Index

agrarian reform: Article 27 (Constitution of 1917) and, 117–18, 122–24, 139, 168, 191

under Cárdenas, 131–36, 167

Revolution of 1910 and, 106–7, 126

agriculture: after World War II, 154

economy of New Spain and, 39–42

Great Depression and, 127

Green Revolution and, 170–71

import substitution model and, 152–54

Indians as laborers and, 42–45

“miracle” years and, 167–71

NAFTA and, 220–22

neoliberal revival and, 191. See also ejidos (communal land); exports, reliance on; hacendados; land ownership

El Águila, 95

Aguilar Monteverde, Alfonso, 4

Agustín, José, 149, 162, 171, 172, 173

AHMSA. See Altos Hornos de México

Alamán, Lucas, 55, 67, 68–70, 71, 77

alcabala, 86

Alemán, Miguel (president of Mexico), 175, 192

Cárdenas and, 136–37

corruption and, 150–52, 155, 208, 217

land reform and, 137, 167, 168–69, 192

Alhóndiga, massacre at, 56

Allende, Salvador, 178

Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel, 76

Altos Hornos de México (AHMSA), 187

Amin, Samir, 7

Amores perros (film), 199

amparo (right of habeas corpus), 168

Anheuser-Busch, 186

Arau, Alfonso, 199

architecture, 49–50, 90

Argentina, 105

Arriaga, Ponciano, 78, 81

art: baroque influence and, 48

Counter-Reformation and, 29–30

“miracle” years and, 175–76

Porfiriato and, 90, 92

post-revolutionary culture and, 141–45. See also Mexican culture

Atl, Dr. (pseud.). See Murillo, Gerardo

auto industry, 167

Autonomous Department of Indian Affairs, 135, 137

Ávila Camacho, Manuel (president of Mexico), 148–49, 150, 161, 167–68

ayuntamiento (town council), 41

Azcárraga, Emilio, 190, 218

Aztecs, 18, 19–24, 34–36, 68. See also Indians

Azuela, Mariano, 145–46

Bagchi, Amiya Kumar, 154, 182–83, 188, 205, 215

Baja California, 3, 112, 134

Bajío, 54

Bakunin, Mikhail, 108

banco de avío (development bank), 69

Banco Nacional de México, 111, 211

bandoleros (bandits), 61–62

banking system: debt crises of 1990s and, 196–97

Porfiriato and, 98–99, 110–11

postrevolutionary era and, 119

Bank of America, 163

banqueros (older men), 130

Baran, Paul, 4, 153, 158, 166

Bartra, Armando, 192

Bartra, Roger, 197–98

Bassols, Narciso, 3, 137

Batlle y Ordóñez, José, 105

beans, 128, 191, 221

Béjar, Raúl, 231

blancos (whites), 50

Bonfil Batalla, Guillermo, 34, 141, 153, 157, 172, 223

Braudel, Fernand, 8, 12

Bucareli Agreements of 1923, 123

Buchanan, Pat, 224

Bulnes, Francisco, 90, 103, 106, 107, 111–12, 176, 198

Buñuel, Luis, 176

bureaucracy, 65, 150, 234

burguesía (bourgeoisie), 9, 41, 84

Constitution of 1857 and, 78–80

in early Republic, 59–60

maquila and, 227

Mexican culture and, 145

“miracle” years and, 149, 157, 162, 176

since NAFTA, 202, 206, 207, 209

in Spain, 26–28. See also middle class

Burke, Edmund, 68, 114

Cabañas, Lucio, 169

Cabrera, Luis, 115

Cabrera, Miguel, 51

calculi (Aztec clan), 20

Calderón Hinojosa, Felipe (president of Mexico), 201–3, 214, 222

Calles, Plutarco Elías (president of Mexico), 121, 124, 125–26, 130

Cárdenas and, 132, 134, 138

corruption and, 150

Cámara Nacional de la Industria de la Transformación, 189

campesinos: Chiapas uprising and, 193–94

conditions of, 80, 100, 131, 143, 151, 166, 169–70, 216–17

crisis of 1907 and, 106–7

drug trade and, 214

flight to cities, 3, 168, 187–88, 191

internal market and, 101, 102, 166–67

land reform under Cárdenas and, 131–36, 137, 168–69

“miracle” years and, 167, 168–71

NAFTA and, 216–17, 220–22

neoliberal revival and, 191–92. See also agriculture

Cananea: labor uprising at, 109, 110

poverty at, 128

cannibalism, in Aztec culture, 23

Canning, Lord, 57

capitalism: under Ávila Camacho, 149

colonial economy and, 36–42

Constitution of 1857 and, 78–80

in early Republic, 72

Juárez and, 73–77

Mexican literature and, 198

Mexican underdevelopment and, 7–9, 11–12, 113, 210

postrevolutionary era and, 121–23, 125–26

Revolution of 1910 and, 105–6, 113–14, 115, 116

Spain and, 30–32

Carbonífera del Norte, 111

Cárdenas, Dámaso, 130

Cárdenas, Lázaro (president of Mexico), 163, 164, 172, 230, 237

land reform and, 131–36, 167, 168, 169, 192, 208

opposition to, 139, 149

presidency of, 129–39

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 225

Carranza, Venustiano (president of Mexico), 113, 115–16, 126, 160

Constitution of 1917 and, 116–19, 122

Carrasco, Salvador, 199

Carrión, Jorge, 13, 14, 16

Caso, Alfonso, 171

Castellanos, Rosario, 193

Caste Wars of Yucatán, 61

Castillo, Heberto, 169

Castro, Angélica, 136

Castro, Fidel, 4, 178

Catholic Church: colonial society and, 47–50

Constitution of 1917 and, 119

in early Republic, 66–67

Indians and, 193–94

population growth and, 156

Porfiriato and, 87–88

property ownership and, 77

in Reforma period, 75, 77

in Spain, 28–30

caudillos: Cárdenas and, 131–32

of the Revolution, 113–16, 146

Cedillo, Ernesto (president of Mexico), 201, 202, 203

Cedillo, Saturnino, 132

Cementos Mexicanos, 186

Centro de Reflexión y Acción Laboral, 236

