Index

A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z

A

Adam of Bremen, 26, 83–84, 86–87, 196–197, 245

Almquist, Bo, 191

alphabets, 28, 258–259

Althing (meeting of Icelandic chieftains), 112–113, 114, 204, 242, 251

amber, 97, 226, 227

Anderson, J. R. L., 26–27

Anderson, Rasmus B., 170

Andersson, Eva, 223–229, 231–232, 234

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 82, 83–84

anthropology, 26, 81, 113

forensic, 99

archaeology

absorption spectrophotometry in, 96

backhoes and, 51–54, 98, 99

carbon-14 dating methods in, 130, 157–158, 177

diet analysis in, 6, 149–160, 218

DNA analysis in, 6, 81, 99, 101–102

experimental, 12–23, 223–236

GPS grids in, 2, 46–47, 212

graves in. See graves

Greenland ice cap and, 6, 46

ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in, 2, 44–45, 51, 53–54, 55–57, 200–203, 206, 213–214

Icelandic attitudes toward, 43–44, 212, 219–220

midden (garbage pit) studies in, 6, 47, 140, 149–155, 159–160, 177, 191, 201–203

nature of, 5–7, 42–44

permits and, 52

photography in, 2, 212–213

pollen analysis in, 90, 104, 192

ransacking in, 43–44, 210–211

remote-sensing devices in, 2, 5–6, 43–57, 200–203, 206, 208, 213–214

sagas versus, 42–43, 219–220

soil dating in, 6, 45–51, 130, 205, 209, 215, 219

tephra and tephrochronology in, 6, 45–47, 49–51, 99, 200, 205–207, 209, 214

thin-layer chromatography in, 96

tree-ring studies in, 6, 19, 90, 157

trowels in, 1, 5, 45, 52, 206–210, 212–213

underwater, 18–20

volcanic ash studies in, 6, 45–47, 49–51, 99, 200, 205–207, 209, 214

Ari the Learned, 33, 135, 136–137, 260–261, 274–275

Arnarstapi, Iceland, 30–32, 119, 135, 217

Arneborg, Jette, 151–152, 153, 155, 157–158, 164

Arni Magnusson, 141, 263–264

Arnor Old-Woman’s Nose, 95, 275

Arthurian literature, 65–67, 262

Asa, Queen, 81–82, 87, 90, 101, 133. See also Oseberg ship burial

astrolabe, 25–26, 196, 239–240

B

backhoes, 51–54, 98, 99

Baffin Island, Canada, 168–169, 194

baleen, 16, 148, 193

barley, 31, 104, 108

Bayeux Tapestry, 14–15

beads

amber, 97, 227

glass, 97, 178

in graves, 97, 99

bearing-dials, 25

beds, 124, 131, 133

beeswax, 101, 167, 236, 252, 257–258

Beothuck Indians, 190–191

Bergthora, 69–71, 76

birch, 50, 105–106, 140–141, 143, 148, 186, 203, 207, 210, 230

Bird Cove, Newfoundland, 180

Birka, Sweden, 97, 254–255

bishops

descendants of Gudrid, 34, 260–263, 276

of Greenland, 164

of Iceland, 34, 42, 147, 242, 246, 248–250, 260–263, 276

Bjarni Herjolfsson, 25, 168

Bjorkedal, Ottar, 17

Bjorkedal, Sigurd, 15, 17

Bjorn Gilsson, Bishop, 261

Black Death, 160–161

Blondal, Sigurdur, 105–106

bogbean plant, 124

bog iron, 104, 144, 179, 216

Bolender, Douglas, 46, 204–206, 208, 210–212

Bolli, 72–73, 88, 155–156

bone-jelly porridge, 152

bones. See also fish bones; graves

of cats, 160

of dogs, 68, 91, 93, 99, 100, 160, 198, 237

excavation of, 46, 98, 153, 208, 209, 211

food sources based on, 6, 149–155, 158–160, 218

human, analysis of, 98–99, 156–159

uses of, 99, 131–132, 149, 152, 153, 177–178, 194, 202, 226, 234, 235, 248, 259

Book of Flatey, 262–264

Book of Settlements, The, 88, 100, 105, 106, 118, 151, 246–247, 253, 263

Book of the Icelanders, The (Ari the Learned), 33, 88–89, 135, 136–137, 260–261, 274–275

Borges, Jorge Luis, 7

Boron, Robert de, 65

Brand Saemundarson, Bishop, 261–262, 276

Brattahlid, Greenland

farm of Eirik the Red at, 34, 39–40, 128, 142, 144–146, 166–168, 213

modern settlement at, 142–144

Thjodhild’s Church at, 155–157, 255

Breidfjord, Sigurdur, 141

British Isles. See also Hebrides; Scotland

Icelandic settlers from, 101–102

Norse legacy in, 79–89, 284

St. Brice’s Day massacre in, 85–86

brooches, 68, 79, 94–95, 101, 133, 237, 257

buckets, 92, 93, 100, 135, 147–148, 192, 237

bulls, 3, 47, 155, 187, 189, 191–192, 243, 247

burls, 4, 183–184

butter, 146–149

butternuts (white walnuts), 4, 183–184, 191, 211, 264

Byzantium. See Constantinople

C

Canada

Baffin Island, 168–169, 194

Bird Cove, 180

L’Anse aux Meadows, 4, 5, 171–184, 191–192, 217, 264

Miramichi River, 180, 184–185, 190–191, 264

New Brunswick, 169, 182, 183

Newfoundland, 13, 169, 182, 183, 190, 194

Quebec, 4, 180, 184, 185

Straits of Belle Isle, 180, 182

canoes, 186–187

carbon-14 dating methods, 130, 157–158, 177

carbon isotopes, 6, 130, 155–159, 177

cargo ships, 18–23, 30–31, 179

Carlson, Catherine, 185

Carter, Hodding, 21

Carter, Tara, 208, 211, 215

Cartier, Jacques, 184–185

cats, 34, 104, 140, 160

Celtic Christianity, 257–258

Center for Textile Research, Copenhagen, 223–229

Change of Ways, 251–252, 255, 257

Charlemagne, 82, 240

cheese, 42, 53, 67, 70, 111, 146, 147, 148, 240, 265

chieftains, 13, 31, 32, 36, 61, 71, 73–75, 80, 87, 89, 102, 108, 110–121, 140, 144–145, 151, 155, 156, 165, 181, 198, 204, 213, 242, 247, 252, 263

