Glossary

Alt-proteins (alternative proteins) A general term that covers plant-based and food-technology alternatives to regular animal protein, for example proteins derived from grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, algae, insects, micro-organisms or indeed clean meat. Since these proteins do not involve large-scale livestock or fish production, the expectation is that their production will have a much smaller environmental footprint. In addition, they will have fewer animal welfare issues.

Aquaculture (fish farming)–The breeding, rearing and harvesting of fish, shellfish, algae and other organisms in water environments. There are two main categories, marine and freshwater.

Anthropocene–A proposed geological age or, more technically, epoch, viewed as the period during which human activity has been the dominant influence on climate and the environment. There is ongoing debate as to when the Anthropocene would begin, but many suggest the 1950s since it would coincide with the presence in future rocks of an abundance of plastics and radioactive isotopes from nuclear weapons testing.

Blockchain–A digital ledger that can record transactions between parties in a reliable way, stored on several computers across a peer-to-peer network, both making it efficient and reducing the potential for error and corruption. It was initially developed to enable cryptocurrencies, like bitcoin, to operate efficiently. But the same technology can be used to trace supply chains, and hence can verify whether a product such as timber or tuna meat has come from a sustainable source.

Biodiversity (biological diversity)–A term that attempts to sum up the variety of life in the world. It is a function of the number of species, all the different kinds of animals, plants, fungi, and even micro-organisms like bacteria, and the number, or abundance, that exists of each of those species. In more abstract terms, the planet’s biodiversity encapsulates not only millions of species and billions of individuals, but the trillions of different characteristics that those individuals have. The greater the biodiversity, the more the biosphere is able to deal with change, maintain balance and support life.

Biochar–A charcoal-like material that can be made from waste organic matter by baking it in a low- or zero-oxygen environment. It is under investigation as a viable approach to carbon capture and storage. It can be used as a building material or a bioenergy fuel, or to enrich soils and help them to retain water.

Bioenergy (biomass energy)–Renewable energy made available from materials derived from the living world. Fuels which are burned or digested for bioenergy include wood and fast-growing crops such as corn, soy, miscanthus and sugarcane. Biomass can be burned to generate electricity or converted into biofuel for transport fuels.

Conservancy–Simply an area that aims to protect the natural habitat but, in the context of this book, it refers to a protected area managed by the local community in a sustainable and economically viable manner.

Carbon budget (global)–The cumulative amount of carbon dioxide emissions estimated to limit global surface temperature to a certain level. Delay in cutting global emissions will use up the carbon budget faster and increases the risks of more global warming.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)–The process of capturing carbon dioxide, usually from a large point-source such as a factory or power station, transporting it to an underground storage site, and depositing it for permanent storage so that it doesn’t enter the atmosphere. CCS on a modern industrial site can reduce carbon dioxide emissions by up to 90 per cent, but increases operational energy use and costs. If combined with bioenergy generation (known as BECCS), or with direct air capture (DACCS) which scrubs carbon dioxide from ambient air, the CCS can theoretically remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, creating so-called ‘negative emissions’. These technologies, however, are in the research and development stage. Nature-based solutions offer a natural form of CCS (technically, carbon dioxide removal) that in addition increase biodiversity.

Carbon offset–A reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases aimed to compensate for, or balance, ongoing emissions elsewhere that cannot be avoided. Offsetting is done via the purchase of carbon credits or units which are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂e). Governments and large companies might choose to offset to comply with their obligations if it is cheaper than reducing domestically. Companies and individuals can purchase carbon offsets in a voluntary market to compensate for the emissions of their activities, for example, air travel–here the money spent on offsets typically funds development of renewables, bioenergy or reforestation. Offsetting should only be done as part of a broader emissions reduction strategy and in the long term is not a complete solution.

Carbon tax–A tax levied on the burning of carbon-based fuels (coal, oil, gas) to have polluters pay for the climate damage caused by the greenhouse gas emissions of their activities. It is proven to be an effective driver of emissions reductions in many sectors.

Carrying capacity–The maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained in a specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available.

Clean meat (cultured meat)–Meat for consumption produced as a cell culture of animal cells rather than from the slaughter of animals. It is a form of cellular agriculture. Research suggests that clean meat production has the potential to be much more efficient and environmentally friendly than traditional meat production, as it requires a fraction of the land, energy needs and water, and emits far fewer greenhouse gases per kilogram produced. It also has fewer animal welfare issues.

Circular economy (cyclical economy)–An economic system that aims to eliminate waste and the continual use of resources. Circular economies employ sharing, reuse, repair, refurbishment, remanufacturing and recycling to create a close-loop system. All waste becomes food for the next process, hence it is in contrast to the traditional linear economy, which has a take-make-use-discard model of production.