CEPAL. See Economic Commission for Latin America of the United Nations

Cervantes, Miguel de, 24, 29, 30, 35

Cervecería Cuauhtémoc (brewery), 96

Charles I (king of Spain), 26, 28, 62

Charles II (king of Spain), 31

Charles III (king of Spain), 46

Charles IV (king of Spain), 24

Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), 26

charros (bosses), 159–60, 176, 229

Chase Manhattan, 163

Chávez, Carlos, 172

Chiapas region: poverty and, 2–3, 204

uprising in, 193–94

Chrysler, 162, 186

Cihuacuacuilli (Aztec goddess), 22

Citibank, 163

Ciudad Acuña, 224

Ciudad Juárez, 213–14, 215, 223, 224, 227

Claramonte, Andrés de, 28

Clausewitz, Carl von, 73

CNOP. See Confederación Nacional de Organizaciones Públicas

Coatlicue (Aztec goddess), 22

cochineal, 36, 40, 68

coffee, 72

Colonia Álvaro Obregón in Mexico City, 216

colonialism, 4, 5–9

inequalities and, 42–45

“internal colonialism” of independence and, 57

Liberal agenda and, 74, 78–80, 81–82, 102

roots of underdevelopment in, 232–33. See also dependency on United States

New Spain

Colorado River Land Company, 134

color prejudice, 50–51, 102

“miracle” years and, 173

social relations and, 63, 86, 190, 233

Spanish roots of, 28, 63. See also racism

Columbus, Christopher, 6, 25, 34

Como agua par chocolate (film), 199

Compañía Fundidora de Fierro y Acero de México (steel conglomerate), 96

comparative advantage, 9–10

Concanaco, 189

Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos (CTM), 153

Confederación Nacional Campesina, 132

Confederación Nacional de Organizaciones Públicas (CNOP), 149

Confederación Regional Michoacana del Trabajo, 131–32

Congress in Mexico: banco de avío (development bank) and, 69

under “miracle” presidents, 149–50

tax policies and, 189–90

Conrad, Joseph, 100

Conservatives, 67

Cárdenas’s reforms and, 138–39

economic thought among, 68–70

import substitution policy and, 152

Constitution of 1824, 59

Constitution of 1857, 78–80, 88, 115, 117

Constitution of 1917, 105–6, 116–19, 121

Article 27 and, 117–18, 122–24, 139, 168, 191

Article 28 and, 117, 186

Article 123 and, 118

Article 130 and, 119

Coparmex, 189

copper, 95, 109, 120, 128

corn, 90, 101, 128

Green Revolution and, 170–71

hacendados and, 39

imports of, 107, 191, 192–93

NAFTA and, 192–93, 221–22

corregidores de indios, 42

corruption: debt crises and, 196

in early Republic, 65–67

education and, 229

justice and, 194

“miracle” presidents and, 149–52

under NAFTA, 212–15, 237

in New Spain, 41–42, 52

post-revolutionary era and, 121

roots of underdevelopment and, 234

in Spain, 24, 28

Cortés, Hernán, 17, 18, 25, 35, 36, 62

Cosío Villegas, Daniel, 154

Costco, 186

cotton cultivation, 161. See also textile industry

Counter-Reformation, 27, 29–30

Creel, Enrique, 103

El crimen del Padre Amaro (film), 199

criollos (Spaniards born in New Spain): class relations and, 39, 51–52, 55–56, 60–61, 204–5, 233

economy of early Republic and, 67–72

independence and, 54, 55–58. See also Mora, José María Luis

Cristero rebellion, 124, 126

CTM. See Confederación de Trabajadores Mexicanos

cuartelazo (military coup), 59, 62, 65, 69. See also Santa Anna, Antonio López de

Cuevas, José Luis, 176

Cusi, Dante, 134

cynicism, 205

Danzón (film), 199

Darío, Rubén, 91, 141

debt peonage, 45, 74

De la Huerta–Lamont Agreements of 1922, 123

De la Huertas, Adolfo, 123

De la Madrid, Miguel (president of Mexico), 180, 190, 198

Del Río, Felicitas, 130

dependency on United States: consequences of, 16, 235–39

foreign debt and, 92–93, 110–13

maquiladoras and, 223–28

NAFTA and, 184, 205–6, 210, 215–16, 219–20

neoliberal revival and, 188–89

petroleum and, 164–65

World War II and, 152–54. See also foreign investment; national debt; transnational corporations; United States

desarrollo estabilizador (stabilized development), 155, 158, 161–62

The Devil’s Backbone (film), 199

Díaz, Porfirio (president of Mexico): economic policies under, 87, 88–89, 92–96, 107, 110, 112, 208–9

industrialization and, 96–103

presidency of, 86–96

social culture and, 87–92. See also Porfiriato

Díaz del Castillo, Bernal, 20, 23, 36

Díaz Mirón, Salvador, 91, 141

Díaz Ordaz, Gustavo (president of Mexico), 170, 178

Díaz Serrano, Jorge, 164

Doheny, Edward L., 94–95

Don Quixote (Cervantes), 29, 30

drought: Aztecs and, 23

crisis of 1907 and, 107–8

geography and, 62–63

postrevolutionary era and, 120–21

water scarcity, 210

water supply and, 62–63, 210

“year of hunger” (1785–86) and, 40

in years of early Republic, 72

drug traffic, 213–15

DuPont, 125

Duque de Linares, 42

Echeverría, Luis (president of Mexico), 169, 170, 178, 207

Economic Commission for Latin America of the United Nations (CEPAL), 147

economic dependency on outsiders: after independence, 56–58

colonial roots of, 5–9, 37–39, 42

Porfiriato and, 85–86, 92–93

in Spain, 24, 31–32. See also dependency on United States; exports, reliance on; imports; import substitution; trade relations