Chretien de Troyes, 65

Christensen, Arne Emil, 13–17, 24, 91, 123

Christianity, 237–265. See also bishops; popes

attitudes toward death and, 93, 99, 100, 235, 253–254

burial customs, 93, 99, 100, 156, 253–254

Celtic, 257–258

churches, 4, 54, 85, 99, 140, 141, 155–157, 166–167, 216, 218, 220, 241, 255–256, 258

conversion to, 155–156, 246, 251–252, 255, 257

equality and, 91, 253

in Greenland, 137, 140, 141, 155–156, 166–167, 247, 255–256, 258

Gudrid’s pilgrimage to Rome, 3, 4, 41, 218, 221, 238–241, 276–277, 291

Gudrid as a nun, 241, 243, 253, 255–259

in Iceland, 31, 32–33, 99, 100, 155–156, 218, 220, 221, 241–243, 245–247, 250, 252–253

ivory and, 163–164, 239

Norway and, 87, 155–156, 221, 249

in poetry, 250

Vikings and, 8, 85, 243, 247, 249–252

women and, 252–255

climate change, 107, 150

cloth. See also weaving; wool

dyes of, 92, 96, 230

economics of, 42, 67–68, 113, 116, 149, 218, 236, 237

in graves, 93–94, 95, 157, 158

linen, 31, 93–94, 167

red, 3, 187

shaggy weave (fake fur), 96, 235–236

silk, 31, 93–94

twill, 233–234, 235

clothing, 93–96, 221–236

Clover, Carol, 60, 75

cod, 110, 138, 154, 160

collapse of Greenland Norse society, 149–155, 158–159, 160, 161

Columbus, Christopher, 4, 12, 264

Constantinople, 82, 84, 97, 238, 241

Cortereal, Gaspar de, 190–191

cows, 104, 108–111, 118, 145–148, 152, 158–160, 191–192

cross and crucifix, 246, 248, 249–250, 254–256

Crumlin-Pedersen, Ole, 18–21, 22

Cuchulainn, 188

D

Damiata, Brian, 47, 56–57

days of the week, 250

death. See also graves

attitudes toward, 79, 92–93, 99, 100, 235, 253–254

Christian burial customs, 93, 99–100, 253–254

Otherworld, 90, 100, 237, 247–249, 254

pagan burial customs, 2, 79, 89–97, 99–100, 164, 213

Decker, George, 171, 174, 178

DeLaguna, Frederica, 26

democracy, in Iceland, 112–113

dendrochronology, 6, 19, 90, 157

Denmark

Center for Textile Research, Copenhagen, 223–229

National Museum of, Copenhagen, 141, 143, 151–153, 230–231

Iceland independence movement and, 42–43, 70, 112–113

Skuldelev ships, 18–20

Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde, 18–23

Diamond, Jared, 149–155, 158–159, 160

diet. See also archaeology; bones

in Greenland, 144–160

in Iceland, 110–111, 155

Disko Island, Greenland, 168–169

Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (Hakluyt), 191

divorce, 66

DNA analysis, 6, 81, 99, 101–102

dogs, 104, 143, 152, 213, 229, 245

bones of, 160, 198

in graves, 68, 91, 93, 99, 100, 237

lapdogs, 198

Dorset Eskimos, 194

Drangey, Iceland, 57–58, 175, 197, 215–216, 220–221, 222, 241–243

dried fish, 155

drift ice. See ice

driftwood, 148

Dublin, Ireland, 79, 80, 88

DuBois, Thomas, 244–245, 249

Dudo of Normandy, 87

Durrenberger, Paul, 113–114, 115–116

dyes, 92, 96, 230

E

Earle, Tim, 48

Eggertsson, Gunnar Marel, 12–13, 23

Egil’s Saga, 107–108, 275

eider ducks and eider down, 3, 90, 174

Einar (Gudrid’s suitor), 31–32, 33, 41–42, 117

Einar of Laugarbrekka (Gudrid’s grandfather), 118–119, 121, 272

Eiriksijord (“Eirik’s Fjord”), Greenland 136, 143. See also Brattahlid, Greenland

Eiriksson, Leif. See Leif Eiriksson

Eiriksson, Thorstein. See Thorstein Eiriksson (Gudrid’s husband)

Eirik the Red, 4, 33–36, 119–122, 260, 264. See also Saga of Eirik the Red, The

banishment from Iceland, 75, 120–122, 134, 272–274

Brattahlid, Greenland, 34, 39–40, 128, 142–146, 155–156, 166–168, 213

discovery of Greenland, 3, 4, 116, 121–122, 127–128, 135–137

Eiriksstadir (“Eirik’s Homestead”), Iceland, 119–120, 122, 127–134, 170, 213

Freydis (bastard daughter of), 187–188

house building and, 122–134

Land-Taking (985), 157

Thorbjorn Vifilsson (Gudrid’s father) and, 119–122

elephant ivory, 161, 163

elves (Hidden Folk), 54, 245

EM-31, 47–48, 50–51, 202

Enghoff, Inge Bodker, 154

Erlendsson, Hauk, 262–263

Erlingsson, Thorsteinn, 128–129

Eskimos, 137, 150, 160, 187, 194

experimental archaeology, 12–23, 223–236

Eyrbyggja Saga, 272–273, 274

Eysteinsson, Throstur, 105–106

F

Fabricius, Otho, 148

Farm Beneath the Sand, Greenland, 126–128, 147–148, 152–154, 159, 213, 223, 235

“Farm of Merry Noise.” See Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), Iceland

farming, 6, 104–111, 113, 116–117, 120, 140–147, 150, 155, 158–160, 180, 199, 218–219

