Notes

Introduction

1. Laslo Benedek, The Wild One (Columbia Pictures, 1953); Jack Kerouac, On the Road (1957; New York: Penguin, 2002), 179; Norman Mailer, “The White Negro,” (1957), in Advertisement for Myself (New York: Berkeley Publishing, 1966), 311–31, quote, 314; Tom Hayden, Reunion: A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1988), 40.

2. The John Cohen quote is in Tom Davenport and Barry Dornfeld, Remembering the High Lonesome (2003). The film and a transcript of the film are at http://www.folkstreams.net. Robert Shelton, The Face of Folk Music (New York: Citadel Press, 1968), 41. Larry Cohn’s 1965 quote about Son House is in Lawrence Cohn, Nothing but the Blues: The Music and the Musicians (New York: Abbeville Press, 1993), 350. The Janis Joplin quote is in David Dalton, Piece of My Heart: A Portrait of Janis Joplin (New York: Da Capo, 1991), 38.

3. There is a large philosophical and theoretical literature on the meaning of authenticity, including Lionel Trilling, Sincerity and Authenticity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972); Charles Taylor, The Ethics of Authenticity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); and Anthony Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005). American historians, for the most part, have failed to historicize the term and think critically about its rapidly changing meanings in the postwar period. For an otherwise excellent history focused on the development of the New Left at the University of Texas at Austin, see Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998). For an intriguing and helpful sociological investigation, see David Grazian, Blue Chicago: The Search for Authenticity in Urban Blues Clubs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). Even business writers have taken up the topic: James Gilmore and Joseph Pine, Authenticity: What Consumers Really Want (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press, 2007). For a critique of the idea of community, see Miranda Joseph, Against the Romance of Community (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002).

4. Isaiah Berlin, The Roots of Romanticism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999); Eric Lott, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); W. T. Lhamon Jr., Raising Cain: Blackface Performance from Jim Crow to Hip Hop (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).

5. Jack D. Flam and Miriam Deutch, eds., Primitivism and Twentieth-Century Art: A Documentary History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Jerrold Seigel, Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830–1930 (New York: Viking, 1986); Erika Bsumek, Indian-Made: Navajo Culture in the Marketplace, 1868–1940 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008); David E. Whisnant, All That Is Native and Fine: The Politics of Culture in an American Region (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983); Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of Culture in the Twentieth Century (New York: Verso, 1988).

6. Wini Breines, Community and Organization in the New Left, 1962–1968: The Great Refusal (New York: Praeger, 1982); Breines, Young, White, and Miserable: Growing Up Female in the Fift ies (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Hayden, Reunion; Constance Curry et al., Deep in Our Hearts: Nine White Women in the Civil Rights Movement (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000); Bill Ayers, Fugitive Days: A Memoir (Boston: Beacon, 2001).

7. Leerom Medovoi, Rebels: Youth and the Cold War Origins of Identity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005); Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997); Sean McCann and Michael Szalay, “Paul Potter and the Cultural Turn,” 209–20, and “Do You Believe in Magic? Literary Thinking after the New Left, ” 435–68, which appeared in Yale Journal of Criticism 18:2 (Fall 2005), a special issue on “Countercultural Capital,” edited by McCann and Szalay.

Chapter 1: Lost Children of Plenty

1. “Never Before, So Much for So Few: The Luckiest Generation,” Life, January 4, 1954, 27. On the history of the idea of adolescence, see David Bakan, “Adolescence in America: From Idea to Social Fact,” Daedalus 100:4 (Fall 1971): 979–95; Jon Savage, Teenage: The Creation of Youth Culture (New York: Viking, 2007); and G. Stanley Hall, Adolescence (New York: Appleton, 1904). Throughout this chapter, I have drawn on James Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage: America’s Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