Culture–To a biologist, culture refers to a collection of behaviours, habits and skills that can be passed from one animal to another by non-genetic means, mainly imitation. In this sense, a culture is a parallel form of inheritance to biological (genetic) inheritance, and it undergoes its own form of evolution over time. Only a few species have been found to show evidence of culture, for example, chimpanzees, macaques and bottlenose dolphins. For humankind, cultural evolution is now the dominant form of evolution.

Demographic transition–A phenomenon occurring in nations in which there is a shift over time from high birth rates and high infant death rates in societies with minimal technology, education and economic development, to low birth rates and low death rates in societies with advanced technology, education and economic development.

Domestication–The process by which human beings assume a significant degree of influence over the reproduction and care of another species. Examples of plant domestications include wheat, potatoes and bananas. Examples of animal domestications include cattle, sheep and pigs. Domestication is the basis of all farming.

Doughnut Model–A reinterpretation of the planetary boundaries model, developed by Oxford economist Kate Raworth, that incorporates the basic needs of people as a social foundation, in addition to the existing ecological ceiling, and therefore defines a safe and just space for humanity. The idea is that we must keep below the ceiling, but not at the expense of the well-being of people. As such it acts as a framework for sustainable development.

Earth system–The integrated geological, chemical, physical and biological system of planet Earth. For the entire period of the Holocene, this system has maintained a benign environment for life, relying upon the complementary interaction of the atmosphere (air), hydrosphere (water), cryosphere (ice and permafrost), lithosphere (rock) and biosphere (life). The Earth system should continue to operate effectively and provide a benign environment as long as we keep within the planetary boundaries.

Ecological footprint–A measure of human impact on the environment. It essentially measures the quantity of nature it takes to support people or an economy and cope with our pollutants (especially greenhouse gases), and is expressed as a unit of area, the global hectare (gha). Currently we are demanding more global hectares than exist on Earth, hence the Great Decline.

Ecology–A branch of biology that studies the interactions and relationships between organisms and between organisms and their environment.

Forest dieback–The phenomenon of a stand of trees losing health and dying. Two of the major tipping points predicted to occur this century as a result of continuing deforestation and climate change are forest diebacks, one in the Amazon, the second in the boreal evergreen forest in Canada and Russia.

Forest transition–A pattern of land use change in an area over time as it is developed by a human society. To begin with, when the society is less developed, the forest is dominant. As the society develops and grows, expanding its food production, there is deforestation. As agriculture becomes more efficient and the population moves to urban areas, there can be reforestation. Several nations have been found to undergo a forest transition, and there are suggestions that we may also talk of a global forest transition involving the whole Earth.

Geoengineering (climate engineering)–The study and practice of forms of deliberate large-scale intervention in the Earth system in order to moderate and mitigate climate change. Some methods hope to boost the Earth’s capacity to remove greenhouse gases from the environment, e.g., the fertilisation of the ocean with iron to raise phytoplankton productivity and increase carbon dioxide uptake in the surface waters. Other methods include solar radiation management, where, for example, aerosols are added to the stratosphere in the hope of reflecting more sunlight back out to space and thereby reducing global warming. Geoengineering is often criticised as untested and potentially very damaging to the environment and ourselves.

Great Acceleration–The dramatic, simultaneous surge in growth rate across a large range of measures of human activity, first recorded in the mid twentieth century and continuing to this day. The demand for resources and production of pollutants during the period of the Great Acceleration is the direct cause of much of the environmental degradation we see today.

Great Decline–The dramatic, simultaneous decline in a large range of environmental measures across the world, including biodiversity and climate stability, from the latter half of the twentieth century and continuing to this day. The decline is expected to escalate during this century, upon reaching a series of tipping points, and result in the radical destabilisation of the Earth system.

Green growth–A path of economic growth that uses resources in a sustainable manner. It is used to provide an alternative concept to traditional economic growth, which typically does not account for environmental damage.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs)–Gases that alter solar radiation and lead to the greenhouse effect which creates a ‘blanket’ that keeps the Earth at a higher ambient temperature. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. Human activity has led to increased atmospheric concentration of some GHGs such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, which traps more heat and leads to climate change.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)–A measure of productivity that summarises all the values of goods and services produced by a nation or sector over a given period. While it can be used as a measure of the productivity of a nation, GDP is widely criticised for not representing equality, well-being or environmental impact. Simon Kuznets, who developed GDP, warned that it should not be used as a measure of the welfare of a nation.

Holocene–A geological epoch, beginning about 11,700 years ago after the last glacial period. It has been a strikingly stable period of history, and corresponds with a rapid growth in humankind brought about by the invention of agriculture.

