (New York: Knopf, 2006).
On the Pea Ridge Campaign, see William L. Shea and Earl J. Hess, Pea Ridge: Civil War Campaign in the West (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992). On the New Mexico Campaign and the Battle of Glorieta Pass, see Thomas S. Edrington and John Taylor, The Battle of Glorieta Pass: A Gettysburg in the West, March 26–28, 1862 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), and Donald S. Frazier, Blood and Treasure: Confederate Empire in the Southwest (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1995).
Several good books cover the Shiloh Campaign. They include Edward Cunningham, Gary D. Joiner, and Timothy B. Smith, Shiloh and the Western Campaign (El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2009); Steven E. Woodworth, ed., The Shiloh Campaign (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2009); Larry J. Daniel, Shiloh: The Battle That Changed the Civil War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997); Wiley Sword, Shiloh: Bloody April (New York: Morrow, 1974); and James Lee McDonough, Shiloh: In Hell before Night (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977).
1. William E. Dodd, Jefferson Davis (Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs, 1907), 265.
2. Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. Grant, 2 vols. (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1885), 1:368.
On Lincoln’s interaction with McClellan, see T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and His Generals (New York: Knopf, 1952). On the naval battle of Hampton Roads, see William C. Davis, Duel between the First Ironclads (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1994); Gene A. Smith, Iron and Heavy Guns: Duel between the Monitor and Merrimac (Fort Worth, TX: Ryan Place Publishers, 1996); and Spencer C. Tucker, A Short History of the Civil War at Sea (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2002).
On the Peninsula Campaign, see Stephen W. Sears, To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992). On Jackson’s Shenandoah Valley Campaign, see Robert G. Tanner, Stonewall in the Valley: Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson’s Shenandoah Valley Campaign, Spring 1862 (Mechanicsville, PA: Stackpole Books, 1996). On Davis’s interaction with Johnston and Lee during these operations, see Steven E. Woodworth, Davis and Lee at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995). On Robert E. Lee, see Emory M. Thomas, Robert E. Lee: A Biography (New York: Norton, 1995). For a more critical view of Lee, see Alan T. Nolan, Lee Considered: General Robert E. Lee and Civil War History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991). For the definitive biography of Jackson, see James I. Robertson Jr., Stonewall Jackson: The Man, The Soldier, The Legend (New York: Macmillan, 1997).
1. William W. Averell, “With the Cavalry on the Peninsula,” in Robert U. Johnson and Clarence C. Buel, eds., Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, 4 vols. (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1956), 2:432.
On the career of George B. McClellan, see Stephen W. Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon (New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1988). On the Maryland Campaign and the Battle of Antietam, see Sears’s Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam (New Haven, CT: Ticknor & Fields, 1983).
On the handful of women who disguised themselves as men to enlist in the Civil War armies, see DeAnne Blanton and Lauren M. Cook, They Fought Like Demons: Women Soldiers in the American Civil War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2002).
For an excellent discussion of Lincoln’s progress toward emancipation as well as the significance of the Emancipation Proclamation, see Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004).
On the second Bull Run Campaign, see John J. Hennessy, Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993). On Lee’s conduct of the summer campaigns of 1862 and his relations with Jefferson Davis, see Steven E. Woodworth, Davis and Lee at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995). On the significance of Lee’s victories on Confederate morale and nationalism, see Gary W. Gallagher, The Confederate War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
1. Roy Edgar Appleman, ed., Abraham Lincoln: From His Own Words and Contemporary Accounts (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1942), 31.
2. Appleman, Abraham Lincoln, 31.
3. U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 128 vols. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1881–1901), series 1, vol. 12, pt. 3, p. 474 (Hereinafter cited as OR; except as otherwise noted, all references are to series 1).
4. John J. Hennessy, Return to Bull Run: The Campaign and Battle of Second Manassas (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), 241–42; A. Wilson Greene, The Second Battle of Manassas (Fort Washington, PA: Eastern National, 2006), 38.
On Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation, see Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004). On British reaction to the Emancipation Proclamation, see Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999).