fish bones, 149–155

fishing, 108–110, 140, 141, 149–155, 185

Flateyjarbók (“Book of Flatey”), 262–264

flax, 92, 104

flies, 152

forensic anthropology, 99

fortune-telling, 9, 34, 39, 247, 261

Freydis, 187–188, 275

Fridrek, Bishop, 246, 248–249, 250

Frobisher, Martin, 27

furs, 96, 187, 189

fake, 96, 235–236

futhark (runic alphabet), 28

G

Gaia (Viking-ship replica), 12–13, 17–18, 21, 23

Geirrid, 60–61, 66

Gerbert of Aurillac (Pope Sylvester II), 25, 240

Gilman, Antonio, 200

Gisli’s Saga, 273

glass beads, 97, 178

Glaum (nickname), 217, 221–223

Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), Iceland

building and maintaining, 122–123, 218–222

church on property, 4, 54, 216, 218, 220, 241, 255–256

discovery and excavation of ruins, 1–5, 43–57, 133, 200–215, 219–220, 265

as Gudrid’s home, 1–5, 40–41, 43–51, 76, 133, 193, 198–199, 200, 209, 213–215, 217–223, 255–256

horse skull puzzle and, 2, 213

meaning of name, 217, 221–223, 271–272

Skagafjord Folk Museum at, 48–49, 51–54, 122–123, 200–215

goats, 104, 145, 146, 150–151, 157, 159–160

Gokstad ship burial, 13–18, 91, 179, 284

Goodman, Dean, 55–57

GPR. See ground-penetrating radar

GPR-Slice, 55–57

GPS grids, 2, 46–47, 212

Grágas (“Gray Goose”) law book, 115

grapes, 168, 172, 173, 175–176, 183–185, 192. See also wine

Graslund, Anne-Sofie, 252–255

graves, 79. See also death

in Greenland, 141, 155–156, 164

in Iceland, 2, 68, 97–102

at Keldudalur, Iceland, 98–100, 159, 213

pagan, 68, 89–97, 99–100, 164, 213

ship burials, 13–18, 91, 89–97, 100, 132, 179

Greenland. See also Saga of the Greenlanders, The

Brattahlid, farm of Eirik the Red, 34, 39–40, 128, 142–146, 155–156, 166–167, 213

Christianity in, 137, 140, 141, 155–156, 166–167, 247, 255–256, 258

collapse of Norse society in, 107, 149–155, 158–159, 160, 161

diet in, 144–160

discovery and setdement of, 4, 6, 11–12, 21, 25, 107, 116, 121–122, 127–128, 135–137

Eiriksfjord (“Eirik’s Fjord”), 136, 143

Farm Beneath the Sand, 126–128, 147–148, 152–154, 159, 213, 223, 235

fogs of, 26–27

icebergs surrounding, 27–28

ivory and, 163–164

Lysufjord, 22, 37–39, 137–142

naming of, 135–137

National Museum of, Nuuk 27–28, 147–148

Nuuk, 22, 27–28, 137–138, 141–142, 147–148, 159

Ocean Called Dark surrounding, 26–27

property of Gudrid in, 39, 41, 166–167, 217

Sandnes (Gudrid’s home), 137–142, 162, 166–167, 194, 215, 217, 260, 264–265

wrecks of ships, 27–28

Greenland ice cap, 6, 46

Grettir’s Bath (hot spring), 57–59, 222

Grettir’s Saga, 58–60, 78–79, 217, 220–223, 242

Grettir the Strong, 57–59, 75, 76, 78–80, 89, 99, 197, 215–217, 220–223, 241–243

ground-penetrating radar (GPR), 2, 44–45, 51, 53–54, 55–57, 200–206, 213

Gudbergsson, Gretar, 199

Gudrid the Far-Traveler

at Arnarstapi, Iceland, 30–32, 119, 135, 217

basic story of, 33–35, 37–41, 76–77

birth of, 119, 121–122

at Brattahlid, Greenland, 34, 39–40, 146, 166–168, 217

connections with other saga characters, 75–77

descendants of, 3, 4, 34, 40, 188, 189–190, 193, 198, 218, 221–223, 260–263. See also Snorri (Gudrid’s son)

death of, 116, 209

described, 9–10, 76, 259–260

diet of, 3, 6, 42, 146–147, 157–161

family background of, 31–32, 80, 116, 117–122, 198

and Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), Iceland, 1–5, 40–41, 43–51, 76, 133, 193, 198–199, 200, 209, 213–215, 217–223, 255–256

husbands of, 3–4, 35, 37–41, 77, 138, 141, 142, 156, 162, 163, 166–169, 181–182, 259–260

and kings of Norway, 195, 276

and L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 4, 5, 178–182, 191–192, 214–215, 217

map of voyages, viii–ix

marriage to Thorstein Eiriksson, 22, 35, 37, 38, 138, 142, 156, 259–260

marriage to Thorfinn Karlsefni, 3–5, 40, 76, 77, 117, 162, 163, 166–169, 181–198, 218, 219, 260, 265

mother-in-law in Iceland, 4, 5, 41, 198, 219

near the Miramachi River, Gulf of St. Lawrence, 180, 183–191

nickname, origins of, 7, 279

as a nun, 241–242, 243, 253, 255–257, 258

pilgrimage to Rome, 3, 4, 41, 218, 221, 238–241, 276, 291

and Reynines (Reynistadur or “Rowan Stead”), Iceland, 4, 41, 46–47, 197–199, 202, 217, 219, 222, 262

and Sandnes, Greenland, 137–142, 162, 166–167, 215, 217, 260, 264–265

and séance, 9, 34, 39, 261

as skörungur (“very stirring” woman), 71, 75, 76–77

Skraelings and, 186–190, 194, 260, 261

and Vinland, 1, 3, 10, 37–38, 40, 76–77, 80, 164, 168–169, 177–192, 193, 195

and Vinland Sagas, 8–10, 261–265. See also Saga of Eirik the Red, The; Saga of the Greenlanders, The