J. D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye (New York: Bantam, 1951), 52. See also Franny and Zooey (Boston: Little, Brown, 1961), Raise High the Roofb eam, Carpenters, and Seymour, an Introduction (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), and Nine Stories (New York: New American Library, 1954). I drew on the following collections of material on Salinger and his work in writing this chapter: Henry Anatole Grunwald, Salinger: A Critical and Personal Portrait (New York: Giant Cardinal, 1963); William Belcher and James W. Lee, J. D. Salinger and the Critics (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing, 1962); Marvin Laser and Norman Fruman, eds., Studies in J. D. Salinger (New York: Odyssey Press, 1963); Malcolm M. Marsden, if you really want to know: A Catcher Casebook (Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1963); Harold Bloom, ed., J. D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2000); Bloom, ed., Modern Critical Views on J. D. Salinger (New York: Chelsea House, 1987); Bloom, ed., Holden Caulfield (New York: Chelsea House, 1990); Jack Salzman, New Essays on The Catcher in the Rye (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Peter Lang, ed., The Catcher in the Rye: New Essays (New York: Peter Lang, 2002); Eberhard Alsen, A Reader’s Guide to J. D. Salinger (Westport, Conn.: Green-wood Press, 2002); Joel Salzberg, Critical Essays on Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1990); Ian Hamilton, In Search of J. D. Salinger (New York: Random House, 1988); Joyce Maynard, At Home in the World (New York: Picador, 1998); and Stephen Whitfield, “Cherished and Cursed: Toward a Social History of The Catcher in the Rye, ” New England Quarterly 70:4 (December 1997): 567–600.

2. Salinger, Catcher, 1.

3. Salinger, Catcher, 213, 214.

4. Catcher has been frequently compared to Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). For the first comparison, see Harvey Breit, “Reader’s Choice,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1951, 82. See also Alfred Kazin, “J. D. Salinger:’Everybody’s Favorite,’” Atlantic Monthly, August 1961, 27–31.

5. On paperback sales figures, see Robert Gutwillig, “Everybody’s Caught’The Catcher in the Rye,’” New York Times Book Review, January 15, 1961, 38. The novel has now sold more than 65 million copies worldwide.

6. Gilbert, Cycle of Outrage.

7. Grace Hechinger and Fred Hechinger, “In the Time It Takes You to Read These Lines the American Teenager Will Have Spent $2,378.22,” Esquire, July 1965, 65, 68, 113. On teenagers, especially girls, and their emergence as a separate marketing niche, see Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York: Times Books, 1995).

8. Gilbert, Cycle of Outrage; Leerom Medovoi, Rebels: Youth and the Cold War Origins of Identity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005); Timothy Melley, Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999).

9. On Catcher and the cold war, see Alan Nadel, Containment Culture: American Narratives, Postmodernism, and the Atomic Age (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995), 71–89; and Medovoi, Rebels, 53–90.

10. C. Wright Mills, New York City, to Francis and Charles Mills [his parents], December 18, 1946; Mills, Chicago, to William Muller, undated (1949), in C. Wright Mills, Letters and Autobiographical Writings, ed. Kathryn Mills with Pamela Mills (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 101, 136; and Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), 327.

11. Salinger, Catcher, 172. Holden’s problem here prefigures Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd (1960). Literary critics disagree about the degree to which Salinger shares Holden’s romantic alienation, whether he too romanticizes rebellion or instead shows the reader that it is a false stance, an inability to see the people in other than one-dimensional terms. See the collections of criticism cited above.

12. Salinger, Catcher, 9, 13, 17, 26, 59, 77, 84.

13. Salinger, Catcher, 52, 16.

14. Salinger, Catcher, 61, 61, 154.

15. Salinger, Catcher, 174, 180, 189, 191–92, 194–95.

16. Salinger, Catcher, 99, 18, 141, 62, 63, 9.

17. Salinger, Catcher, 8.

18. Salinger, Catcher, 3, 43, 46, 103, 92, 93, 76, 73.

19. Salinger, Catcher, 170.

20. Salinger, Catcher, 173. Critics disagree about whether this romanticism is Holden’s alone or also Salinger’s, whether there is distance between the narrator and the author. For my purposes, it does not matter whether the romanticism is Holden’s alone, and Salinger is critiquing it, or whether Salinger shares Holden’s romanticism. Many readers have certainly confused Holden and Salinger’s feelings. My point is that many readers have shared or adopted Holden’s romanticism, that they see themselves in him.

