agrarian reform: Article 27 (Constitution of 1917) and, 117–18, 122–24, 139, 168, 191
Revolution of 1910 and, 106–7, 126
agriculture: after World War II, 154
economy of New Spain and, 39–42
Great Depression and, 127
Green Revolution and, 170–71
import substitution model and, 152–54
Indians as laborers and, 42–45
“miracle” years and, 167–71
NAFTA and, 220–22
neoliberal revival and, 191. See also ejidos (communal land); exports, reliance on; hacendados; land ownership
El Águila, 95
Aguilar Monteverde, Alfonso, 4
Agustín, José, 149, 162, 171, 172, 173
AHMSA. See Altos Hornos de México
Alamán, Lucas, 55, 67, 68–70, 71, 77
alcabala, 86
Alemán, Miguel (president of Mexico), 175, 192
Cárdenas and, 136–37
corruption and, 150–52, 155, 208, 217
land reform and, 137, 167, 168–69, 192
Alhóndiga, massacre at, 56
Allende, Salvador, 178
Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel, 76
Altos Hornos de México (AHMSA), 187
Amin, Samir, 7
Amores perros (film), 199
amparo (right of habeas corpus), 168
Anheuser-Busch, 186
Arau, Alfonso, 199
Argentina, 105
art: baroque influence and, 48
Counter-Reformation and, 29–30
“miracle” years and, 175–76
post-revolutionary culture and, 141–45. See also Mexican culture
Atl, Dr. (pseud.). See Murillo, Gerardo
auto industry, 167
Autonomous Department of Indian Affairs, 135, 137
Ávila Camacho, Manuel (president of Mexico), 148–49, 150, 161, 167–68
ayuntamiento (town council), 41
Aztecs, 18, 19–24, 34–36, 68. See also Indians
Azuela, Mariano, 145–46
Bagchi, Amiya Kumar, 154, 182–83, 188, 205, 215
Bajío, 54
Bakunin, Mikhail, 108
banco de avío (development bank), 69
Banco Nacional de México, 111, 211
bandoleros (bandits), 61–62
banking system: debt crises of 1990s and, 196–97
postrevolutionary era and, 119
Bank of America, 163
banqueros (older men), 130
Bartra, Armando, 192
Bartra, Roger, 197–98
Batlle y Ordóñez, José, 105
Béjar, Raúl, 231
blancos (whites), 50
Bonfil Batalla, Guillermo, 34, 141, 153, 157, 172, 223
Bucareli Agreements of 1923, 123
Buchanan, Pat, 224
Bulnes, Francisco, 90, 103, 106, 107, 111–12, 176, 198
Buñuel, Luis, 176
burguesía (bourgeoisie), 9, 41, 84
Constitution of 1857 and, 78–80
in early Republic, 59–60
maquila and, 227
Mexican culture and, 145
“miracle” years and, 149, 157, 162, 176
since NAFTA, 202, 206, 207, 209
in Spain, 26–28. See also middle class
Cabañas, Lucio, 169
Cabrera, Luis, 115
Cabrera, Miguel, 51
calculi (Aztec clan), 20
Calderón Hinojosa, Felipe (president of Mexico), 201–3, 214, 222
Calles, Plutarco Elías (president of Mexico), 121, 124, 125–26, 130
corruption and, 150
Cámara Nacional de la Industria de la Transformación, 189
campesinos: Chiapas uprising and, 193–94
conditions of, 80, 100, 131, 143, 151, 166, 169–70, 216–17
crisis of 1907 and, 106–7
drug trade and, 214
flight to cities, 3, 168, 187–88, 191
internal market and, 101, 102, 166–67
land reform under Cárdenas and, 131–36, 137, 168–69
“miracle” years and, 167, 168–71
neoliberal revival and, 191–92. See also agriculture
Cananea: labor uprising at, 109, 110
poverty at, 128
cannibalism, in Aztec culture, 23
Canning, Lord, 57
capitalism: under Ávila Camacho, 149
colonial economy and, 36–42
Constitution of 1857 and, 78–80
in early Republic, 72
Juárez and, 73–77
Mexican literature and, 198
Mexican underdevelopment and, 7–9, 11–12, 113, 210
postrevolutionary era and, 121–23, 125–26
Revolution of 1910 and, 105–6, 113–14, 115, 116
Spain and, 30–32
Carbonífera del Norte, 111
Cárdenas, Dámaso, 130
Cárdenas, Lázaro (president of Mexico), 163, 164, 172, 230, 237
land reform and, 131–36, 167, 168, 169, 192, 208
presidency of, 129–39
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 225
Carranza, Venustiano (president of Mexico), 113, 115–16, 126, 160
Constitution of 1917 and, 116–19, 122
Carrasco, Salvador, 199
Caso, Alfonso, 171
Castellanos, Rosario, 193
Caste Wars of Yucatán, 61
Castillo, Heberto, 169
Castro, Angélica, 136
Catholic Church: colonial society and, 47–50
Constitution of 1917 and, 119
in early Republic, 66–67
Indians and, 193–94
population growth and, 156
Porfiriato and, 87–88
property ownership and, 77
in Spain, 28–30
caudillos: Cárdenas and, 131–32
of the Revolution, 113–16, 146
Cedillo, Ernesto (president of Mexico), 201, 202, 203
Cedillo, Saturnino, 132
Cementos Mexicanos, 186
Centro de Reflexión y Acción Laboral, 236
CEPAL. See Economic Commission for Latin America of the United Nations
Cervantes, Miguel de, 24, 29, 30, 35