voyage from Greenland to Norway, 3–4, 40, 195

voyage from Greenland to Vinland, 3, 38, 40, 76, 80, 91, 164, 167–169

voyage from Iceland to Greenland, 11–12, 31, 33, 35, 37, 76, 121, 135–136, 251

voyage from Norway to Iceland, 4, 40, 55, 76, 195–197

voyage from Vinland to Greenland, 3, 40, 89, 193–195

voyages in Vinland, 4, 182–186

Gudrun the Fair, 71–76, 88, 114, 155–156, 238, 256–257

Guenevere, Queen, 65, 66

Gulf of St. Lawrence, 4, 175, 180, 182–186, 190–191

Gull-Thorir’s Saga, 273

Gunnar of Hlidarendi, 69, 70, 75

H

hairstyles, 96

Hakluyt, Richard, 191

Hakon the Good (king of Norway), 249

Hallbera, Abbess, 198, 262

Halldorsson, Olafur, 261–262

Hallgerd Long-Legs, 68–74, 75, 88, 256

Hallveig (Gudrid’s mother), 119, 272

Harald Fine-Hair (king of Norway), 82, 87, 100, 112, 236

Hauk’s Book, 262–264

Havhingsten (“The Sea Stallion,” dragonship), 19, 105–106

hay and haymaking, 6, 8, 47, 50, 51, 54, 56, 57, 70, 103, 105, 107, 109–110, 113, 116, 118, 125, 143–147, 152, 158–159, 171, 173–174, 192, 200, 204, 219, 248

Hayeur-Smith, Michele, 95

Hebrides, 64–67, 76, 79–81, 89, 155, 163, 246, 257, 284

Hedeby, 95–96

Heidarviga Saga, 273

Hekla. See Mount Hekla, Iceland

Helgafell, Iceland, 61, 73–75, 88, 114, 116, 119, 165, 174–175

Helgason, Agnar, 81, 101–102

Hellisvellir (“Fields by the Cave”), Iceland, 119, 272

Helluland (“Flat Stone Land”), 168, 169, 176

Hermann of Reichenau, 25–26, 41, 239–240

Hidden Folk (elves), 54, 245

Hop, 183–187

horses, 2, 8, 9, 30, 57, 64, 70, 78, 95, 98, 104, 106, 124–125, 143, 145, 154, 155, 197, 204, 209, 211, 243, 245, 247, 248

as food, 160, 253

in graves, 2, 68, 90, 91, 93, 99, 100, 213, 237

skull at Glaumbaer, 2, 213

Horsford, Eben Norton, 170, 172

house building. See also turf houses

concrete in, 123

turf in, 1, 3, 30, 42, 43, 48, 50, 111, 122–126, 129, 176, 181, 197, 200, 209, 219–220, 255–256

wood in, 30, 126–134, 181

household size, 95, 274–275

Howley, James P., 191

hummocks, 106–107

Hvamm, Iceland, 103, 118, 120, 274

I

ice

glaciers, 12, 30–31, 103, 137

Greenland ice cores, 6, 46

icebergs and drift ice, 27–28, 107, 136, 142, 143, 148, 169, 175

Iceland

Arnarstapi, 32, 119, 135, 217

chieftains of, 31, 32, 36, 61, 71, 73–75, 87, 102, 108, 110–121, 156, 165, 198, 204, 242, 247, 251–252

Christianity in, 31, 32–33, 99, 100, 155–156, 218, 220, 221, 241–243, 245–247, 250, 252–253

democracy in, 112–113

diet in, 110–111, 155

discovery and settlement of, 6, 21, 33, 46, 80, 88–89, 100–111. See also Book of Settlements, The

Drangey, 57–58, 175, 197, 215–216, 220–221, 222, 241–243

economy of, 42, 67–68, 110–117, 149, 155, 218, 236, 237

Eiriksstadir (“Eirik’s Homestead”), 120, 122, 127–134, 170, 213

farming in, 6, 104–111, 113, 116–117, 120, 199, 218–219

Glaumbaer. See Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), Iceland

Golden Age of, 43

Helgafell, 61, 73–75, 88, 114, 116, 119, 165, 174–175

Hellisvellir (“Fields by the Cave”), 119, 272

Hvamm, 103, 118, 120, 274

independence movement, 43, 70, 112–113

Keldudalur, 98–100, 159, 213, 255–256, 258

Kolkuos, 198, 275

Kornsa, 68, 100

Laugarbrekka (“Hot-Springs Slope”), 118–119, 272, 276

legal system of, 111–117

National Museum of, Reykjavik, 49, 100, 122, 126, 128

Reynines (Reynistadur or “Rowan Stead”), 4, 41, 46–47, 197–199, 202, 217, 219, 222, 262

Skagafjord. See Skagafjord (“Bay of the Headlands”), Iceland

Stong (house in southern Iceland), 214

Stora Seyla (“Big Marsh”), 50, 203, 211

Sveigakot, 108–111, 113, 117, 129–130

trade agreement with Norway, 112

volcanic eruptions, 6, 42–43, 45–47, 99, 205, 209, 214. See also Mount Hekla, Iceland

Icelandic feldspar, 26

Icelandic sagas. See also Egil’s Saga; Grettir’s Saga; Saga of Eirik the Red, The; Saga of the Greenlanders, The; Saga of the Volsungs, The; Laxdaela Saga; Njal’s Saga

description of, 7–10, 32–34, 35–37

preservation of, 263–264

Saga of Gudrid, 262

status of women in, 58–77

truth in, 32–33, 35–37, 108–117, 219–220

writing of, 32–34, 35–37, 115, 188, 223, 258–263

illegitimacy, attitudes toward, 65, 66, 252

inch, concept of, 14

indigo, 230

Ingimund the Old, 104–105, 110

Ingstad, Anne Stine, 93–94, 95–96, 171–178

Ingstad, Helge, 171–172, 174, 176–178, 180–181

Inuit, 137, 150, 160, 187, 194

Irish Annals, 84

Irish National Museum, 147

iron, 104, 108, 144, 167, 178–179, 216

irrigation, 145

Island-Candle. See Oddny Eykindill

Isleif, Bishop, 242

Isle of Lewis, Scotland, 79–81, 89, 163, 281

ivory

elephant, 161, 163

walrus, 161, 162–164, 168–169, 195, 239

J

jasper, 181–182

Jesch, Judith, 90

jewelry, 96–97, 101, 167, 177–180, 254–255

Jochens, Jenny, 59–60, 61–62, 74, 235–236

Jones, Gwyn, 81–82, 137

juniper, 16, 140

K

Karlsefni (Gudrid’s husband)

death of, 4, 76, 218, 256

family property in Reynines, Iceland, 4, 41, 46–47, 197–199, 202, 217, 219, 222, 262

and L’Anse aux Meadows, 174–175, 180–186

lineage of, 88, 263, 275

marriage to Gudrid the Far-Traveler, 3–5, 40, 76, 77, 117, 162, 163, 166–169, 181–198, 218, 219, 260, 265