economic development: after independence, 57–60

under the Cardenistas, 132–29

colonial economy and, 36–39

desarrollo estabilizador and, 155, 158, 161–62

import substitution model and, 152–54

“miracle” years and, 149–54

under NAFTA, 211, 218–20

neoliberal revival and, 180–97

postrevolutionary era and, 119–26

Reforma and, 73–82

schools of thought on, 67–72

value of state intervention and, 208–9. See also “miracle” years (1940 to 1970); neoliberal revival period

education: in Aztec culture, 21–22

Constitution of 1917 and, 119

in contemporary Mexico, 228–30, 237

of Indians, 49, 135

“miracle” years and, 160

neoliberal revival and, 187, 193, 196, 198

in Spanish Golden Age, 29

ejidos (communal land): Bulnes and, 90

Constitution of 1917 and, 117–18

dismantling of, 77–78, 222

hacienda system and, 40–41, 43, 101–2, 167–71

Indian culture and, 20, 40–41, 43, 77–78

“miracle” years and, 167–71

neoliberal revival and, 191, 192

reform under Cárdenas and, 131, 133–35, 167. See also campesinos; land ownership

empresarios, 235–36

Cárdenas and, 138, 139

class relations and, 90, 91, 100, 125

“miracle” years and, 153, 159–60, 161

neoliberal revival and, 181, 182, 188–89

post-revolutionary era and, 121, 125

relations with government, 97–98, 148, 149, 150, 202, 207

encomienda (grant), 44

England: economy of early Republic and, 69–70, 77

Gilded Age and, 83–84

import substitution in, 154

Industrial Revolution and, 5–7, 57–58

Porfiriato and, 86, 94

Spanish dependence and, 24, 31–32

environmental regulation: NAFTA and, 184

Escobar, Arturo, 14, 183

escuela nacional, 141–42

Esquivel, Laura, 199

Estrada, José Mará, 92

Europeans. See Westerners

exploitation: colonial labor and, 38, 39–42

as goal of Conquest, 35–36

exports, reliance on: Cárdenas and, 129, 137–39

colonial economy and, 36–37, 38, 40

early Republic and, 57–58, 67–68, 72

fundamental change and, 235–36

Great Depression and, 127, 128–29

“miracle” years and, 161–62, 164–65

neoliberal revival and, 182–85

Porfiriato and, 92–93, 95–96, 110, 111

problems with, 209–10, 228

Reforma and, 82

roots of underdevelopment in, 234–36

Fajardo, Hilario de Jesús, 130

Fanon, Frantz, 45, 141

Federalist Party, 69

Ferdinand (king of Aragon), 25–26, 34

Fernández de Lizardi, José Joaquín, 51, 59–60, 61, 67

Ferrer, Aldo, 82

Figueroa, Gabriel, 176

film industry, 198–99

“miracle” years and, 173, 176

financial crisis of 1907, 109–11

Fishlow, Albert, 208

Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 17, 173

Florescano, Enrique, 94

Flores Olea, Victor, 219

FOBAPROA (bank bailout), 215

food costs: imports and, 107, 222

monopolies and, 186

subsidies and, 158. See also agriculture; corn

Forbes, 216

Ford Foundation, 170

Ford Motor Company, 125, 162

foreign investment: after independence, 59

after World War II, 153–54

Ávila Camacho and, 148–49

Cárdenas and, 137

debt crises and, 194–97

economic crises and, 103, 120–21

maquiladoras and, 226–27

“miracle” years and, 162–66

NAFTA and, 215

neoliberal revival and, 183, 185, 188–89

Porfiriato and, 83–84, 85–96

Reforma and, 77, 79. See also national debt

Fox, Vicente (president of Mexico), 201, 202–3, 208, 214, 220, 222

France: admiration for, 88–89

anarchist thought and, 108

French Intervention and, 72

investment by, 94

Frank, André Gunder, 4, 7, 38

free trade: Alamán and, 69

Altamirano and, 76

Constitution of 1857 and, 79

Juárez presidency and, 73, 75–76

Mora’s economics and, 67–68

neoliberal revival and, 180–85, 187

Porfiriato and, 89

properity of 1940s to 1960s and, 148

tariff wars and, 70–71

Frías, Heriberto, 103

Fuentes, Carlos, 151, 174–75, 198, 206, 217–18, 230

gachupines (Spaniards), 56. See also peninsulares

Gadsden territory, sale of, 72

Galindo, Blas, 172, 230

Gálvez, José de, 46

Gamboa, Federico, 84, 91

Gamio, Manuel, 12, 156

Garza-Sada, Bernardo, 166

Garza-Sada clan, 138, 148

gatopardismo, 202

GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 183, 184

General Motors, 186

gente de razón (persons of reason), 51

geography, 61–63

change and, 61–63

El gesticulador (Usigli play), 173

Gilded Age, 83–84

globalization. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Gobineau, Count, 190

Godoy, Manuel, 24

gold, 35, 72

Golden Age in Spain, 29–30

Goldshmitt & Company (London firm), 77

González, Alejandro, 199

González, Carlos Hank, 212

Gorostiza, José, 172

Goya, Francisco, 24

Gramsci, Antonio, 91, 140–42

La Gran Liga de Ferrocarrileros Mexicanos, 109

Great Depression, 127–28

Great Recession of 2009, 236–37

El Greco, 30

Green Revolution, 170–71

Griselda, Martha, 217

gross domestic product (GDP), 147–48. See also “miracle” years (1940 to 1970)