Cervecería Cuauhtémoc (brewery), 96
Charles I (king of Spain), 26, 28, 62
Charles II (king of Spain), 31
Charles III (king of Spain), 46
Charles IV (king of Spain), 24
Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), 26
charros (bosses), 159–60, 176, 229
Chase Manhattan, 163
Chávez, Carlos, 172
Chiapas region: poverty and, 2–3, 204
uprising in, 193–94
Cihuacuacuilli (Aztec goddess), 22
Citibank, 163
Ciudad Acuña, 224
Ciudad Juárez, 213–14, 215, 223, 224, 227
Claramonte, Andrés de, 28
Clausewitz, Carl von, 73
CNOP. See Confederación Nacional de Organizaciones Públicas
Coatlicue (Aztec goddess), 22
coffee, 72
Colonia Álvaro Obregón in Mexico City, 216
inequalities and, 42–45
“internal colonialism” of independence and, 57
Liberal agenda and, 74, 78–80, 81–82, 102
roots of underdevelopment in, 232–33. See also dependency on United States
New Spain
Colorado River Land Company, 134
“miracle” years and, 173
social relations and, 63, 86, 190, 233
Spanish roots of, 28, 63. See also racism
Columbus, Christopher, 6, 25, 34
Como agua par chocolate (film), 199
Compañía Fundidora de Fierro y Acero de México (steel conglomerate), 96
comparative advantage, 9–10
Concanaco, 189
Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos (CTM), 153
Confederación Nacional Campesina, 132
Confederación Nacional de Organizaciones Públicas (CNOP), 149
Confederación Regional Michoacana del Trabajo, 131–32
Congress in Mexico: banco de avío (development bank) and, 69
under “miracle” presidents, 149–50
tax policies and, 189–90
Conrad, Joseph, 100
Conservatives, 67
Cárdenas’s reforms and, 138–39
economic thought among, 68–70
import substitution policy and, 152
Constitution of 1824, 59
Constitution of 1857, 78–80, 88, 115, 117
Constitution of 1917, 105–6, 116–19, 121
Article 27 and, 117–18, 122–24, 139, 168, 191
Article 123 and, 118
Article 130 and, 119
Coparmex, 189
Green Revolution and, 170–71
hacendados and, 39
corregidores de indios, 42
corruption: debt crises and, 196
in early Republic, 65–67
education and, 229
justice and, 194
“miracle” presidents and, 149–52
post-revolutionary era and, 121
roots of underdevelopment and, 234
Cortés, Hernán, 17, 18, 25, 35, 36, 62
Cosío Villegas, Daniel, 154
Costco, 186
cotton cultivation, 161. See also textile industry
Counter-Reformation, 27, 29–30
Creel, Enrique, 103
El crimen del Padre Amaro (film), 199
criollos (Spaniards born in New Spain): class relations and, 39, 51–52, 55–56, 60–61, 204–5, 233
economy of early Republic and, 67–72
independence and, 54, 55–58. See also Mora, José María Luis
CTM. See Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos
cuartelazo (military coup), 59, 62, 65, 69. See also Santa Anna, Antonio López de
Cuevas, José Luis, 176
Cusi, Dante, 134
cynicism, 205
Danzón (film), 199
De la Huerta–Lamont Agreements of 1922, 123
De la Huertas, Adolfo, 123
De la Madrid, Miguel (president of Mexico), 180, 190, 198
dependency on United States: consequences of, 16, 235–39
foreign debt and, 92–93, 110–13
maquiladoras and, 223–28
NAFTA and, 184, 205–6, 210, 215–16, 219–20
neoliberal revival and, 188–89
petroleum and, 164–65
World War II and, 152–54. See also foreign investment; national debt; transnational corporations; United States
desarrollo estabilizador (stabilized development), 155, 158, 161–62
The Devil’s Backbone (film), 199
Díaz, Porfirio (president of Mexico): economic policies under, 87, 88–89, 92–96, 107, 110, 112, 208–9
industrialization and, 96–103
presidency of, 86–96
social culture and, 87–92. See also Porfiriato
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, 20, 23, 36
Díaz Ordaz, Gustavo (president of Mexico), 170, 178
Díaz Serrano, Jorge, 164
Doheny, Edward L., 94–95
Don Quixote (Cervantes), 29, 30
drought: Aztecs and, 23
crisis of 1907 and, 107–8
geography and, 62–63
postrevolutionary era and, 120–21
water scarcity, 210
“year of hunger” (1785–86) and, 40
in years of early Republic, 72
drug traffic, 213–15
DuPont, 125
Duque de Linares, 42
Echeverría, Luis (president of Mexico), 169, 170, 178, 207
Economic Commission for Latin America of the United Nations (CEPAL), 147
economic dependency on outsiders: after independence, 56–58
colonial roots of, 5–9, 37–39, 42
in Spain, 24, 31–32. See also dependency on United States; exports, reliance on; imports; import substitution; trade relations
economic development: after independence, 57–60
under the Cardenistas, 132–29
colonial economy and, 36–39
desarrollo estabilizador and, 155, 158, 161–62