Hunter-gatherer–A culture in which a human society collects its food from the wild. It was the culture of all humans for 90 per cent of our history, until farming was invented at the start of the Holocene.

Hydroponics–A method of growing plants without soil by using a nutrient solution dissolved in water. It has various advantages, chiefly, hydroponics requires much less water to grow plants.

Lag phase–An initial phase on a growth curve in which there is little net growth due to some restricting factor or factors.

Log phase–A phase on a growth curve characterised by logarithmic or exponential growth.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)–Protected areas of seas or ocean that restrict human activity to some degree, such as limiting fishing practices, seasons or catches. No-fish or no-take zones ban fishing of all kinds entirely. Currently there are over 17,000 MPAs worldwide, representing just over 7 per cent of the ocean.

Mass extinction–A widespread and rapid decline in the biodiversity of Earth. According to most authorities, a mass extinction event has occurred at least five times in life’s history including that which brought an end to the dinosaurs.

Micro-grid–A micro-grid is a localised group of electricity sources that can operate in association with or remote from a regional grid. Because they work together to supply electricity, they cope better with surges in demand than solo generators. They are becoming more common now that distributed generation of electricity using renewables is becoming more affordable.

Nature-based solution–The use of nature to jointly tackle social and environmental issues, especially climate change, water security, food security, pollution and disaster risk. Examples include planting mangroves to prevent coastal erosion, MPAs to increasing fishing catch, greening cities to reduce air temperature, building wetlands to prevent flooding, and reforestation to act as a natural carbon capture and storage facility. Nature-based solutions are often relatively cost-effective and have the significant benefit of increasing biodiversity.

Ocean acidification–The ongoing decrease in the pH of the ocean caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Seawater is slightly alkaline, so ocean acidification initially refers to a move to neutral conditions. As it continues, the acidification damages much of the life in the ocean. When it has occurred previously in Earth’s history it has been accompanied by a mass extinction event and a long-lasting decline in the efficiency of the Earth system.

Ocean forestry–A proposal for a nature-based solution to climate change in which seaweed forests are grown and farmed. As they grow they act as a carbon capture and storage system, and the seaweed produced can be used for bioenergy, food or permanently disposed of to remove the carbon from the atmosphere.

Overfishing–The removal of a species of fish from a body of water at a rate that the species cannot replenish, resulting in those species becoming underpopulated in that area. In 2020, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reported that one-third of world fish stocks are overfished.

Peak catch–The point in time at which the weight of fish landed stops increasing. We reached peak catch in the mid 1990s. After that point there has been a slight decline in global catch.

Peak child–The point at which the number of children (commonly regarded as those under 15) globally stops increasing. The UN currently predicts that peak child will happen towards the middle of the century.

Peak farm–The point at which the area devoted to farmland stops increasing. The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization predicts that this will happen by about 2040.

Peak human–The point at which the human population stops increasing. The UN’s Population Division currently predicts that peak human will happen in the early twenty-second century at about 11 billion people. However, by lifting people out of poverty and empowering women, it is forecast we could reach peak human as soon as 2060 at just 8.9 billion people.

Peak oil–The point in time at which global production of oil is at its maximum, after which oil extraction will decline.

Permafrost–Ground, often below the surface, that remains continually frozen. Permafrost on land is most extensive in the tundra and Arctic regions of Russia, Canada, Alaska and Greenland. As the globe warms, the permafrost is predicted to thaw, releasing methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere, thus entering a positive feedback loop in which more permafrost then thaws, leading to a tipping point and runaway global warming.

Perpetual growth–The assumption that underpins our current economic model, that Gross Domestic Product will continue to increase, year on year, forever. In reality, many developed economies have very low increases in GDP each year, between 0 and 2 per cent, but that is, of course, still growth.

Phytoplankton–The photosynthesising organisms in the microscopic but widespread plankton community living in the surface waters of the ocean. Phytoplankton are the basis of many marine food chains.

Planetary boundaries–A concept developed by Earth system scientists Johan Rockström and Will Steffen in order to define a safe operating space for humanity. The team used data from multiple sources to define nine factors that influence the stability of the Earth system. They calculated the degree to which current human activity is impacting upon those factors and established thresholds, that, if crossed, may lead to potentially catastrophic change. The nine factors are: biodiversity loss, climate change, chemical pollution, ozone depletion, atmospheric aerosols, ocean acidification, nitrogen and phosphorus use, freshwater consumption and land-use change (from wild space to fields or plantations). Of these nine, the team have identified two–climate change and biodiversity loss–as the ‘core boundaries’ in that they are both affected by all the other boundaries and could alone, if crossed, bring about the destabilisation of the planet. They advise that currently, humankind has crossed four boundaries: climate change, biodiversity loss, land-use change and the use of nitrogen and phosphorus. They therefore report that the Earth system is already in an unstable state.