Skraelings and, 186–190, 193–194

and Vinland, 1, 3, 10, 40, 76–77, 89, 164, 168–169, 182–183, 186–192, 193, 195, 196

voyage to Greenland, 162, 166–167

voyage from Greenland to Norway, 3–4, 195

voyage from Greenland to Vinland, 3, 168–169

voyage from Norway to Iceland, 4, 195–197

voyage from Vinland to Greenland, 3–4, 193–195

voyages in Vinland, 4, 182–186

Karlsson, Gunnar, 117, 252

Katla, 60–61, 66

Keldudalur, Iceland, 98–100, 159, 213, 255–256, 258

Keller, Christian, 107

Kellogg, Robert, 67

Kent, Rockwell, 28

Ketil Flat-Nose, 87–88

King’s Mirror, The, 164–165, 167

kings of Norway, 81–82, 110, 155–156, 195, 221, 238, 247, 249, 251, 260, 262, 271, 272, 275, 276

Kipling, Rudyard, 7

Kjartan, 72–73, 88, 155–156

knarr (Viking cargo ship), 18–22, 30–31, 119, 179

Knarrarbringu (“Ship-Breast”), 19, 119

Knut the Great (king of England and Denmark), 86, 238, 240, 276

Kolkuos, Iceland, 198

Kornsa, Iceland, 68, 100

Kristjansdottir, Steinunn, 212

Kundera, Milan, 7

L

Lamont, James, 162–163

Lancelot, The Knight of the Cart (Chretien de Troyes), 65, 66

Landnámabók (“Book of Land-Taking”). See Book of Settlements, The

Landnám (Settlement Layer) tephra, 46

L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, 4, 5, 171–184, 192, 217, 264

artifacts of, 4, 172, 176–184

Gudrid the Far-Traveler and, 4, 178–182, 191–192, 217

longhouses at, 176–182, 214–215

Last Judgment, 250, 254

Latin alphabet, 258–259

Laugarbrekka (“Hot-Springs Slope”), Iceland, 118–119, 272, 276

Laxdaela Saga, 71–75, 100, 126, 238, 257

legal system, of Iceland, 111–117

Leiðarstjarna (North Star), 24–25

Leif Eiriksson, 3, 4, 32, 37, 120, 264

birth of, 120

Christianity and, 155–156, 237

discovery of Vinland, 3, 4, 22, 25, 120, 128, 167–168, 181, 182, 184–185

and L’Anse aux Meadows, 181, 182

relationship with Thorgunna of the Hebrides, 64–67, 76, 155

rescue of Gudrid, 11–12, 22, 35, 39–40

Lewis, C. S., 7

Lewis chessmen, 79, 163

lice, 152

lichen purple dye, 96, 230

Lindisfarne, sack of, 82, 83–85

linen, 93–94, 167

Little Ice Age, 107

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 7

longfire, 8, 129–133

longhouses, 129–130, 271, 274–275

construction of, 1, 3, 30, 42, 43, 122–134, 176, 181, 209

at Eiriksstadir ("Eirik’s Homestead”), Iceland, 130–134

in Greenland, 28, 140, 143, 215

in Iceland, 98–100, 130–134, 159, 213, 214, 255–256, 258. See also Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), Iceland