21. Salinger, Catcher, 1, 60, 81–82, 153–54, quote, 198.

22. Salinger, Catcher, 104.

23. Salinger, Catcher, 162–63. Salinger does name a movie: The Doctor, about a physician turned mercy killer that Phoebe sees at the Lister Foundation. But in the novel, the film is a noncommercial documentary, used to set up a contrast with Holden’s own desire to catch the children, to save them from the abyss, from adulthood, from even the adults. The Lister Foundation may refer to the Lister Institute in the UK, which is a medical research charity founded in 1891. I cannot find any reference to a film fitting Salinger’s description called The Doctor.

24. Clement Greenberg, “Avant-Garde and Kitsch” (1939), in Art and Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1961), 3–21; Dwight Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult” (1960), in Against the American Grain (New York: Vintage, 1962), 3–79; Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. John Cumming (1947; New York: Verso, 1997); Adorno, “Culture Industry Reconsidered,” trans. Anson G. Rabinbach, New German Critique 6 (1975): 12–19.

25. Salinger, Catcher, quotes, 21, 103–4, 154–55.

26. Salinger, Catcher, quotes, 29, 2; see also 104, 116.

27. Bernard S. Oldsey, “The Movies in the Rye,” College English 23 (December 1961): 209–15. Mervyn LeRoy’s Random Harvest (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1942) was nominated for seven Oscars in 1943, including Best Picture and Best Director.

28. Salinger, Catcher, 139–41.

29. Salinger, Catcher, 205.

30. Salinger, Catcher, 206–7, 160, 104. Salinger would not sell the movie rights to Catcher, and thus Holden’s life literally did not become a film.

31. Sources on Romanticism include Isaiah Berlin, “The Romantics and Their Roots,” Times Literary Supplement, February 19, 1999; Berlin, The Roots of Romanticism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999); Stephen Gill, William Wordsworth: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Kenneth R. Johnston, The Hidden Wordsworth: Poet, Lover, Rebel, Spy (New York: Norton, 1999); Richard Holmes, Coleridge: Early Visions, 1771-1804 (New York: Pantheon, 1989); Holmes, Coleridge:Darker Reflections, 1804-1834 (New York: Pantheon, 2000); and Andrew Motion, Keats (London: Faber and Faber, 2003). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) was a powerful early text in the history of Romanticism. On the importance of German writers in this literary history, see Frederick C. Beiser, The Romantic Imperative: The Concept of Early German Romanticism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003); and Oskar F. Walzel, German Romanticism (New York: F. Ungar, 1965).

32. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Advertisement for the first edition of Lyrical Ballads (1798), in Longman Anthology of British Literature: The Romantics and Their Contemporaries, ed. David Damrosch, Peter J. Manning, and Susan J. Wolfson (New York: Longman, 1999), 332; Andrew Jackson George, ed., The Complete Poetical Works of William Wordsworth (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1904), 791.

33. William Wordsworth, The Prelude, in George, Complete Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, 137; John Keats, letter to Benjamin Bailey, November 22, 1817, in The Letters of John Keats, ed. H. Buxton Forman (London: Reeves and Turner, 1895), 51-55, quote, 52.

34. Salinger, Catcher, 154.

35. Jerrold Seigel, Bohemian Paris:Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830-1930 (New York: Viking, 1986), Murger quote, 3-4. On American bohemians, see Albert Parry, Garrets and Pretenders: A History of Bohemianism in America (1933; rev. ed., New York: Dover, 1960); Emily Hahn, Romantic Rebels: An Informal History of Bohemianism in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967); Rick Beard and Leslie Cohen Berlowitz, Greenwich Village: Culture and Counterculture (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press for the Museum of the City of New York, 1993); Christine Stansell, American Moderns: Bohemian New York and the Creation of a New Century (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000); and Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the Twenties (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1995).

36. Salinger, Catcher, 136, 142, 143.

37. Salinger, Catcher, 189.

38. On Marx’s view of alienation, see Daniel Bell, “The’Rediscovery’ of Alienation,” Journal of Philosophy 56:24 (November 19, 1959): 933-52; and Istvan Meszaros, Marx’s Theory of Alienation (London: Merlin, 1970). Salinger, Catcher, 108. My point here is not that Holden’s view is a correct assessment of class difference but that it is his view. Salinger weaves this idea through much of his fiction, and it is increasingly on display across mid-century American culture. On the Beats, see John Tytell, Naked Angels: The Lives and Literature of the Beat Generation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976), and chapter 2.