Plant-based diet–A diet that consists mostly or entirely of foods from plants, with few or no animal products. A plant-based diet is more sustainable than contemporary diets containing many animal products since it, on average, takes up less land, energy and water to produce, and leads to the emission of fewer greenhouse gases.

REDD+–A UN initiative that stands for ‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries’. REDD+ attempts to create financial value for carbon stored in standing forests, creating more incentives for retaining the forest with the ambition of reducing deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries.

Regenerative farming–A conservation and rehabilitation approach to agriculture, focusing on increasing the natural health of soils. It is a reaction against industrial farming which typically decreases soil health over time and requires supplements of fertilisers and pesticides. Regenerative farming techniques lead to soils with increased organic content, carbon capture and storage capability and soil biodiversity.

Reforestation–The natural or intentional return of native forests and woodlands. Reforestation can be used as a blanket term, or specifically to areas that have been recently deforested. In this case, afforestation applies to areas that have not been forested for some time, e.g. traditional farmland, or within cities. Reforestation is a potential nature-based solution to climate change for it can lead to significant carbon capture and storage.

Renewables (renewable energy)–Energy from sources that naturally replenish themselves on a human timescale such as solar, wind, bioenergy, tidal, wave power, hydroelectric power and geothermal heat. Renewables are typically lower- or zero-carbon replacements for fossil fuels.

Rewild–The process of restoring and expanding biodiverse spaces, communities and systems. Rewilding is often large-scale, seeking to reinstate natural processes and, where appropriate, missing species. In some cases proxy species may be used to perform a similar role to missing species within the recovering community. In this book, the term rewild is used in its broadest sense, meaning the ambition to restore nature across the Earth, reversing biodiversity loss by ensuring that humankind as a whole becomes more sustainable. Thus climate change mitigation is regarded as a necessary component of rewilding the world.

Shifting baseline syndrome–The tendency for the concept of what is ‘normal’ or ‘natural’ to change over time due to the experiences of subsequent generations. In this book, it is a term used to describe our own capacity to forget, over the generations, how biodiverse a natural environment should be.

Silvopasture–One of a number of regenerative agriculture techniques, silvopasture is the practice of raising domesticated animals alongside trees or within woodlands and forests. It can significantly increase the health and yield of the animals, since they are sheltered by the trees and are able to browse as well as graze.

Spill-over effect–The phenomenon of improvements in the biodiversity of one area benefitting the biodiversity of neighbouring areas. Specifically, a spill-over effect is experienced in the waters surrounding MPAs, in which fish stocks recovering in the MPA spill over into the neighbouring areas, increasing fishing catch.

Sustainable (sustainability)–Literally, the ability for something to continue forever. In the context of this book, it refers to the capacity for humankind and the biosphere to coexist permanently. To be sustainable, humankind must establish a life on our planet that exists within the planetary boundaries.

Sustainability revolution–A predicted, coming industrial revolution in which the driver is a wave of innovation focused upon sustainability. It will feature renewables, low-impact transport, a zero-waste circular economy, carbon capture and storage, nature-based solutions, alt-proteins, clean meat, regenerative agriculture, vertical farming, etc. It promises an opportunity for green growth and an aspirational future.

Tipping point–A threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to an abrupt, large, often self-amplifying and potentially, irreversible change in the Earth system.

Trophic cascade–An effect in an ecosystem in which change in one level in a food chain, known as a ‘trophic level’, triggers multiple knock-on effects within others. In history, as we removed top predators, there will have been trophic cascades that radically altered ecosystems and hence whole landscapes and seascapes. For example, in removing wolves, deer populations are able to increase, preventing natural reforestation. By returning top predators as we rewild, we can bring about trophic cascades that reinstate natural biodiversity, as demonstrated by the reintroduction of the wolf in Yellowstone National Park.

Urban farming–The production of food and other agricultural products in and around urban areas. Urban farming is often highly sustainable in that it uses land already occupied by humankind, reduces transportation and employs methods such as hydroponics and renewables to produce food.

Vertical farming–The practice of producing food in vertically stacked layers often in a controlled environment and using hydroponics or aquaponics. It is often a highly sustainable approach to farming certain types of plants in that it produces more food from less land and can operate without fertilisers or pesticides.

Wildland farm–A rewilding approach to farming in which a community of different livestock animals which mimics the natural community of the location is permitted to wander freely about a farm without supplements. The animals are kept in numbers that suit the carrying capacity of the landscape, and bring about a trophic cascade in which the biodiversity of the land increases.