import substitution model and, 152–54
“miracle” years and, 149–54
neoliberal revival and, 180–97
postrevolutionary era and, 119–26
Reforma and, 73–82
schools of thought on, 67–72
value of state intervention and, 208–9. See also “miracle” years (1940 to 1970); neoliberal revival period
education: in Aztec culture, 21–22
Constitution of 1917 and, 119
in contemporary Mexico, 228–30, 237
“miracle” years and, 160
neoliberal revival and, 187, 193, 196, 198
in Spanish Golden Age, 29
ejidos (communal land): Bulnes and, 90
Constitution of 1917 and, 117–18
hacienda system and, 40–41, 43, 101–2, 167–71
Indian culture and, 20, 40–41, 43, 77–78
“miracle” years and, 167–71
neoliberal revival and, 191, 192
reform under Cárdenas and, 131, 133–35, 167. See also campesinos; land ownership
empresarios, 235–36
class relations and, 90, 91, 100, 125
“miracle” years and, 153, 159–60, 161
neoliberal revival and, 181, 182, 188–89
post-revolutionary era and, 121, 125
relations with government, 97–98, 148, 149, 150, 202, 207
encomienda (grant), 44
England: economy of early Republic and, 69–70, 77
Gilded Age and, 83–84
import substitution in, 154
Industrial Revolution and, 5–7, 57–58
Spanish dependence and, 24, 31–32
environmental regulation: NAFTA and, 184
escuela nacional, 141–42
Esquivel, Laura, 199
Estrada, José Mará, 92
Europeans. See Westerners
exploitation: colonial labor and, 38, 39–42
as goal of Conquest, 35–36
exports, reliance on: Cárdenas and, 129, 137–39
colonial economy and, 36–37, 38, 40
early Republic and, 57–58, 67–68, 72
fundamental change and, 235–36
Great Depression and, 127, 128–29
“miracle” years and, 161–62, 164–65
neoliberal revival and, 182–85
Porfiriato and, 92–93, 95–96, 110, 111
Reforma and, 82
roots of underdevelopment in, 234–36
Fajardo, Hilario de Jesús, 130
Federalist Party, 69
Ferdinand (king of Aragon), 25–26, 34
Fernández de Lizardi, José Joaquín, 51, 59–60, 61, 67
Ferrer, Aldo, 82
Figueroa, Gabriel, 176
film industry, 198–99
financial crisis of 1907, 109–11
Fishlow, Albert, 208
Florescano, Enrique, 94
Flores Olea, Victor, 219
FOBAPROA (bank bailout), 215
food costs: imports and, 107, 222
monopolies and, 186
subsidies and, 158. See also agriculture; corn
Forbes, 216
Ford Foundation, 170
foreign investment: after independence, 59
after World War II, 153–54
Ávila Camacho and, 148–49
Cárdenas and, 137
debt crises and, 194–97
economic crises and, 103, 120–21
maquiladoras and, 226–27
“miracle” years and, 162–66
NAFTA and, 215
neoliberal revival and, 183, 185, 188–89
Reforma and, 77, 79. See also national debt
Fox, Vicente (president of Mexico), 201, 202–3, 208, 214, 220, 222
France: admiration for, 88–89
anarchist thought and, 108
French Intervention and, 72
investment by, 94
free trade: Alamán and, 69
Altamirano and, 76
Constitution of 1857 and, 79
Juárez presidency and, 73, 75–76
Mora’s economics and, 67–68
neoliberal revival and, 180–85, 187
Porfiriato and, 89
properity of 1940s to 1960s and, 148
tariff wars and, 70–71
Frías, Heriberto, 103
Fuentes, Carlos, 151, 174–75, 198, 206, 217–18, 230
gachupines (Spaniards), 56. See also peninsulares
Gadsden territory, sale of, 72
Gálvez, José de, 46
Garza-Sada, Bernardo, 166
gatopardismo, 202
GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 183, 184
General Motors, 186
gente de razón (persons of reason), 51
geography, 61–63
change and, 61–63
El gesticulador (Usigli play), 173
Gilded Age, 83–84
globalization. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Gobineau, Count, 190
Godoy, Manuel, 24
Golden Age in Spain, 29–30
Goldshmitt & Company (London firm), 77
González, Alejandro, 199
González, Carlos Hank, 212
Gorostiza, José, 172
Goya, Francisco, 24
La Gran Liga de Ferrocarrileros Mexicanos, 109
Great Depression, 127–28
Great Recession of 2009, 236–37
El Greco, 30
Green Revolution, 170–71
Griselda, Martha, 217
gross domestic product (GDP), 147–48. See also “miracle” years (1940 to 1970)
Grupo Alfa, 165–66
Grupo Bimbo, 221
Grupo Maseca, 186
Grupo Visa, 186
Grupo Vitro, 186
Guanajuato, 55–56
infant mortality in, 94
Guaracha (hacienda), 129–30, 134
guerra sucia (dirty war), 169–70
Guillén Romo, Héctor, 4
Gutiérrez Nájera, Manuel, 91
Guzmán, Miguel Enríquez, 151–52
hacendados, 92
capitalist ideology and, 74, 77–78
Cárdenas and, 132, 133–34, 137
independence and, 55
“miracle” years and, 168–70
in New Spain, 38, 39–42, 43, 44–45
Porfiriato and, 101–2
Revolution of 1910 and, 105, 113–16, 121