39. Albert Camus, The Rebel (New York: Knopf, 1954), quote, 19. See also Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Human Emotions (1946; New York: Philosophical Library, 1957); Existentialism (New York: Philosophical Library, 1947); and Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956). On the impact of existentialism on postwar America, see Ann Fulton, Existentialism in America, 1945-1963 (Evanston, 1ll.: Northwestern University Press, 1999); and George Cotkin, Existential America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003.

40. Salinger, Catcher, 170.

41. James Stern, “Aw, the World’s a Crumby Place,” New York Times Book Review, July 15, 1951, 5; T. Morris Longstreth, “Review of The Catcher in the Rye, ” Christian Science Monitor, July 19, 1951, 7; Ernest Jones, “A Case History of Us All,” Nation, September 1, 1951, 176. Other reviews that stress young people’s possible identification with Holden include Paul Engle, “Honest Tale of Distraught Adolescent,” Chicago Sunday Times Magazine of Books, July 15, 1951, 3; and Virgilia Peterson, “Three Days in the Bewildering World of an Adolescent,” New York Herald Tribune Book Review, July 15, 1951, 3.

42. Clifton Fadiman, writing for the Book-of-the-Month Club July report, as quoted in Laser and Fruman, Studies in J. D. Salinger, 72; Nash K. Burger, “A Book of the Times,” New York Times, July 16, 1951, 32; Gutwillig, “Everybody’s Caught The Catcher,” 39; Granville Hicks, “The Search for Wisdom,” in Grunwald, Salinger: A Critical and Personal Portrait, 191-94, quote, 192; Alfred Kazin, “Everybody’s Favorite.” Other positive reviews appeared in Time, Newsweek, and the Saturday Review.

43. Marsden, A Catcher Casebook; Kip Kotzen and Thomas Beller, With Love and Squalor: Fourteen Writers Respond to the Work of J. D. Salinger (New York: Broadway Books, 2001); Chris Kubica and Will Hochman, Letters to J. D. Salinger (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002); “Letters to J. D. Salinger,” http://www.jdsalinger.com, accessed March 29, 2010.

44. Salinger, Catcher, 67,156. The novel’s frame also makes the audience—the readers—into Holden’s analysts, suggesting the ways self-expression as art and self-expression as therapy become intertwined in the postwar era.

45. On the impact of the cold war on American culture, see Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985); Tom Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture: Cold War America and the Disillusioning of a Generation (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Joel Foreman, ed., The Other Fifties: Interrogating Midcentury American Icons (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988); Medovoi, Rebels; and Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991). On the social problem literature that explores arguments about mass culture’s destruction of individualism, see Wilfred McClay, The Masterless: Self and Society in Modern America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 226-75.

46. Dwight Macdonald, “A Theory of Popular Culture” Politics, February 1944, 20-23; Macdonald, “A Theory of Mass Culture” (1953), in Mass Culture, ed. Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1957), 59-80; Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult”; Greenberg, “Avant-Garde and Kitsch” See also Andrew Jamison and Ron Eyerman, Seeds of the Sixties (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 30-63.

47. John Fiske, Understanding Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1991), 168.

48. Jose Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses (1930; New York: New American Library 1950), 79; Macdonald, “Theory of Popular Culture” Greenberg, “Avant-Garde and Kitsch”; Adorno and Horkheimer, Dialectic, esp. “The Culture Industry as Mass Deception,” 120-67, quote, 133; James Burnham, a contributor to “Our Country and Our Culture,” special issue of Partisan Review 19 (May-June 1952): 284-326, quote, 290.

49. Alan Wald, The New York Intellectuals:The Rise and Decline of the Anti-Stalinist Left from the 1930 to the 1960s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Neil Jumonville, Critical Crossings: The New York Intellectuals in Postwar America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).

50. “Our Country and Our Culture: A Symposium” special issue of Partisan Review 19 (May-June 1952): 284-326, quote, 284.

51. David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, and Rebel Denney, The Lonely Crowd:A Case Study in the Changing American Character (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), 126, 3-30; “David Riesman: Social Scientist,” Time, September 27, 1954; Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955); William Whyte, The Organization Man (1956; Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 280; Timothy Melley, Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999). Melley calls cold-war-era anxiety “agency panic.”