On the Confederate invasion of Kentucky, see Kenneth W. Noe, Perryville: This Grand Havoc of Battle (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001), and Steven E. Woodworth, Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), which also covers the activities of Van Dorn and Price in Mississippi. Similarly, Earl J. Hess, Banners to the Breeze: The Kentucky Campaign, Corinth, and Stones River (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), covers both campaigns as well as the later Battle of Stones River. For a brief account of the Kentucky Campaign, see James McDonough, War in Kentucky: From Shiloh to Perryville (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994).
On the Battle of Fredericksburg, see George C. Rable, Fredericksburg! Fredericksburg! (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). On the battles of Corinth, Iuka, and the Hatchie River, see, in addition to Woodworth’s and Hess’s works mentioned above, Steven E. Woodworth, Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865 (New York: Knopf, 2006), and, for a brief account, Steven Nathaniel Dossman, Campaign for Corinth: Blood in Mississippi (Abilene, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 2006). On Ulysses S. Grant, see Brooks D. Simpson, Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, 1822– 1865 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000). On the Battle of Stones River, in addition to Hess’s work mentioned above, see James McDonough, Stones River—Bloody Winter in Tennessee (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994).
1. OR vol. 30, p. 442.
On discouragement within Grant’s Army of the Tennessee during the winter encampment in front of Vicksburg, see Steven E. Woodworth, Nothing but Victory: The Army of the Tennessee, 1861–1865 (New York: Knopf, 2006). On the focus of Confederate morale and nationality on Lee’s army, see Gary W. Gallagher, The Confederate War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). On dissension within the high command of Bragg’s Army of Tennessee, see Steven E. Woodworth, Jefferson Davis and His Generals: The Failure of Confederate Command in the West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), and Thomas L. Connelly, Autumn of Glory: The Army of Tennessee, 1862–1865 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971).
There are a number of excellent works on Grant’s Vicksburg Campaign. They include Michael B. Ballard, Vicksburg: The Campaign That Opened the Mississippi (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); William L. Shea and Terrence J. Winschell, Vicksburg Is the Key: The Struggle for the Mississippi River (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003); Warren E. Grabau, Ninety-Eight Days: A Geographer’s View of the Vicksburg Campaign (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2000); and Edwin C. Bearss’s encyclopedic three-volume The Campaign for Vicksburg (Dayton, OH: Morningside, 1985– 1986). Additional insights on the opposing commanders can be found in Brooks D. Simpson, Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), and Michael B. Ballard, Pemberton (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991).
On the Battle of Chancellorsville, see Ernest B. Furgurson, Chancellorsville 1863: The Souls of the Brave (New York: Knopf, 1992). For an alternative interpretation of the battle, strongly favorable to Hooker, see Stephen W. Sears, Chancellorsville (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996).
Thanks in part to the myth that it was somehow the turning point or decisive battle of the Civil War, Gettysburg has attracted a voluminous literature, of which the following is a minute selection. For a short overview of the campaign and battle, see Steven E. Woodworth, Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008). The classic work on the campaign is Edwin B. Coddington, The Gettysburg Campaign: A Study in Command (New York: Scribner’s, 1968). A more recent comprehensive study of the campaign is Stephen W. Sears, Gettysburg (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003). On the decision by the Confederate cabinet to allow Lee to keep Longstreet’s corps and invade Pennsylvania, see Steven E. Woodworth, Davis and Lee at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995). On the first day’s fighting at Gettysburg, see Warren W. Hassler, Crisis at the Crossroads: The First Day at Gettysburg (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1970), and Harry W. Pfanz, Gettysburg: The First Day (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). On the second day, see Harry W. Pfanz, Gettysburg: The Second Day (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987). On the fighting on Culp’s and Cemetery hills, spanning the second and third days, see Harry W. Pfanz, Gettysburg: Culp’s Hill and Cemetery Hill (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993). On the third day’s fighting, see Jeffry D. Wert, Gettysburg: Day Three (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001). On the assault known as Pickett’s Charge, see George Ripley Stewart, Pickett’s Charge: A Microhistory of the Final Attack at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959); John Michael Priest, Into the Fight: Pickett’s Charge at Gettysburg (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane, 1998); and Earl J. Hess, Pickett’s Charge: The Last Attack at Gettysburg (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). On Lee’s retreat from Gettysburg and the impressive haul of supplies that his army took with it to Virginia, see Kent Masterson Brown, Retreat from Gettysburg: Lee, Logistics, and the Pennsylvania Campaign (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
On the Tullahoma Campaign, see Steven E. Woodworth, Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), and Michael R. Bradley, Tullahoma: The 1863 Campaign for the Control of Middle Tennessee (Shippensburg, PA: Burd Street Press, 2000).