Grupo Alfa, 165–66

Grupo Bimbo, 221

Grupo Maseca, 186

Grupo Visa, 186

Grupo Vitro, 186

Guanajuato, 55–56

infant mortality in, 94

Guaracha (hacienda), 129–30, 134

guerra sucia (dirty war), 169–70

Guillén Romo, Héctor, 4

Gutiérrez Nájera, Manuel, 91

Guzmán, Martín Luis, 121, 146

Guzmán, Miguel Enríquez, 151–52

hacendados, 92

capitalist ideology and, 74, 77–78

Cárdenas and, 132, 133–34, 137

independence and, 55

“miracle” years and, 168–70

in New Spain, 38, 39–42, 43, 44–45

Porfiriato and, 101–2

Revolution of 1910 and, 105, 113–16, 121

Hemingway, Ernest, 173

henequen, 72, 94, 111, 120, 134

Henry VIII (king of England), 27

Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel, 54–56

hildagos (Spanish nobility), 25

Hoover, Herbert, 124

hopelessness, and poverty, 3–4

Huerta, David, 198

Huerta, Victoriano, 115, 117, 130, 141

Huitzilopochtli (Aztec god), 22, 23, 48

human sacrifice, in Aztec culture, 22–23

Humboldt, Alexander von, 39, 46, 50, 70

Ibargüengoitia, Jorge, 115, 174

illiteracy, 229

IMF. See International Monetary Fund

imports: capital goods and, 157, 158, 223

crisis of 1907 and, 107

food and, 107, 192–93

tariffs and, 70–71, 80, 88, 90, 98, 117, 125. See also economic dependency on outsiders; trade relations

import substitution, 152–54, 162–63, 167

Inclán, Luis G., 60

independence: character of, 54–58

economic conditions after, 58–59, 65

geographic blocks to change and, 61–63

political instability and, 56, 59

roots of underdevelopment in, 235

Indians: Cárdenas and, 135

impacts of Conquest on, 37, 42–45

independence and, 54, 55, 61, 64

Liberal views of, 68, 69, 77–78, 81–82, 103

Mexican culture and, 144–45

neglect of, 203–4

poverty of, 2–3, 63, 103, 190, 193–94

social Darwinism and, 84

uprisings among, 43–44, 193–94. See also Altamirano, Ignacio Manuel; Aztecs;Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico)

indios (downtrodden), 51

industrialization: Cárdenas and, 136–38

cost of capital goods and, 157, 158

early Republic and, 68–72

foreign investment and, 163, 188–89

maquiladoras (assembly plants) and, 188–89, 223–28

“miracle” years and, 155–56, 166–67

Mora’s economy and, 67–68

in New Spain, 45–47

Porfiriato and, 96–103

postrevolutionary era and, 124–26

Reforma period and, 79–80

in the West, 5–7, 57, 92

World War II and, 152–54

Industrial Revolution, 5–7, 57, 98

INEGI (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Geografia), 211

inequalities, 2–3, 8–9

colonialism and, 42–45, 46, 50–52

in early Republic, 63–67

Green Revolution and, 170–71

independence and, 54–56

“miracle” years and, 151, 154–57, 159–60, 172–73

NAFTA and, 184, 216–19

neoliberal revival and, 189–93, 202–4

Porfiriato and, 87, 89–90, 99–102

Reforma and, 82

Spanish society and, 28–29

“inferiority,” sense of, 51–52, 60–61

informal sector, 220

Inquisition, 27, 30

Instituto Politécnico Nacional, 138

“internal colonialism,” 57

internal markets: in early Republic, 58, 70

food imports and, 107

foreign manufacturers and, 163

industrialization and, 136–36, 155–56, 157–58

land reform and, 131–36

Liberals and, 80–81

maquilas and, 227

“miracle” years and, 155–56

neoliberal revival and, 190, 191, 194

Panista leadership and, 211

Porfiriato and, 93, 99–101

reliance on trade and, 58, 99–101

Revolution of 1910 and, 114. See also import substitution; industrialization

International Harvester, 111

International Monetary Fund (IMF), 164, 165, 166, 181, 194, 195, 196, 215

Isabella I (queen of Castile), 25–26, 34

Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 72

Iturbide, Agustín de (emperor of Mexico), 55, 58–59

Jaffee, Pierre, 7

Jalisco, unemployment in, 128

Jaramillo, Rubén, 169

Jefe Máximo. See Calles, Plutarco Elías (president of Mexico)

Jiquilpan, in Michoacán, 129–30

La Jornada (journal), 216, 220, 223, 228

Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico), 73–77, 80–81, 101

mentioned, 88, 115, 130, 144

Kentucky Fried Chicken, 186

Keynes, John Maynard, 129

Kino, Eusebio, 44

Kropotkin, Pyotr A., 108

labor: Cárdenas and, 133–35, 138, 153

colonial exploitation of, 39, 40, 42–45, 46, 49–50

Constitution of 1857 and, 78

Constitution of 1917 and, 118

in education, 229

informal sector and, 220

maquiladoras and, 223–26, 227–28

“miracle” years and, 149, 159–60

NAFTA and, 184, 223–26, 227–28

neoliberal revival and, 184, 190, 191

organization of, 153, 159–60, 190

Porfiriato and, 97, 100, 102, 108–9

strikes and, 108–9, 128, 160

wages and, 102, 103, 159, 160, 211, 225–26. See also campesinos; unemployment

Laguna land reform, 133–34

lambiscones (sycophants), 205

land ownership: the church and, 77

colonial haciendas and, 40–41, 43–45

Constitution of 1917 and, 117–18, 122–24

Indians and, 43, 80

latifundia system and, 25, 39, 168

Liberal goals and, 80–81

Porfiriato and, 94–95, 101–2

reform under Cárdenas and, 131–36, 167, 168. See also agrarian reform; campesinos; ejidos (communal land); hacendados; private property

Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 35

latifundia system, 25, 39, 168

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 115

Lerdo de Tejada, Miguel, 76, 80, 81

La Ley de Herodes (film), 199

Ley de Terrenos Baldíos, 102

Ley Lerdo of 1856, 77–78

Liberals, 67

caudillos of the Revolution and, 114–16

economic thought among, 67–68, 74–77

neoliberal revival and, 181–82

Reforma development and, 73–82

views of Indians, 68, 77–78, 81–82, 103. See also Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico); Mora, José María; Porfiriato

Limantour, José Ives, 88, 92, 98, 106, 112–13, 125

limpieza de sangre (purity of race), 28, 51

literature: “miracle” years and, 173–75

neoliberalism and, 198–99

Porfiriato and, 89, 91–92

postrevolutionary culture and, 145–46

Reforma period and, 76

livestock industry, 108

Lizardi, Fernández, 70

Lope de Vega (Félix Lope de Vega y Carpio), 29

López Mateos, Adolfo (president of Mexico), 178

López Obrador, Andrés Manuel, 202–3

López Portillo, José (president of Mexico): comments on Mexico by, 2, 3, 8, 139, 163, 206, 214

on “miracle” years, 152, 154–55, 158–59, 206

presidency of, 161–62, 165, 173, 178, 196

López Portillo y Rojas, José, 92, 100

López y Fuentes, Gregorio, 85, 102–3, 135, 146

Los Angeles Times, 223

Los de abajo (Azuela novel), 145–46

Los Encinos (village), 216–17

Los olvidados (Buñuel novel), 176

Lozada, Manuel, 78

Luther, Martin, 27

“machismo,” 25

Madero, Francisco I (president of Mexico), 105, 106, 113–15, 141

majordomo, 39

malinchismo (admiration for white people), 173

malinchistas (Uncle Toms), 231

Malthus, Thomas, 10, 18, 156

Malthusian theory, 10–11

Manrique, Daniel, 230

manufacturing: in colonial economy, 45–47

import substitution model and, 152–54

protectionism and, 161

Reforma and, 69–70, 79–80. See also industrialization; labor

maquiladoras (assembly plants), 188–89, 223–28, 236, 238

María Luisa (queen of Spain), 24

Marx, Karl, 11, 59, 72, 90–91, 129, 232

Maseca, 221

Maximilian (emperor of Mexico), 72

Mayans, 19, 61, 68

mayorazgo, 25

Mendoza, Antonio, 41–42

mestizos: colonial government and, 41

color prejudice and, 50, 63, 190

independence and, 56

Mexican culture and, 17–18, 24, 233

social Darwinism and, 84

in social system, 51–52, 204

Spanish colonialism and, 25, 44

Mexican culture, 18, 60

Americanization and, 163, 172, 206, 230

Aztecs and, 19–24

“miracle” years and, 171–77

post-revolutionary renaissance of, 139–46

pre-Columbian civilizations and, 18–24, 43

Spanish contribution to, 18, 24–30, 36

Western ideas and, 12–14, 15, 60–61, 73–77, 89–92

Mexico City, 90

geography and, 63

government funding in, 70–71

independence and, 54, 56, 57, 59–60

industry in, 96, 155

pollution and, 210

population growth in, 188

public jobs in, 65

urban poor in, 64–65, 204, 216

Mexico City Consulado de Comerciantes, 47

Mexico City earthquake of 1986, 198

Michelangelo, 144

middle class: after independence, 64–65

Cárdenas and, 136, 139

future of change and, 207–8

internal market and, 166

Juárez, 74

maquila and, 227

neoliberal revival and, 188, 189

political participation and, 78

Porfiriato and, 85, 89

military: Díaz and, 87

“dirty war” and, 169–70

drug traffic and, 213–14

in early Republic, 66

Mill, John Stuart, 75

mining, 68

“miracle” years and, 161–62

Porfiriato and, 93, 94–96, 109–10

post-revolutionary era and, 19. See also copper; petroleum; silver mining

“miracle” years (1940 to 1970), 147–48

agriculture and, 167–71

culture and, 171–76

import substitution model and, 152–54

lessons from, 160

national market and, 166–67

oil and, 164–65

politics and, 176–78

presidents during, 148–52, 177–78

reasons for failure of, 154–58

road to bankruptcy and, 158–66

today’s inequalities and, 217–18

Moctezuma Copper Company, 128

Moctezuma II, 18, 21, 37, 64

Modernismo, 91, 140–41

modernization: beginnings of modern

Mexico and, 104–6

imitation of Western models and, 12–14. See also industrialization

Molina Enríquez, Andrés, 99, 107, 117

money lending: the church and, 48, 71

debt peonage and, 45, 74

financial crisis of 1907 and, 110–11

government of early Republic and, 58, 71. See also foreign investment; national debt

monopolies, 158, 185–86, 194

Monsiváis, Carlos, 171, 198, 202, 206, 216

Mora, José María Luis, 53, 61, 63, 65, 67–68

mentioned, 73, 75, 115

mordida (bribe), 65

Morelos, José María, 130

Moreno, Diego, 129–30, 134

moreno (swarthy), 50, 51

Morones, Luis, 160

Morrow, Dwight, 124

La muerte de Artemio Cruz (Fuentes novel), 174–75, 198, 206, 217–18

Mújica, Francisco, 117

mural art, 141–45

Murillo, Gerardo (pseud. Dr. Atl), 142

Nacional Financiera, 138

NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement

Napoleon Bonaparte, 24, 54

Napoleon III, 72

national debt: after independence, 58

import substitution and, 155

“miracle” years and, 157–58, 163–66

NAFTA and, 215

neoliberal revival and, 194–97

Porfiriato and, 103

postrevolutionary era and, 119

“rescue packages” and, 165–66, 194–97. See also dependency on United States; economic dependency on outsiders; foreign investment