52. Ayn Rand published The Fountainhead in 1944, but it began to sell well after the war. Atlas Shrugged was published in 1957. On Rand, see Robert Mayhew, Essays on Ayn Rand’s The Fountainhead (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2007); Mimi Riesel Gladstein, The New Ayn Rand Companion (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999); and Jennifer Burns, Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

53. “The New American Domesticated Male: A Boon to the Household and a Boom to Industry,” Life, January 4, 154, 42-43; Barbara Ehrenrich, The Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment (New York: Anchor, 1983).

54. Macdonald, “Masscult and Midcult,” 21; Leslie Fiedler, a contributor to “Our Country and Our Culture,” quote, 297. For an analysis of these developments that stresses the ideological function of the rebel figure in the cold war contest to win the loyalty of third world nations, see Medovoi, Rebels.

55. Wald, New York Intellectuals; Jumonville, Critical Crossings. For a study of a segment of early twentieth-century mass culture, see Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986).

56. Robert Lindner, Rebel Without a Cause:The Hypno-Analysis of a Criminal Psychopath (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1944); Lindner with James Fuller, Rebel Without a Cause: A Play in Three Acts (Chicago: Dramatic Publishing, 1958); “Raise Your Child to be a Rebel,” McCall’s, February 1956, 102, 104; “Rebels or Psychopaths?” Time, December 6, 1954; “Letters,” Time, December 13,1954.

57. “Rebels or Psychopaths;” “Letters;” and “Raise Your Child to be a Rebel.” See also Kathleen Doyle, “A Bill of Rights for Teenagers,” Parents’ Magazine, April 1948, 20, 82-86.

58. Lynn Spigel, Make Roomfor TV: Television and the Family Ideal in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media (New York: Random House, 1995). “Brief Holiday” appeared in season 3 and first aired on January 16, 1957.

59. “Jackson Pollock: Is He the Greatest Living Painter in the United States?” Life, August 8, 1949. On the “cool” image of bebop musicians, see Lewis MacAdams, The Birth of Cool: Beat, Bebop, and the American Avant-Garde (New York: Free Press, 2001); on Playboy, see Ehrenreich, Hearts of Men.

60. Wini Breines, Young, White, and Miserable:Growing Up Female in the Fifties (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Breines, “The’Other’ Fifties: Beats and Bad Girls,” in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz, 382-408 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Breines, “Postwar White Girls’ Dark Others,” in Foreman, The Other Fifties, 53-82; May, Homeward Bound.

61. J. D. Salinger, Franny and Zooey (Boston: Little, Brown, 1961); Herman Wouk, Marjorie Morningstar (New York: Doubleday, 1955); Richard Yates, Revolutionary Road (New York: Boston: Little, Brown, 1961).

62. Medovoi, Rebels, 265-316; Rachel Devlin, “Female Juvenile Deliquency and the Problem of Sexual Authority in America, 1945-1965,” Yale Journal of Law and the Humanties (Winter 1997): 147-82; Breines, “Postwar White Girls’ Dark Others.”

63. Sylvia Plath, Letters Home:Correspondence, 1950-1963, ed. Aurelia Schober Plath (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 144; Plath, The Bell Jar (1963; New York: Harper Perennial, 2000), 3, 87; Anne Stevenson, Bitter Flame: A Life of Sylvia Plath (New York: Mariner Books, 1998).

64. Diane Di Prima, Memoirs of a Beatnik (1969; rpt. New York: Penguin, 1998), 24, 72, 108. Not until she published her actual memoir over thirty years later did she describe the emotional pain, the betrayals, and the failed couplings of this period in her life. See Di Prima, My Life as a Woman (New York: Penguin, 2002); Brenda Knight, Women of the Beat Generation: The Writers, Artists, and Muses at the Heart of a Revolution (Berkeley: Conari Press, 1996); Ronna C. Johnson and Nancy M. Grace, eds., Girls Who Wore Black: Women Writing the Beat Generation (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002); and Johnson and Grace, Breaking the Rule of Cool: Interviewing and Reading Women Beat Writers (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2004).

65. Joyce Johnson, Minor Characters:A Young Woman’s Coming of Age in the Beat Orbit of Jack Kerouac (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1983); Knight, Women and the Beat Generation.