henequen, 72, 94, 111, 120, 134
Henry VIII (king of England), 27
Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel, 54–56
hildagos (Spanish nobility), 25
Hoover, Herbert, 124
hopelessness, and poverty, 3–4
Huerta, David, 198
Huerta, Victoriano, 115, 117, 130, 141
Huitzilopochtli (Aztec god), 22, 23, 48
human sacrifice, in Aztec culture, 22–23
Humboldt, Alexander von, 39, 46, 50, 70
Ibargüengoitia, Jorge, 115, 174
illiteracy, 229
IMF. See International Monetary Fund
imports: capital goods and, 157, 158, 223
crisis of 1907 and, 107
tariffs and, 70–71, 80, 88, 90, 98, 117, 125. See also economic dependency on outsiders; trade relations
import substitution, 152–54, 162–63, 167
Inclán, Luis G., 60
independence: character of, 54–58
economic conditions after, 58–59, 65
geographic blocks to change and, 61–63
political instability and, 56, 59
roots of underdevelopment in, 235
Indians: Cárdenas and, 135
impacts of Conquest on, 37, 42–45
independence and, 54, 55, 61, 64
Liberal views of, 68, 69, 77–78, 81–82, 103
Mexican culture and, 144–45
neglect of, 203–4
poverty of, 2–3, 63, 103, 190, 193–94
social Darwinism and, 84
uprisings among, 43–44, 193–94. See also Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel; Aztecs;Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico)
indios (downtrodden), 51
industrialization: Cárdenas and, 136–38
cost of capital goods and, 157, 158
early Republic and, 68–72
foreign investment and, 163, 188–89
maquiladoras (assembly plants) and, 188–89, 223–28
“miracle” years and, 155–56, 166–67
Mora’s economy and, 67–68
in New Spain, 45–47
Porfiriato and, 96–103
postrevolutionary era and, 124–26
Reforma period and, 79–80
World War II and, 152–54
Industrial Revolution, 5–7, 57, 98
INEGI (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Geografia), 211
colonialism and, 42–45, 46, 50–52
in early Republic, 63–67
Green Revolution and, 170–71
independence and, 54–56
“miracle” years and, 151, 154–57, 159–60, 172–73
neoliberal revival and, 189–93, 202–4
Porfiriato and, 87, 89–90, 99–102
Reforma and, 82
Spanish society and, 28–29
“inferiority,” sense of, 51–52, 60–61
informal sector, 220
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 138
“internal colonialism,” 57
internal markets: in early Republic, 58, 70
food imports and, 107
foreign manufacturers and, 163
industrialization and, 136–36, 155–56, 157–58
land reform and, 131–36
Liberals and, 80–81
maquilas and, 227
“miracle” years and, 155–56
neoliberal revival and, 190, 191, 194
Panista leadership and, 211
reliance on trade and, 58, 99–101
Revolution of 1910 and, 114. See also import substitution; industrialization
International Harvester, 111
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 164, 165, 166, 181, 194, 195, 196, 215
Isabella I (queen of Castile), 25–26, 34
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 72
Iturbide, Agustín de (emperor of Mexico), 55, 58–59
Jaffee, Pierre, 7
Jalisco, unemployment in, 128
Jaramillo, Rubén, 169
Jefe Máximo. See Calles, Plutarco Elías (president of Mexico)
Jiquilpan, in Michoacán, 129–30
La Jornada (journal), 216, 220, 223, 228
Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico), 73–77, 80–81, 101
Kentucky Fried Chicken, 186
Keynes, John Maynard, 129
Kino, Eusebio, 44
Kropotkin, Pyotr A., 108
labor: Cárdenas and, 133–35, 138, 153
colonial exploitation of, 39, 40, 42–45, 46, 49–50
Constitution of 1857 and, 78
Constitution of 1917 and, 118
in education, 229
informal sector and, 220
maquiladoras and, 223–26, 227–28
“miracle” years and, 149, 159–60
NAFTA and, 184, 223–26, 227–28
neoliberal revival and, 184, 190, 191
organization of, 153, 159–60, 190
Porfiriato and, 97, 100, 102, 108–9
wages and, 102, 103, 159, 160, 211, 225–26. See also campesinos; unemployment
Laguna land reform, 133–34
lambiscones (sycophants), 205
land ownership: the church and, 77
colonial haciendas and, 40–41, 43–45
Constitution of 1917 and, 117–18, 122–24
latifundia system and, 25, 39, 168
Liberal goals and, 80–81
reform under Cárdenas and, 131–36, 167, 168. See also agrarian reform; campesinos; ejidos (communal land); hacendados; private property
Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 35
latifundia system, 25, 39, 168
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 115
Lerdo de Tejada, Miguel, 76, 80, 81
La Ley de Herodes (film), 199
Ley de Terrenos Baldíos, 102
Ley Lerdo of 1856, 77–78
Liberals, 67
caudillos of the Revolution and, 114–16