1. OR vol. 25, pt. 2, p. 4.
2. OR ser. 3, vol. 3, p. 734.
On Confederate finance, see Mark Thornton and Robert B. Ekeland Jr., Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2004), and Douglas B. Ball, Financial Failure and Confederate Defeat (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991). On the Richmond Bread Riot, see Emory M. Thomas, The Confederate State of Richmond: A Biography of the Capital (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971). On Union conscription and how it was administered, see Eugene C. Murdock, One Million Men: The Civil War Draft in the North (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1971). On the New York City draft riot, see Edward K. Spann, Gotham at War: New York City, 1860–1865 (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2002). On civil liberties in the Union during the war, see Mark E. Neely, The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For a contrasting study of civil liberties in the Confederacy, see Neely’s Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1993). On Clement Vallandigham, see Frank L. Klement, Limits of Dissent: Clement L. Vallandigham and the Civil War (New York: Fordham University Press, 1998).
On the Chickamauga and Chattanooga campaigns, see Steven E. Woodworth, Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998). On the Battle of Chattanooga, see also Wiley Sword, Mountains Touched with Fire: Chattanooga Besieges (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995). On the Gettysburg Address and Lincoln’s oratorical skill in general, see Ronald C. White Jr., The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln through His Words (New York: Random House, 2005).
1. Archer Anderson, “The Campaign and Battle of Chickamauga,” Southern Historical Society Papers, 52 vols. (Richmond: Virginia Historical Society, 1876–1959), 9:396.
2. Roy P. Basler, ed., Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953–1955), 7:23.
On Grant’s plans for the 1864 campaign, see Brooks D. Simpson, Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, 1822–1865 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000). On the campaign from the Wilderness to Spotsylvania to North Anna and Cold Harbor, see Mark Grimsley’s excellent short summary And Keep Moving On: The Virginia Campaign, May-June 1864 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002). Gordon Rhea has provided a more detailed treatment of the campaign in his excellent series of books, The Battle of the Wilderness, May 5–6, 1864 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994), The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House and the Road to Yellow Tavern, May 7–12, 1864 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), To the North Anna River: Grant and Lee, May 13–25, 1864 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000), and Cold Harbor: Grant and Lee, May 26–June 3, 1864 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2002).
On Butler’s Bermuda Hundred Campaign, see William Glenn Robertson’s Back Door to Richmond: The Bermuda Hundred Campaign, April–June 1864 (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1987). On Sigel’s unsuccessful campaign in the Shenandoah Valley, see William C. Davis, The Battle of New Market (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1993).
For two excellent accounts of Early’s raid on Washington, see Benjamin Franklin Cooling’s books, Jubal Early’s Raid on Washington (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007), and Monocacy: The Battle That Saved Washington (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane, 1997).
1. Joseph T. Glatthaar, Partners in Command: The Relationships between Leaders in the Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1994), 153.
2. Brooks D. Simpson, Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, 1822–1865 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), 298–99.
3. Jean Edward Smith, Grant (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001), 345.
4. Mark Grimsley, And Keep Moving On: The Virginia Campaign, May–June 1864. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), 148.
On the Atlanta Campaign, see Stephen Davis, Atlanta Will Fall: Sherman, Joe Johnston, and the Yankee Heavy Battalions (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2001), and Richard M. McMurry, Atlanta 1864: Last Chance for the Confederacy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000). On the climactic Battle of Atlanta, see Gary L. Ecelbarger, The Day Dixie Died: The Battle of Atlanta (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2010). Recent decades have seen the publication of several biographies of Sherman. These include John F. Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order (New York: Free Press, 1993); Lee B. Kennett, Sherman: A Soldier’s Life (New York: HarperCollins, 2001); Stanley P. Hirshson, The White Tecumseh: A Biography of General William T. Sherman (New York: Wiley, 1997); and Steven E. Woodworth, Sherman (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). Craig L. Symonds makes the best case he can for Johnston in his ably researched and written Joseph E. Johnston: A Civil War Biography (New York: Norton, 1992). On Hood, see Richard M. McMurry, John Bell Hood and the War for Southern Independence (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), and David Coffey, John Bell Hood and the Struggle for Atlanta (Abilene, TX: McWhiney Foundation Press, 1998).