in L’Anse aux Meadows, Vinland, 176–182, 214–215

midden of, 6, 177, 202–203

pit houses and, 111, 129–130, 176, 231–232

looms, 2, 92, 100, 127, 130, 133, 214, 225–235, 237

loom weights, 130, 232, 235

lost-wax process, 94–95

lozenge twill, 235

Luckert, Karl, 244–245

Luidprand of Cremona, 84

Lysufjord, Greenland, 22, 37–39, 137–142

M

magic, 28–29, 34, 222, 242–243, 247–248

Magnusson, Arni. See Arni Magnusson

Magnusson, Magnus, 169

manuscripts, 15, 24, 26, 33, 68, 83, 115, 184, 188, 248, 258–259, 262–264

marine-reservoir effect, 158

Markland (“Forest Land”), 168, 169, 176, 195

marriage, 65–68. See also sexuality; Gudrid the Far-Traveler

Marshalltown Company trowels, 5, 206–207, 212

Martensson, Linda, 223–229, 231, 234–235

mattresses, turf used in, 124

McAleese, Kevin, 185–186

McGhee, Robert, 163

McGovern, Tom, 107

merchants, 20, 30–31, 35, 37, 39, 41–42, 164–167, 194–195, 196–197

Merlin, 65, 66, 262

Micmac Indians, 185–186, 190, 191

middens (garbage pits), 6, 47, 140, 149–155, 159–160, 177, 191, 201–203

milk/dairying, 3, 42, 145–148, 158, 160, 189, 191–192, 214

mirages, 28–29

Miramichi River, Canada, 180, 184–185, 190–191, 264

mitochondrial DNA, 81

Moe, Anne Stine. See Ingstad, Anne Stine

Morris, William, 7, 71

Motzfeldt, Kristjana, 137–138

Mount Hekla, Iceland

eruption of 870, 46

eruption of 1000, 46

eruption of 1104, 46, 49, 99, 205, 209, 214

Mowat, Farley, 187

mythology. See Norse gods

N

nails, 15, 178–179

National Science Foundation, 44–45, 201

Native Americans. See Skraelings; Beothuck Indians; Micmac Indians

navigation, 23–28

astrolabe in, 25–26, 196, 239–240

challenges of, 26–27, 135–136

distance measures in, 172–173

New Brunswick, Canada, 169, 182, 183

Miramichi River, 180, 184–185, 190–191, 264

Newfoundland, Canada, 13, 169, 182, 183, 190, 194

Bird Cove, 180

L’Anse aux Meadows, 4, 5, 171–184, 191–192, 217, 264

Nikulas (monk), 241, 262

nippers, 15

Njal’s Saga, 66, 68–71, 74, 76

Norman Conquest (1066), 1, 14–15, 86

Norse gods, 6, 23, 97, 151, 157, 243–247, 249–251, 254, 262

Norsemen. See Vikings

North Pole, magnetic effects of, 47–48

Norway

Christianity in, 87, 155–156, 221, 249

Gokstad ship burial, 13–18, 91, 179, 284

kings of, 81–82, 110, 155–156, 195, 221, 238, 247, 249, 251, 260, 262, 271, 272, 273, 276

Oseberg ship burial, 89–97, 100, 132

as ruler of Iceland, 42

trade agreement with Iceland, 112

Viking raids in, 81–84

Viking Ship Museum, Bygdoy, 13–17, 24, 91–97

Nuuk, Greenland, 21–22, 27–28, 137–138, 141–142, 147–148, 159

Nyegaard, Georg, 147–149, 159, 160

O

oak, 14, 16, 20, 31, 90, 92, 106, 185

Ocean Called Dark, 26–27

Oddny Eykindill, 62–64, 66, 68, 72, 76

Olafsson, Gudmundur, 49, 122, 126–134, 143, 214

Olaf the Fat/Olaf the Saint (king of Norway), 195, 221, 238, 260, 276

Olaf the Peacock, 66, 72, 88, 119–120, 126, 274

Olaf the White (king of Dublin), 79, 80, 83, 88, 284

Olaf Tryggvason (king of Norway), 155–156, 195, 247, 251, 262

Olason, Vesteinn, 35

Old Norse, 7, 10, 74, 151, 250, 254. See also Icelandic sagas

Old Norse Homily Book, 254, 258

Ongul. See Thorbjorn Ongul

Orkney Islands, 80, 81

Orm (Gudrid’s foster-father), 31, 33, 119, 135

Oseberg (Viking ship replica), 13, 18

Oseberg ship burial, 89–97, 100, 132

Ostergard, Else, 230–231

Otherworld, 90, 92, 100, 151, 237, 247, 254.

overgrazing, 6, 105–107, 116, 120, 150, 199

P

pagan gods. See Norse gods

pagan graves, 13–18, 68, 89–97, 99–100, 164, 213

pagan sacrifices, 245

Pax Dei (the Peace of God), 238

peat, 79, 101, 123, 180, 207, 230

peat ash, 47, 207–211

Pencak, William, 113

permafrost, 127, 152

phosphate testing, 45

photography, 212–213

photosynthesis, 158

pickling process, 147, 152

pigs, 104–105, 108, 150, 151, 154, 157, 159–160, 170, 198

pilgrimage

concept of, 246

to Iceland, 7

to Rome, 3, 4, 41, 218, 221, 238–241, 276, 291

Pilgrim Way, 238, 240, 276

pit houses, 111, 129–130, 176, 231–233

plain twill, 233–234, 235

Pohl, Frederick J., 172

Polaris. See Leiðarstjarna (North Star)

pollen analysis, 90, 104, 192

polyethylene glycol, 18

popes, 25, 84, 236, 240–241, 252, 276

pork, 150–151, 157. See also pigs

pregnancy, 59–68

Prose Edda (Snorri Sturluson), 150, 243

Psalter, 256, 257

Q

quadrant, 25–26

Quebec, Canada, 4, 180, 184, 185

R

Radiocarbon, 155, 159

Ragnarok, 243, 244, 254, 262

Ramah chert, 186

ransacking, 43–44, 86, 129, 210–211

Raven-Floki, 109–110

Rehberger, Linda, 207–209

reliquary boxes, 163–164, 239

remote-sensing devices, 2, 5–6, 43–57, 200–203, 206, 208, 213–214

Reynines (Reynistadur or “Rowan Stead”), Iceland, 4, 41, 46–47, 197–199, 202, 217, 219, 222, 262

Richer, 239

rivets, in Viking ships, 5, 13, 15–16

Rome, pilgrimage to, 3, 4, 41, 218, 221, 238–241, 276, 291

Rosing, Jens, 27–28

Roskilde, Denmark, 18–23, 238

Roswitha of Gandersheim, 239

Roussell, Aage, 141, 215

rowan, 105. See also Reynines (Reynistadur or “Rowan Stead”), Iceland.

runes, 28–29, 140, 253, 255, 259

S

saddles, turf used for, 124

saga, See Icelandic sagas

Saga of Bard Snaefellsass, 136, 273

Saga of Bjorn the Hitardale Champion, 62–64, 66, 68, 72, 76

Saga of Eirik the Red, The, 8–10, 11, 30–34, 37, 41, 55, 71, 76, 103, 116, 134, 155, 164, 166–167, 174, 182, 186–187, 188, 198, 257, 262–264, 272, 274

Saga of Gudrid, 262

Saga of Gunnlaug Serpent Tongue, The, 273

Saga of the Greenlanders, The, 1, 8–10, 11–12, 22, 25, 33–34, 37, 41, 162, 168, 173, 184, 187, 193, 199, 237, 261–262, 265

Saga of the Volsungs, The, 28–29

Saga Siglar (Viking ship replica), 13, 18–21, 22–23

salmon, 3, 104, 108, 140, 141, 151, 154, 168, 174, 185, 197

Sandnes, Greenland, 137–142, 162, 166–167, 194, 215, 217, 260, 264–265

church at, 140, 141

Schlederman, Peter, 194

Scotland

Hebrides and, 64–67, 76, 79–81, 89, 163

Unn the Deep-Minded emigrates to Iceland, 71–72, 80, 88–89, 91, 100, 102, 110, 118, 246–247, 257–258