economic thought among, 67–68, 74–77
neoliberal revival and, 181–82
Reforma development and, 73–82
views of Indians, 68, 77–78, 81–82, 103. See also Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico); Mora, José María; Porfiriato
Limantour, José Ives, 88, 92, 98, 106, 112–13, 125
limpieza de sangre (purity of race), 28, 51
literature: “miracle” years and, 173–75
neoliberalism and, 198–99
postrevolutionary culture and, 145–46
Reforma period and, 76
livestock industry, 108
Lizardi, Fernández, 70
Lope de Vega (Félix Lope de Vega y Carpio), 29
López Mateos, Adolfo (president of Mexico), 178
López Obrador, Andrés Manuel, 202–3
López Portillo, José (president of Mexico): comments on Mexico by, 2, 3, 8, 139, 163, 206, 214
on “miracle” years, 152, 154–55, 158–59, 206
presidency of, 161–62, 165, 173, 178, 196
López Portillo y Rojas, José, 92, 100
López y Fuentes, Gregorio, 85, 102–3, 135, 146
Los Angeles Times, 223
Los de abajo (Azuela novel), 145–46
Los Encinos (village), 216–17
Los olvidados (Buñuel novel), 176
Lozada, Manuel, 78
Luther, Martin, 27
“machismo,” 25
Madero, Francisco I (president of Mexico), 105, 106, 113–15, 141
majordomo, 39
malinchismo (admiration for white people), 173
malinchistas (Uncle Toms), 231
Malthusian theory, 10–11
Manrique, Daniel, 230
manufacturing: in colonial economy, 45–47
import substitution model and, 152–54
protectionism and, 161
Reforma and, 69–70, 79–80. See also industrialization; labor
maquiladoras (assembly plants), 188–89, 223–28, 236, 238
María Luisa (queen of Spain), 24
Marx, Karl, 11, 59, 72, 90–91, 129, 232
Maseca, 221
Maximilian (emperor of Mexico), 72
mayorazgo, 25
Mendoza, Antonio, 41–42
mestizos: colonial government and, 41
color prejudice and, 50, 63, 190
independence and, 56
Mexican culture and, 17–18, 24, 233
social Darwinism and, 84
Spanish colonialism and, 25, 44
Americanization and, 163, 172, 206, 230
Aztecs and, 19–24
“miracle” years and, 171–77
post-revolutionary renaissance of, 139–46
pre-Columbian civilizations and, 18–24, 43
Spanish contribution to, 18, 24–30, 36
Western ideas and, 12–14, 15, 60–61, 73–77, 89–92
Mexico City, 90
geography and, 63
government funding in, 70–71
independence and, 54, 56, 57, 59–60
pollution and, 210
population growth in, 188
public jobs in, 65
urban poor in, 64–65, 204, 216
Mexico City Consulado de Comerciantes, 47
Mexico City earthquake of 1986, 198
Michelangelo, 144
middle class: after independence, 64–65
future of change and, 207–8
internal market and, 166
Juárez, 74
maquila and, 227
neoliberal revival and, 188, 189
political participation and, 78
military: Díaz and, 87
“dirty war” and, 169–70
drug traffic and, 213–14
in early Republic, 66
Mill, John Stuart, 75
mining, 68
“miracle” years and, 161–62
Porfiriato and, 93, 94–96, 109–10
post-revolutionary era and, 19. See also copper; petroleum; silver mining
“miracle” years (1940 to 1970), 147–48
agriculture and, 167–71
culture and, 171–76
import substitution model and, 152–54
lessons from, 160
national market and, 166–67
oil and, 164–65
politics and, 176–78
presidents during, 148–52, 177–78
reasons for failure of, 154–58
road to bankruptcy and, 158–66
today’s inequalities and, 217–18
Moctezuma Copper Company, 128
modernization: beginnings of modern
Mexico and, 104–6
imitation of Western models and, 12–14. See also industrialization
Molina Enríquez, Andrés, 99, 107, 117
money lending: the church and, 48, 71
financial crisis of 1907 and, 110–11
government of early Republic and, 58, 71. See also foreign investment; national debt
Monsiváis, Carlos, 171, 198, 202, 206, 216
Mora, José María Luis, 53, 61, 63, 65, 67–68
mordida (bribe), 65
Morelos, José María, 130
Morones, Luis, 160
Morrow, Dwight, 124
La muerte de Artemio Cruz (Fuentes novel), 174–75, 198, 206, 217–18
Mújica, Francisco, 117
mural art, 141–45
Murillo, Gerardo (pseud. Dr. Atl), 142
Nacional Financiera, 138
NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement
Napoleon III, 72
national debt: after independence, 58
import substitution and, 155
“miracle” years and, 157–58, 163–66
NAFTA and, 215
neoliberal revival and, 194–97
Porfiriato and, 103
postrevolutionary era and, 119
“rescue packages” and, 165–66, 194–97. See also dependency on United States; economic dependency on outsiders; foreign investment
National Population Council, 156
national unity: after independence, 58–61
corruption and, 65–67
economic ideology and, 67–72
foreign domination and, 110–12
geographic barriers to, 61–63