On the election campaign of 1864, see John C. Waugh, Reelecting Lincoln: The Battle for the 1864 Presidency (New York: Crown, 1997).
1. Dunbar Rowland, ed., Jefferson Davis, Constitutionalist: His Letters, Papers, and Speeches, 10 vols. (Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1923), 6:295.
2. Wiley Sword, The Confederacy’s Last Hurrah: Spring Hill, Franklin, and Nashville (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 32.
3. Arthur Brooks Lapsley, ed., The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, 7 vols. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1906), 7:152.
On the Battle of Jonesboro and the final operations around Atlanta, see Stephen Davis, Atlanta Will Fall: Sherman, Joe Johnston, and the Yankee Heavy Battalions (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2001), and Richard M. McMurry, Atlanta 1864: Last Chance for the Confederacy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000). On the chase and sinking of the CSS Alabama and the Battle of Mobile Bay, see Craig L. Symonds, The Civil War at Sea (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2009), and Spencer C. Tucker, Blue and Gray Navies: The Civil War Afloat (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2006) and A Short History of the Civil War at Sea (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2002). On Sheridan’s Campaign in the Shenandoah Valley and the Battle of Cedar Creek, see Roy Morris Jr., Sheridan: The Life and Wars of General Phil Sheridan (New York: Crown, 1992); Thomas A. Lewis, The Guns of Cedar Creek (New York: Harper & Row, 1988); and David Coffey, Sheridan’s Lieutenants: Phil Sheridan, His Generals, and the Final Year of the Civil War (Lanham, MD: Row-man & Littlefield, 2005).
On the election of 1864, see John C. Waugh, Reelecting Lincoln: The Battle for the 1864 Presidency (New York: Crown, 1997).
On Sherman’s March to the Sea, see Edward Caudill and Paul Ashdown, Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008); Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Lee Kennett, Marching through Georgia: The Story of Soldiers and Civilians during Sherman’s Campaign (New York: HarperCollins, 1995); and Anne J. Bailey, War and Ruin: William T. Sherman and the Savannah Campaign (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2003) and The Chessboard of War: Sherman and Hood in the Autumn Campaigns of 1864 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000). The last of these also covers Hood’s 1864 Tennessee Campaign. On that campaign, see also Wiley Sword, Embrace an Angry Wind: The Confederacy’s Last Hurrah: Spring Hill, Franklin, and Nashville (New York: HarperCollins, 1992).
On the Hampton Roads Conference and attempts to open peace negotiations, see Mark Grimsley and Brooks D. Simpson, eds., The Collapse of the Confederacy (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001).
1. OR vol. 39, pt. 2, pp. 418–19.
2. William J. Cooper Jr., Jefferson Davis, American (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000), 513.
On Sherman’s Carolinas Campaign and the burning of Columbia, see John G. Barrett, Sherman’s March through the Carolinas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1956); Marion B. Lucas, Sherman and the Burning of Columbia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1976); Nathaniel Cheairs Hughes Jr., Bentonville: The Final Battle of Sherman and Johnston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); and Mark L. Bradley, The Battle of Bentonville: Last Stand in the Carolinas (Mason City, IA: Savas Publishing, 1996).
On the Confederate decision to enlist black troops, see Robert F. Durden, The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972).
On Lincoln’s thought, see Allen C. Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), and on Lincoln’s speeches, see Ronald C. White Jr., The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln through His Words (New York: Random House, 2005).
On the Appomattox Campaign and other events of April 1865, see Jay Winik, April 1865: The Month That Saved America (New York: HarperCollins, 2001). On Lincoln’s assassination and the search for his killer, see also James L. Swanson, Manhunt: The Twelve-Day Chase for Lincoln’s Killer (New York: William Morrow, 2006).
1. Both quotations from William J. Cooper Jr., Jefferson Davis, American (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000), 517–18.
2. Roy P. Basler, ed., Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953–1955), 8:333.
1. Abraham Lincoln, Speech to the 164th Ohio Regiment, Washington, D.C., August 18, 1864, Lincoln, Abraham, 1809–1865, in Roy P. Basler, ed., Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953–1955), 7:504–5.