National Population Council, 156

national unity: after independence, 58–61

corruption and, 65–67

economic ideology and, 67–72

foreign domination and, 110–12

geographic barriers to, 61–63

heritage and, 204

Reforma and, 73–80

social barriers to, 63–65. See also Mexican culture

National University of Mexico, 157, 229–30

El Nayar (municipality), 216–17

Negrete, Jorge, 176

neoliberalism: Panistas and, 202–3

principles of, 9–10, 182–83

public welfare and, 187, 193–94, 200–3. See also capitalism free trade

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

neoliberal revival period: Chiapas uprising and, 193–94

debt crises and, 194–97

economic changes and, 185–87

government policies and, 180–85

Mexican culture and, 197–99

social impacts and, 187–93

Neruda, Pablo, 175

Nervo, Amado, 91

Nestlé, 186

New Spain: Catholic Church in, 47–50

commerce in, 45–47

Conquest of, 33–36

export economy of, 36–37, 38, 40, 234

farming in, 39–42

internal development and, 36–37

manufacturing in, 45–47

political structure of, 41–42

silver mining in, 36, 37–39

New York Times, 195, 220, 221, 224

Nieto, Rafael, 117

Nissan, 186

Nixon, Richard, 178

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): campesinos and, 192, 202–3, 220–22

culture and, 230

globalization myths and, 211–12

Indians and, 193–94

industry and, 211, 223–28

as neocolonialism, 211–12, 236

petroleum and, 196, 210

psychology of dependency and, 206

Salinas and, 184, 201

small businesses and, 211, 238–39

unemployment and, 206, 211, 225–26

U.S. dependency and, 215–16, 219–20

Novaro, María, 199

Nueva Italia, 134

Nueva Lombardia, 134

obrajes (textile plants), 46–47, 234

Obregón, Álvaro (president of Mexico), 113–14, 121, 122–24, 126, 150

Ocampo, Melchor, 74, 230

OPEC. See Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 182

Orozco, José Clemente, 142–43, 175, 230

Orozco, Luis Chávez, 137

Ortiz, Eulogio, 133

Otero, Mariano, 57–58, 59–60, 62, 64, 70

The Other Conquest (film), 199

Palmolive, 125

PAN. See Partido Acción Nacional

Pani, Alberto, 120, 125–26

Panistas, 150, 202–3. See also Calderón

Hinojosa, Felipe (president of Mexico)

Fox, Vicente (president of Mexico)

Partido Acción Nacional

paraestatales (state-run enterprises), 148, 185, 225

La parcela (Gamboa novel), 91–92

Partido Acción Nacional (PAN), 149–50, 201–3, 214–15, 237. See also Fox, Vicente (president of Mexico)

Partido de la Revolución Democrática, 202

Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), 131, 237

Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), 149–50, 190, 202, 237. See also Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico)

Pascoe, Ricardo, 219

patio process, 38

Paz, Octavio, 8–9, 14, 15, 52, 71, 87, 170, 190, 201, 205, 221, 231

Pearson, Weetman, 95

pedagogía memorista (memorization), 228–30

Pedro Páramo (Rulfo novel), 174

PEMEX, 164, 207

penal code of 1872, 100

peninsulares (Spaniards), 50, 51, 54, 56

peones acasillados, 133

peso devaluation, 161, 195–96

petroleum, 94–95, 122, 235

Cárdenas and, 137, 138–39

Chiapas and, 193

“miracle”

years and, 162, 164–65

neoliberal revival and, 182–83

Philip II (king of Spain), 26, 31

pillali (private land), 20

Pimentel, Francisco, 101

Plan Sexenal of 1934, 132–33

PNR. See Partido Nacional Revolucionario

political participation: Constitution of 1857 and, 78

elections and, 201, 202, 205

revolución and, 120

political protest: Chiapas uprising and, 193–94

Indians and, 43–44, 193–94

labor and, 109, 110

politics: after independence, 56, 59

Cárdenas and, 130–31

Catholic Church and, 48–49

corruption and, 212–13

locus of power and, 205

during “miracle” years, 176–78

neoliberalism and, 201–3

of New Spain, 41–42, 49

parties and, 237

Porfiriato and, 85–86, 88

presidential power and, 177

wealth and, 205–6, 217–18

Ponce, Manuel María, 92

Poniatowska, Elena, 198

population growth: colonial decline in Indians and, 34, 44

economic development and, 10–11, 54

Indians and, 203–4

middle class and, 207–8

neoliberal revival and, 187–88

Porfiriato and, 85

Porfiriato, 85–103

collapse of, 106–13

foreign investment and, 85–96

industrialization and, 96–103, 153. See also Díaz, Porfirio (president of Mexico)

Posada, José Guadalupe, 92

postrevolutionary era, 119–26

poverty, xiii, 2–4, 156, 210

acceptance of, 203–5, 233–34

drug trade and, 213

Great Depression and, 127–28

industrialization and, 155–56

inequaties under NAFTA and, 184, 216–19

internal markets and, 70, 102–3, 155–56

neoliberal revival and, 187, 189, 191–92, 193–94, 198

Porfiriato and, 102–3. See also campesinos

Indians

inequalities

urban poor

Prebisch, Raúl, 7, 16

pre-Columbian cultures, 18–24, 43. See also Aztecs

Indians

Mayans

prestanombres (Mexican front men), 162

PRI. See Partido Revolucionario Institucional

Prieto, Guillermo, 64, 75–76, 79, 81, 100, 218

Priistas: corruption and, 149–50

economic “miracle” and, 177–78

neoliberalism and, 203. See also Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)

Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico)

private property, 67, 68, 74, 75, 80, 90, 100, 102–3, 117–18. See also hacendados

land ownership

privatization, 94–95, 183, 185, 203. See also ejidos (communal land)