heritage and, 204
Reforma and, 73–80
social barriers to, 63–65. See also Mexican culture
National University of Mexico, 157, 229–30
El Nayar (municipality), 216–17
Negrete, Jorge, 176
neoliberalism: Panistas and, 202–3
public welfare and, 187, 193–94, 200–3. See also capitalism free trade
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
neoliberal revival period: Chiapas uprising and, 193–94
debt crises and, 194–97
economic changes and, 185–87
government policies and, 180–85
Mexican culture and, 197–99
social impacts and, 187–93
Neruda, Pablo, 175
Nervo, Amado, 91
Nestlé, 186
New Spain: Catholic Church in, 47–50
commerce in, 45–47
Conquest of, 33–36
export economy of, 36–37, 38, 40, 234
farming in, 39–42
internal development and, 36–37
manufacturing in, 45–47
political structure of, 41–42
New York Times, 195, 220, 221, 224
Nieto, Rafael, 117
Nissan, 186
Nixon, Richard, 178
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): campesinos and, 192, 202–3, 220–22
culture and, 230
globalization myths and, 211–12
Indians and, 193–94
as neocolonialism, 211–12, 236
psychology of dependency and, 206
small businesses and, 211, 238–39
unemployment and, 206, 211, 225–26
U.S. dependency and, 215–16, 219–20
Novaro, María, 199
Nueva Italia, 134
Nueva Lombardia, 134
obrajes (textile plants), 46–47, 234
Obregón, Álvaro (president of Mexico), 113–14, 121, 122–24, 126, 150
OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 182
Orozco, José Clemente, 142–43, 175, 230
Orozco, Luis Chávez, 137
Ortiz, Eulogio, 133
Otero, Mariano, 57–58, 59–60, 62, 64, 70
The Other Conquest (film), 199
Palmolive, 125
PAN. See Partido Acción Nacional
Panistas, 150, 202–3. See also Calderón
Hinojosa, Felipe (president of Mexico)
Fox, Vicente (president of Mexico)
Partido Acción Nacional
paraestatales (state-run enterprises), 148, 185, 225
La parcela (Gamboa novel), 91–92
Partido Acción Nacional (PAN), 149–50, 201–3, 214–15, 237. See also Fox, Vicente (president of Mexico)
Partido de la Revolución Democrática, 202
Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), 131, 237
Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), 149–50, 190, 202, 237. See also Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico)
Pascoe, Ricardo, 219
patio process, 38
Paz, Octavio, 8–9, 14, 15, 52, 71, 87, 170, 190, 201, 205, 221, 231
Pearson, Weetman, 95
pedagogía memorista (memorization), 228–30
Pedro Páramo (Rulfo novel), 174
penal code of 1872, 100
peninsulares (Spaniards), 50, 51, 54, 56
peones acasillados, 133
Chiapas and, 193
“miracle”
neoliberal revival and, 182–83
Philip II (king of Spain), 26, 31
pillali (private land), 20
Pimentel, Francisco, 101
Plan Sexenal of 1934, 132–33
PNR. See Partido Nacional Revolucionario
political participation: Constitution of 1857 and, 78
revolución and, 120
political protest: Chiapas uprising and, 193–94
politics: after independence, 56, 59
Cárdenas and, 130–31
Catholic Church and, 48–49
corruption and, 212–13
locus of power and, 205
during “miracle” years, 176–78
neoliberalism and, 201–3
parties and, 237
presidential power and, 177
Ponce, Manuel María, 92
Poniatowska, Elena, 198
population growth: colonial decline in Indians and, 34, 44
economic development and, 10–11, 54
Indians and, 203–4
middle class and, 207–8
neoliberal revival and, 187–88
Porfiriato and, 85
Porfiriato, 85–103
collapse of, 106–13
foreign investment and, 85–96
industrialization and, 96–103, 153. See also Díaz, Porfirio (president of Mexico)
Posada, José Guadalupe, 92
postrevolutionary era, 119–26
drug trade and, 213
Great Depression and, 127–28
industrialization and, 155–56
inequaties under NAFTA and, 184, 216–19
internal markets and, 70, 102–3, 155–56
neoliberal revival and, 187, 189, 191–92, 193–94, 198
Porfiriato and, 102–3. See also campesinos
Indians
inequalities
urban poor
pre-Columbian cultures, 18–24, 43. See also Aztecs
Indians
Mayans
prestanombres (Mexican front men), 162
PRI. See Partido Revolucionario Institucional
Prieto, Guillermo, 64, 75–76, 79, 81, 100, 218
Priistas: corruption and, 149–50
economic “miracle” and, 177–78
neoliberalism and, 203. See also Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)
Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico)
private property, 67, 68, 74, 75, 80, 90, 100, 102–3, 117–18. See also hacendados
land ownership
privatization, 94–95, 183, 185, 203. See also ejidos (communal land)
Proceso (journal), 187, 201, 212, 213, 216, 217