Scott, Walter, 33–34, 264

sea ice. See ice, icebergs and drift ice

seals, 6, 30, 58, 108, 135, 138, 139, 141, 149–151, 155, 158–160, 194, 259

Seville, Isidore de, 262–263

Seville, sack of, 82, 84

sexuality, 59–75. See also marriage

Grettir’s rape scene, 59

Guenevere-Lancelot relationship, 65, 66

Gunnlaug-Geirrid-Katla relationship, 60–61, 66

Hallgerd Long-Legs and, 68–74, 75

illegitimacy, attitudes toward, 65, 66, 252

love scenes in the sagas, 59–65

Oddny Eykindill-Bjorn relationship, 62–64, 66, 68, 72, 76

pregnancy and, 59–65

roles of women and, 59–65, 67–68, 71–77

Thorgunna of the Hebrides-Leif Eiriksson relationship, 64–67, 76, 155

Thurid-Bjorn relationship, 61–62, 66, 75

virginity, attitudes toward, 66–67

shaggy weave (fake fur), 96, 235–236

sheep, 6, 8, 31, 54, 58, 76, 79, 98, 104–108, 113, 116, 118, 120, 123, 127, 130, 132, 139, 142–147, 151, 152, 158, 159–160, 172, 173, 191, 198, 209, 218–219, 223–236

ship burials, 13–18, 91, 89–97, 100, 132, 179

ships. See Viking ships

shoe lasts, 149

Sigurdardottir, Sigridur (Sirri), 49, 51–54, 58, 122–126, 129, 161, 201–205, 210, 213, 215, 218–220

Sigurdsson, Gisli, 36–37, 169–170, 196, 259

Sigurdsson, Jon Vidar, 114, 115–116

silk, 31, 93–94

silver standard, 236

Skagafjord (“Bay of the Headlands”), Iceland, 5, 40–41, 164, 193, 198–215

Drangey, 57–58, 175, 197, 215–216, 220–221, 222, 241–243

Glaumbaer. See Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), Iceland

Keldudalur, 98–100, 159, 213, 255–256, 258

Kolkuos, 198, 275

Reynines (Reynistadur or “Rowan Stead”), Iceland, 4, 41, 46–47, 197–199, 202, 217, 219, 222, 262

Skagafjord Folk Museum, 48–49, 98–100, 51–54, 122–123, 200–215

Stora Seyla (“Big Marsh”), 50, 203, 211

skáli, 59, 129, 176, 213, 270. See also longhouses

Skallagrim (“Bald Grim”), 107–110, 114–115

skörungur (“very stirring” woman), 71, 73–75, 76–77

Skraelings (native people), 40, 185–192, 194, 260, 261

Skuldelev ships, 18–22

skyr, 146, 147, 148, 155, 214, 224

slaves, 31, 42, 70, 72, 91, 100, 111, 113, 116, 117, 120, 122, 129, 194, 228

Smiley, Jane, 7, 33

Snaefellsjokull (“Snow Mountain’s Glacier”), 30–32, 118

Snorri (Gudrid’s son), 3–4, 193, 197

birth of, 3, 40, 76, 188, 189–190, 193, 260, 263

at Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), 41, 48, 76, 193, 218–220, 221, 241, 255, 256

marriage of, 41, 238, 276

“Snorri’s spade,” 210, 211

Snorri of Helgafell, 61, 73–75, 88, 114, 116, 119, 165, 174–175, 273–274

Snorri Sturluson, 151, 243

Snorri Thorbrandsson of Swanford, 165–166, 175, 186

Snorri (Viking ship replica), 13, 21–22, 180

soil dating, 6, 42–43, 45–47, 50–51, 201

“solar stone,” 26

spindle whorls, 4, 172, 178, 179, 182, 226–227

spinning, 226–229

St. Brice’s Day massacre, 85

Steblin-Kamenskij, M. I., 35, 252

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, 27

Steinberg, John, 5, 43–59, 128, 199–216, 255, 274–275

Steward’s Stone, 246

Stong (house in southern Iceland), 214

Stora Seyla (“Big Marsh”), 50, 203, 211

Straits of Belle Isle, Canada, 180, 182

Straumfjord, 182, 188

strike-a-lights, 181–182

Sveigakot, Iceland, 108–111, 113, 117, 129–130

Svein Forkbeard (king of Denmark), 85–86, 238

Sveinsson, Einar Ó., 184

Swan Fjord, Iceland, 165, 174–175

Sweden

Birka, 97, 254–255

Uppsala, 255

Sylvester II, Pope, (Gerbert of Aurillac), 25, 240

T

Tain Bo Cuailnge (Irish epic), 188

tapestry, 95, 96

teeth, 156–157

tephra and tephrochronology, 6, 45–47, 49–51, 99, 200, 205–207, 209, 214. See also Mount Hekla, Iceland

Terror from the North, 84

textiles. See cloth; weaving; wool

Thingvellir (“Meeting Plains”), Iceland, 112, 204

Thjodhild’s Church, Brattahlid, Greenland, 155–157, 255

Thorbjorg Knarrarbringu (“Ship-Breast”), 19, 119, 273

Thorbjorn (Gudrid’s son), 218, 221–223

Thorbjorn Glaum, 217, 221–223

Thorbjorn Ongul, 241–243, 247, 253

Thorbjorn Vilfilsson (Gudrid’s father) Eirik the Red and, 119–122

as father of Gudrid the Far-Traveler, 34, 116–119, 217, 272, 273, 274

Thordarson, Matthias, 129

Thorfinn Karlsefni. See Karlsefni (Gudrid’s husband)