Proceso (journal), 187, 201, 212, 213, 216, 217

Procter & Gamble, 186

Procuraduría General de la Republica (Justice Department), 213

Progressivism, 105

Protestant Reformation, 27

Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, 108

Prudential Insurance Company, 163

psychological dimensions of underdevelopment, 3–4, 16

defeat by foreigners and, 71–72

sense of inferiority and, 51–52, 60–61, 205–6

public welfare: Cárdenas and, 135

debt rescue packages and, 195, 196–97

“miracle” years and, 157

NAFTA and, 201–4, 206, 216–19

neoliberalism and, 187, 193–94, 200–3

reasons for blindness to, 203–8. See also inequalities

Puig Casauranc, Manuel, 145, 146

Quesnay, François, 75

Quetzalcoatl (Aztec god), 22

Rabasa, Emilio, 73, 87

racism: clergy of New Spain and, 49

color prejudice and, 28, 50, 63, 86, 102, 173, 190, 204

corn imports and, 192–93

Liberals and, 68, 74, 81–82

neglect of public needs and, 203–5

neoliberal revival and, 190

in New Spain, 49, 50–52, 55–56

social Darwinism and, 84, 86

Spanish roots of, 28, 34

railroads, 93–94, 95–96, 109, 120, 185

Ramírez, Ignacio, 76, 78, 81

Ramírez, Santiago, 190

Ramos, Samuel, 13–14, 15, 35, 60, 89, 90, 146, 171, 182

Rapp-Sommer y Purcell (company), 133

Reagan, Ronald (U.S. president), 180

Reclus, Elisée, 108

Reconquista, 25, 27

Reforma (1858–60), 73–82

regidores, 41

regional differences, 56, 59, 61–63

La región más transparente (Fuentes novel), 174

Relámpagos de agosto (Ibargüengoita novel), 174

religion, 49–50, 68–69

in Aztec culture, 22–24

in Spanish culture, 27–30. See also Catholic Church

Republica Restaurada (1867–75), 73–77

Revolution of 1910: achievements of, 104–6, xii

Constitution of 1917 and, 116–19

as failed opportunity, 104–6, 113–16

land ownership and, 133

leadership of, 105–6, 113–16

Mexican culture and, 140–41, 142, 145–46

neoliberalism and, 200–1

postrevolutionary era and, 119–26

Revueltas, José, 173

Revueltas, Silvestre, 172

Reyes, Alfonso, 172

Riaño, Juan Antonio, 54–55

Ricardo, David, 10, 36, 53, 104, 181

mentioned, 16, 67, 74, 184

Riding, Alan, 16

Rio Blanco labor uprising, 109

Rivera, Diego, 140, 142, 143, 144–45, 230

Robinson, Joan, 14, 148, 160, 209, 222

Rockefeller Foundation, 170

Rojo, María, 199

Romero, José Rubén, 230

Romero, Matías, 86–96, 88, 89

Romero Rubio, Manuel, 86

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (U.S. president), 139

Roosevelt, Theodore (U.S. president), 105, 112

Rosales, Héctor, 231

Rosas, Juventino, 230

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 75, 78

Royal Dutch Shell, 95, 139, 164, 234

Rudo y Cursi (Cuarón film), 238

Ruiz, Samuel, 193

Ruiz Cortines, Adolfo (president of Mexico), 177–78

Rulfo, Juan, 168, 174, 230

rural population. See campesinos; ejidos (communal land); hacendados; Indians

Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico), 202, 208

agrarian policy of, 191, 192, 193, 194

economic reform and, 195–96

NAFTA and, 184, 201

privatization and, 185, 218

San Miguel de Allende: pillaging of, 55

Santa Anna, Antonio López de (president of Mexico), 60, 61, 65, 72

corruption and, 66, 150

development bank and, 69

Santa Anna, José Antonio López de, 66

Santa (Gamboa novel), 91

Sarniento, Manuel A., 51

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 50

Sauvage, Juan de, 28

Sears, Roebuck, 163

Sesto, Julio, 99

shoe industry, 99–100

Sierra, Justo, 59, 63, 65, 73, 87, 119

Sigma, 221–22

Silva Herzog, Jesús, 13, 14, 165

silver mining: colonial economy and, 36–39

early Republic and, 68, 72

Porfiriato and, 93

Spain and, 28, 31–32, 35, 38

Sindicato de Pintores y Escultores, 143

Siqueiros, David, 142–43

Slim, Carlos, 3, 216, 217, 218, 219

Smith, Adam, 9–10, 33, 53, 67, 75, 180–81

mentioned, 16, 30, 87, 114

social class: Aztec culture and, 20–21

Hidalgo insurrection and, 55–56

labor unions and, 109

Porfiriato and, 89–90

skin color and, 190, 204

society after independence and, 63–67

Spanish culture and, 25–26, 28–29

social Darwinism, 84, 86, 90, 100

socialist planning, 148, 152. See also Cárdenas, Lázaro (president of Mexico)

Sonora, 100

cash crops in, 107

mining and, 95–96, 109, 128

Sonorenses, 122–23

Spain: Conquest by, 26, 33–36, 47–48

Golden Age in, 29–30

Mexican culture and, 24–30

Mexican independence and, 54–58

Mexican underdevelopment and, 4, 5–6, 31–32, 233–34

Spencer, Herbert, 84, 116

Standard Oil Company, 95, 139, 164, 235

state intervention, value of, 208–9. See also Cárdenas, Lázaro (president of Mexico)