Procter & Gamble, 186
Procuraduría General de la Republica (Justice Department), 213
Progressivism, 105
Protestant Reformation, 27
Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, 108
Prudential Insurance Company, 163
psychological dimensions of underdevelopment, 3–4, 16
defeat by foreigners and, 71–72
sense of inferiority and, 51–52, 60–61, 205–6
public welfare: Cárdenas and, 135
debt rescue packages and, 195, 196–97
“miracle” years and, 157
neoliberalism and, 187, 193–94, 200–3
reasons for blindness to, 203–8. See also inequalities
Puig Casauranc, Manuel, 145, 146
Quesnay, François, 75
Quetzalcoatl (Aztec god), 22
racism: clergy of New Spain and, 49
color prejudice and, 28, 50, 63, 86, 102, 173, 190, 204
corn imports and, 192–93
neglect of public needs and, 203–5
neoliberal revival and, 190
in New Spain, 49, 50–52, 55–56
railroads, 93–94, 95–96, 109, 120, 185
Ramírez, Santiago, 190
Ramos, Samuel, 13–14, 15, 35, 60, 89, 90, 146, 171, 182
Rapp-Sommer y Purcell (company), 133
Reagan, Ronald (U.S. president), 180
Reclus, Elisée, 108
Reforma (1858–60), 73–82
regidores, 41
regional differences, 56, 59, 61–63
La región más transparente (Fuentes novel), 174
Relámpagos de agosto (Ibargüengoita novel), 174
in Aztec culture, 22–24
in Spanish culture, 27–30. See also Catholic Church
Republica Restaurada (1867–75), 73–77
Revolution of 1910: achievements of, 104–6, xii
Constitution of 1917 and, 116–19
as failed opportunity, 104–6, 113–16
land ownership and, 133
Mexican culture and, 140–41, 142, 145–46
neoliberalism and, 200–1
postrevolutionary era and, 119–26
Revueltas, José, 173
Revueltas, Silvestre, 172
Reyes, Alfonso, 172
Riaño, Juan Antonio, 54–55
Ricardo, David, 10, 36, 53, 104, 181
Riding, Alan, 16
Rio Blanco labor uprising, 109
Rivera, Diego, 140, 142, 143, 144–45, 230
Robinson, Joan, 14, 148, 160, 209, 222
Rockefeller Foundation, 170
Rojo, María, 199
Romero, José Rubén, 230
Romero Rubio, Manuel, 86
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (U.S. president), 139
Roosevelt, Theodore (U.S. president), 105, 112
Rosales, Héctor, 231
Rosas, Juventino, 230
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 75, 78
Royal Dutch Shell, 95, 139, 164, 234
Rudo y Cursi (Cuarón film), 238
Ruiz, Samuel, 193
Ruiz Cortines, Adolfo (president of Mexico), 177–78
rural population. See campesinos; ejidos (communal land); hacendados; Indians
Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico), 202, 208
agrarian policy of, 191, 192, 193, 194
economic reform and, 195–96
San Miguel de Allende: pillaging of, 55
Santa Anna, Antonio López de (president of Mexico), 60, 61, 65, 72
development bank and, 69
Santa Anna, José Antonio López de, 66
Santa (Gamboa novel), 91
Sarniento, Manuel A., 51
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 50
Sauvage, Juan de, 28
Sears, Roebuck, 163
Sesto, Julio, 99
shoe industry, 99–100
Sierra, Justo, 59, 63, 65, 73, 87, 119
Sigma, 221–22
Silva Herzog, Jesús, 13, 14, 165
silver mining: colonial economy and, 36–39
Porfiriato and, 93
Sindicato de Pintores y Escultores, 143
Siqueiros, David, 142–43
Slim, Carlos, 3, 216, 217, 218, 219
Smith, Adam, 9–10, 33, 53, 67, 75, 180–81
social class: Aztec culture and, 20–21
Hidalgo insurrection and, 55–56
labor unions and, 109
Porfiriato and, 89–90
society after independence and, 63–67
Spanish culture and, 25–26, 28–29
social Darwinism, 84, 86, 90, 100
socialist planning, 148, 152. See also Cárdenas, Lázaro (president of Mexico)
Sonora, 100
cash crops in, 107
Sonorenses, 122–23
Spain: Conquest by, 26, 33–36, 47–48
Golden Age in, 29–30
Mexican culture and, 24–30
Mexican independence and, 54–58
Mexican underdevelopment and, 4, 5–6, 31–32, 233–34
Standard Oil Company, 95, 139, 164, 235
state intervention, value of, 208–9. See also Cárdenas, Lázaro (president of Mexico)
Stavenhagen, Rodolfo, 191
Stephens, John L., 18
Stillman, James, 94
Supreme Court (Mexico), 123, 124, 222
Taft, William H., 122
Tamayo, Rufino, 175
tariffs: in early twentieth century, 117, 125
independence and, 70–71, 79–80
neoliberal revival and, 184, 186
Tawny, R. Harry, 11
tax policies, 155, 161, 162, 189–90, 207
technocrats, and neoliberal policies, 184–85, 191. See also Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico); Zedillo, Ernesto (president of Mexico)
technology: colonial economy and, 39, 40, 46
Porfiriato and, 97
underdevelopment and, 3
unemployment and, 157
Teléfonos de México, 187
telenovelas (soap operas), 173, 204