Thorgeir Vifilsson (Gudrid’s uncle), 118–119, 272

Thorgest the Old (enemy of Eirik the Red), 120–121, 142–143, 165

Thorgunna of the Hebrides, 64–67, 76, 155

Thorlak, Bishop (Gudrid’s great-grandson), 260, 261

Thorlaksson, Helgi, 112–113, 115, 199, 252, 257

Thorstein Eiriksson (Gudrid’s husband)

death of, 37–39, 77, 137–138, 156, 215, 260

marriage to Gudrid, 22, 35, 37–39, 259–260

Sandnes, Greenland, 137–142, 162, 166–167, 215, 217, 260, 264–265

as son of Eirik the Red, 22, 35, 37, 39, 77

Thorstein the Red, 88, 118

thread gauge, 226–227

Thurid, 61–62, 66, 75, 243

Tolkien, J. R. R., 7

topsoil, 106–107

Traustadottir, Ragnheidur, 49, 198

tree-ring studies, 6, 19, 90, 157

Trondheim, Norway, 110, 238

trowels, 206–210, 212–213

trunnels, in Viking ships, 16

truth, in Icelandic sagas, 32–33, 35–37

turf houses, 122–134. See also house building; Glaumbaer (“Farm of Merry Noise”), Iceland

discovery and excavation of, 1–5, 43–57, 126–130, 140–141, 171–172, 176–178, 199–215, 219–220

maintaining, 122–123

timber framing, 30, 126–135, 181

types of turf, 124–126, 129, 181, 205, 211–212

twill cloth, 233–234, 235

U

Uig, Lewis, 79, 281

underwater archaeology, 18

Unipeds, 193–194, 262–263

Unn the Deep-Minded, 87–89, 263

and Christianity, 246–247, 257–258

Dales in Iceland and, 103–104, 118

emigration from Scotland to Iceland, 71–72, 80, 88–89, 91, 100, 102, 110, 118, 246–247, 257–258

as female chieftain, 88, 108, 111

grave of, 100

Hvamm, 103, 118, 120, 274

Olaf the White and, 80, 83, 88

relationship to Gudrid the Far-Traveler, 80, 88, 117–118

Uppsala, Sweden, 245, 252

V

Valhalla, 151, 254

Vebaek, C. L., 154

venison, 150, 158

Vesteinsson, Orri, 44, 100–101, 107–111, 210, 255

Vifil (Gudrid’s grandfather), 80, 103, 117–118, 198

Vifilsson, Thorbjorn. See Thorbjorn Vilfilsson (Gudrid’s father)

Vifilsson, Thorgeir. See Thorgeir Vifilsson (Gudrid’s uncle)

Viking Age, 1, 5, 7–10, 46

Vikings. See also Icelandic sagas

attacks on, 84–86

in the British Isles, 8, 78–89

character among, 8, 71–75

Christianity and. See Christianity

farming methods of. See farming

nature of, 8, 83, 270

in the New World. See L’Anse aux Meadows; Vinland

Norse gods, 6, 23, 97, 151, 157, 243–247, 249–251, 254, 262

Old Norse language, 7, 10, 74, 151, 250, 254

origins of term, 79

raids of, 8, 80–87

setdement of Iceland, 6, 21, 33, 46, 80, 88–89, 100–111. See also Book of Settlements, The

Viking Ship Museum (Bygdoy, Norway), 13–17, 24, 91–92

Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde, Denmark), 18–23

Viking ships. See also navigation

blown off course, 22–25

building, 14–17, 82, 88, 123, 258

experimental archaeology and, 12–23

Gokstad ship burial, 13–18, 91, 179, 284

knarr (cargo ship), 18–22, 30–31, 179

Oseberg ship burial, 89–97, 100, 132

repairing, 179–180, 181

replicas of, 6, 12–23, 180

ruins of, 13–18, 18, 89–97

sailing a ship down, 13–14, 16–17, 22

ship burials, 13–18, 91, 89–97, 100, 132, 179

sinking of, 16–17, 23

Skuldelev ships, 18–22

travel speed of, 172–173

Viking tools, 14–15, 104, 144, 167, 178–180, 216

Vinland

discovery of, 3, 4, 21, 25, 37, 120, 128, 167–168, 184–185

first historical references to, 196–197, 261

Gudrid the Far-Traveler in, 1, 3, 10, 37–38, 40, 76–77, 80, 164, 168–169, 177–192, 193, 195

location of, 4, 169–186

riches of, 167–168, 173–175, 184–185

as “Wine Land,” 168, 169, 172–174, 184–185

Vinland Sagas, 8–10, 261–265. See also Saga of Eirik the Red, The; Saga of the Greenlanders, The

Vinner, Max, 22–23

virginity, attitudes toward, 66–67

Virgin Mary, 254–255

volcanic ash studies, 6, 42–43, 45–47, 49–51, 99, 200, 205–207, 209, 214. See also Mount Hekla, Iceland

W

Wallace, Birgitta, 175–184, 191–192, 264, 274–275

walnuts, black, 96, 183–184

walnuts, white (butternuts), 4, 183–184, 191, 211, 264

walrus ivory, 161, 162–164, 168–169, 195, 239

Walton, Penelope, 96, 230

Wawn, Andrew, 170

weaving, 42, 67, 92, 93, 116, 149, 223–236, 238. See also cloth; wool

weaving rooms, 2, 130, 149, 172, 213, 214, 231–232, 235

Well of Knowing, 244

Well of Weird, 250

whales, 16, 24, 40, 108, 149, 158, 174, 194, 198, 234, 235, 247

whey, 8, 42, 146, 147, 148, 152, 224

William of Malmesbury, 85–86

William the Bastard (William the Conqueror), 86

wind erosion, 106–107

wine, 3, 4, 11, 40, 109, 151, 167, 168, 173–174, 183–185, 197, 211, 247, 252

Wine Land. See Vinland

witches, 60–61, 66, 75, 99, 120, 222, 242, 243, 247, 248, 253, 257

women, status of, 58–77

wool, 3, 6, 23, 31, 42, 64, 93–94, 96, 113, 116, 137, 172, 190, 214, 218–219, 223–236

Y

Y chromosome, 81

Ymir, 151

Yngvild (Gudrid’s cousin), 75, 119, 272, 276

Z

Zoega, Gudny, 49, 52–53, 98–100, 125, 159, 201–202, 256