Stavenhagen, Rodolfo, 191

Stephens, John L., 18

Stillman, James, 94

sugar, 40, 222

Supreme Court (Mexico), 123, 124, 222

Taft, William H., 122

Tamayo, Rufino, 175

tariffs: in early twentieth century, 117, 125

independence and, 70–71, 79–80

“miracle” years and, 153, 161

NAFTA and, 221, 226

neoliberal revival and, 184, 186

Porfiriato and, 88, 98

Tawny, R. Harry, 11

tax policies, 155, 161, 162, 189–90, 207

technocrats, and neoliberal policies, 184–85, 191. See also Salinas, Carlos (president of Mexico); Zedillo, Ernesto (president of Mexico)

technology: colonial economy and, 39, 40, 46

Porfiriato and, 97

underdevelopment and, 3

unemployment and, 157

Teléfonos de México, 187

telenovelas (soap operas), 173, 204

Televisa, 186, 190, 202, 218

Telmex, 186

Tenochtitlán, 18, 19, 20

under Aztec rule, 18, 19, 20

Spanish Conquest and, 34–36

terrenos baldíos (unoccupied lands), 80

tesebonos (speculative bonds), 185, 195–96

Texcatlipoca (Aztec god), 22

textile industry: Cárdenas and, 133, 134

Great Depression and, 128, 133

in New Spain, 46

Porfiriato and, 96, 97, 108, 109

Reforma and, 70–71, 75, 79–80

strikes and, 109

tariffs and, 70–71, 79–80

Thatcher, Margaret, 180

Thucydides, 212

tienda de raya, 109

Tijuana, 213–14, 215, 223

Tlacaelel (Aztec figure), 141

Tlahualilo (company), 133

Tlaloc (Aztec god), 20, 22, 62–63, 107

Tlazolteótl (Aztec goddess), 22

TLC (Tratado de Libre Comercio), 225. See also North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Toluca y México brewery, 128

Tomás de Torquemada, Juan, 27

Toro, Guillermo del, 199

Torres Bodet, Jaime, 172

trade relations: deficit crises and, 194–97

food imports and, 107

Mora and, 67–68

with other Latin American countries, 228

Porfiriato and, 89

Reforma and, 69–71

Western imperialism and, 83. See also exports, reliance on; foreign investment; imports; import substitution; internal markets; national debt; tariffs

transnational corporations, 163, 181, 184, 186, 226, 237

maquiladoras and, 223–28

transportation infrastructure, 58, 61–62, 93–94, 95–96, 154

Treaty of Guadalupe of 1848, 72, 75

Twain, Mark, xii

underdevelopment: capitalism and, 7–9, 11–12, 113, 210

economic theories about, 9–12

European models of growth and, 12–14

historical roots of, 5–9, 234–35

interpretation of, 15–16

meanings of, 2–4

psychological dimensions of, 3–4, 16, 51–52, 60–61, 71–72, 205–6

role of Spain in, 4, 5–6, 31–32, 233–34

social inequalities and, 8–9. See also dependency on United States; economic dependency on outsiders; economic development; exports, reliance on; inequalities; internal markets

unemployment: debt crises of 1990s and, 196

Great Depression and, 128

industrialization and, 157

NAFTA and, 211, 220, 225

neoliberal revival and, 187, 188

small businesses and, 211

urban population and, 167. See also labor

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 228

United States: capital investment in Mexico and, 88, 101, 111

Cárdenas and, 138–39

education of Mexican leaders in, 155, 180–82

financial crises of 1990s and, 194–97

financial panic of 1907 and, 109–11

Great Recession of 2009 in, 236–37

history of free trade in, 181

immigration into, 188, 192, 206

intervention in Mexican affairs, 72, 122–24

invasion of Mexico (1846–48), 70–71, 73

labor organization and, 108–9

Mexican independence and, 60–61

Mexicans working in, 220

postrevolutionary era in Mexico and, 122–24

responsibility of, 238

World War II and, 152–54. See also dependency on United States; foreign investment; transnational corporations

United States Rubber, 111

urban poor: after independence, 64

flight to cities and, 3, 156–57, 187–88, 191

Mexican capitalism and, 210

“miracle” years and, 155–56

neoliberal revival and, 191

Urquidi, Victor L., 183, 226

Uruguay, 105

Usigli, Rodolfo, 173

Vallarta, Ignacio, 76

Vargas Llosa, Mario, 150

Vasconcelos, José, 44, 150–51, 198–99

Vázquez, Genaro, 169

Veblen, Thorstein, 40

Velázquez, Diego, 30

Véliz, Claudio, 14, 152

Vernon, Raymond, 160

viceroys, 41–42

Victoria, Guadalupe (president of Mexico), 56, 59

Vidriera de Monterrey (glass factory), 96, 138

Villa, Francisco, 115

violence, 214–15

Volkswagen, 186, 236

Wallerstein, Immanuel M., 7, 166, 218

Wal-Mart, 186

Ward, George, 58

Ward, Henry, 69

warfare in Aztec culture, 21

War of the Reforma. See Reforma (1858–60)

water supply. See drought

Watt, James, 5

wealth, in contemporary Mexico, 204, 216, 217–18. See also inequalities

Weber, Max, 11–12, 30

Westerners: adulation of, 57, 60–61, 78–79, 81–82, 89–92, 140–41, 197–98, 230–31

economic models of, 12–14, 57–58, 73–77 (see also capitalism; free trade; neoliberalism)

history of neoliberal practices among, 208

New Spain and, 24–30, 36

roots of Mexican dependency on, 5–9, 57–58

Spanish Golden age and, 29–30. See also colonialism; dependency on United States; economic dependency on outsiders; England; Spain; United States

wheat, 170–71

Wilde, Oscar, xiii

Wilson, Woodrow, 105, 122

Wolf, Eric, 204

Wolfe, Bertram, 142–43

women: in Aztec culture, 21

“dirty war” and, 169–70

Indian, Spanish treatment of, 24, 25, 43

in maquila jobs, 225

neoliberal revival and, 191

as single parents, 238

skin color and, 74, 76

in Spanish culture, 25

World Bank, 183, 185, 194, 209, 218

World Economic Forum, 228

World Trade Organization, 222

World War II, 172–74

“year of hunger” (1785–86), 40

Yucatán, 72, 111, 134

Zacatecas (silver mountain), 37

Zambrano, Lorenzo, 216

Zapata, Emiliano, 115

Zapotec Indians. See Indians; Juárez, Benito (president of Mexico)

Zarco, Francisco, 79

Zavala, Lorenzo, 60–61

Zedillo, Ernesto (president of Mexico), 185, 195, 196–97

Zola, Emile, 91