Telmex, 186
Spanish Conquest and, 34–36
terrenos baldíos (unoccupied lands), 80
tesebonos (speculative bonds), 185, 195–96
Texcatlipoca (Aztec god), 22
textile industry: Cárdenas and, 133, 134
Great Depression and, 128, 133
in New Spain, 46
Porfiriato and, 96, 97, 108, 109
strikes and, 109
Thatcher, Margaret, 180
Thucydides, 212
tienda de raya, 109
Tlacaelel (Aztec figure), 141
Tlahualilo (company), 133
Tlaloc (Aztec god), 20, 22, 62–63, 107
Tlazolteótl (Aztec goddess), 22
TLC (Tratado de Libre Comercio), 225. See also North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Toluca y México brewery, 128
Tomás de Torquemada, Juan, 27
Toro, Guillermo del, 199
Torres Bodet, Jaime, 172
trade relations: deficit crises and, 194–97
food imports and, 107
Mora and, 67–68
with other Latin American countries, 228
Porfiriato and, 89
Reforma and, 69–71
Western imperialism and, 83. See also exports, reliance on; foreign investment; imports; import substitution; internal markets; national debt; tariffs
transnational corporations, 163, 181, 184, 186, 226, 237
maquiladoras and, 223–28
transportation infrastructure, 58, 61–62, 93–94, 95–96, 154
Treaty of Guadalupe of 1848, 72, 75
Twain, Mark, xii
underdevelopment: capitalism and, 7–9, 11–12, 113, 210
economic theories about, 9–12
European models of growth and, 12–14
historical roots of, 5–9, 234–35
interpretation of, 15–16
meanings of, 2–4
psychological dimensions of, 3–4, 16, 51–52, 60–61, 71–72, 205–6
role of Spain in, 4, 5–6, 31–32, 233–34
social inequalities and, 8–9. See also dependency on United States; economic dependency on outsiders; economic development; exports, reliance on; inequalities; internal markets
unemployment: debt crises of 1990s and, 196
Great Depression and, 128
industrialization and, 157
neoliberal revival and, 187, 188
small businesses and, 211
urban population and, 167. See also labor
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 228
United States: capital investment in Mexico and, 88, 101, 111
Cárdenas and, 138–39
education of Mexican leaders in, 155, 180–82
financial crises of 1990s and, 194–97
financial panic of 1907 and, 109–11
Great Recession of 2009 in, 236–37
history of free trade in, 181
immigration into, 188, 192, 206
intervention in Mexican affairs, 72, 122–24
invasion of Mexico (1846–48), 70–71, 73
labor organization and, 108–9
Mexican independence and, 60–61
Mexicans working in, 220
postrevolutionary era in Mexico and, 122–24
responsibility of, 238
World War II and, 152–54. See also dependency on United States; foreign investment; transnational corporations
United States Rubber, 111
urban poor: after independence, 64
flight to cities and, 3, 156–57, 187–88, 191
Mexican capitalism and, 210
“miracle” years and, 155–56
neoliberal revival and, 191
Uruguay, 105
Usigli, Rodolfo, 173
Vallarta, Ignacio, 76
Vargas Llosa, Mario, 150
Vasconcelos, José, 44, 150–51, 198–99
Vázquez, Genaro, 169
Veblen, Thorstein, 40
Velázquez, Diego, 30
Vernon, Raymond, 160
viceroys, 41–42
Victoria, Guadalupe (president of Mexico), 56, 59
Vidriera de Monterrey (glass factory), 96, 138
Villa, Francisco, 115
violence, 214–15
Wallerstein, Immanuel M., 7, 166, 218
Wal-Mart, 186
Ward, George, 58
Ward, Henry, 69
warfare in Aztec culture, 21
War of the Reforma. See Reforma (1858–60)
water supply. See drought
Watt, James, 5
wealth, in contemporary Mexico, 204, 216, 217–18. See also inequalities
Westerners: adulation of, 57, 60–61, 78–79, 81–82, 89–92, 140–41, 197–98, 230–31
economic models of, 12–14, 57–58, 73–77 (see also capitalism; free trade; neoliberalism)
history of neoliberal practices among, 208
roots of Mexican dependency on, 5–9, 57–58
Spanish Golden age and, 29–30. See also colonialism; dependency on United States; economic dependency on outsiders; England; Spain; United States
wheat, 170–71
Wilde, Oscar, xiii
Wolf, Eric, 204
Wolfe, Bertram, 142–43
women: in Aztec culture, 21
“dirty war” and, 169–70
Indian, Spanish treatment of, 24, 25, 43
in maquila jobs, 225
neoliberal revival and, 191
as single parents, 238
in Spanish culture, 25
World Bank, 183, 185, 194, 209, 218
World Economic Forum, 228
World War II, 172–74
“year of hunger” (1785–86), 40
Zacatecas (silver mountain), 37
Zambrano, Lorenzo, 216
Zapata, Emiliano, 115
Zapotec Indians. See Indians; Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico)
Zarco, Francisco, 79
Zavala, Lorenzo, 60–61
Zedillo, Ernesto (president of Mexico), 185, 195, 196–97
Zola, Emile, 91