66. Johnson, Minor Characters, 29-30, 261-62; Hettie Jones, How I Became Hettie Jones (New York: Dutton, 1990), 81.

67. Breines, Young, White, and Miserable; Knight, Women and the Beat Generation; Kubica and Hochman, Letters to J. D. Salinger; “Letters to J. D. Salinger” http://www.jdsalinger.com; Janice Radway, Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy, and Popular Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984); David Dalton, Piece of My Heart: The Life, Times, and Legend of Janis Joplin (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985), 147, 162.

68. Knight, Women and the Beat Generation; Grace and Johnson, Breaking the Rule of Cool; Stevenson, Bitter Flame; Diane Wood Middlebrook, Anne Sexton: A Biography (New York: Vintage, 1992).

69. Ginsberg, “Howl” (1955-56), online at http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poem.html?id=179381, accessed June 28, 2010. See also Ginsberg, Collected Poems of Allen Ginsberg (New York: Harper, 2007); Tytell, Naked Angels; and Ann Charters, The Beats: Literary Bohemians in Postwar America (New York: Gale, 1983).

Chapter 2: Rebel Music

1. Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding:Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 1-20; Peter Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis: The Rise of Elvis Presley (New York: Little, Brown, 1994); Bruce Pegg, Brown-Eyed Handsome Man: The Life and Hard Times of Chuck Berry (New York: Routledge, 2002); Leerom Medovoi, Rebels: Youth and the Cold War Origins of Identity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005).

2. George Lipsitz, “Against the Wind: Dialogic Aspects of Rock and Roll,” in Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 99-132; Ward, Just My Soul; Meovoi, Rebels.

3. I take the phrase “acting black” from Eric Lott, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 29: “Acting black: a whole social world of irony, violence, negotiations, and learning is contained in that phrase.” Other minstrelsy sources include Ralph Ellison, “Change the Yoke and Slip the Joke” (1958), in Shadow and Act (New York: Random House, 1964), 45-59; Robert Toll, Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show and Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); Hans Nathan, Dan Emmett and the Rise of Early Negro Minstrelsy (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962); Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Verso, 1990); David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York: Verso, 1991); and W. T. Lhamon, Raising Cain: Blackface Performance from Jim Crow to Hip Hop (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).

4. Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1995); Ellison, “Change the Joke;” Toll, Blacking Up.

5. Lhamon, Raising Cain; Robert Cantwell, Bluegrass Breakdown:The Making of the Old Southern Sound (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984); Malone, Country Music U.S.A. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968); Singing Cowboys and Musical Mountaineers: Southern Culture and the Roots of Country Music (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993); Karl Hagstrom Miller, Segregating Sound: Inventing Folk and Pop Music in the Age of Jim Crow (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2010).

6. Constance Rourke, American Humor: A Study of the National Character (1931; New York: New York Review of Books, 2004), 85; Lott, Love and Theft, 18; Frederick Douglass writing in North Star (June 29, 1849), online at http://utc.iath.virginia.edu/minstrel/miar03at.html.

7. Lhamon, Raising Cain, 160.

8. Lott, Love and Theft; Roediger, Wages of Whiteness; Saxton, Rise andFall.

9. Lhamon, Raising Cain, 144; Annemarie Bean, James V. Hatch, and Brooks McNamara, eds., Inside the Minstrel Mask: Readings in Nineteenth-Century Blackface Minstrelsy (Hanover, N.H.: Wesleyan University Press, 1996).

10. On the plantation pastoral, see Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890-1940 (New York: Vintage, 1999). On the Second Middle Passage, see Ira Berlin, Generations of Captivity: A History of African American Slaves (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003).

11. Tim Brooks, Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1890-1919 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004); Lost Sounds: Blacks and the Birth of the Recording Industry, 1891-1922, notes by Tim Brooks and David Giovannoni (Archeophone Records, 2005); Camille F. Forbes, Introducing Bert Williams: Burnt Cork, Broadway, and the Story of America’s First Black Star (New York: Basic Civitas, 2008); Douglas, Terrible Honesty.

12. Brooks, Lost Sounds; Lhamon, Raising Cain; Miller, Segregating Sound; Lott, Love and Theft; Hale, Making Whiteness; Roediger, Wages of Whiteness; Michael Rogin, Blackface/White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996). On Papa Charlie Jackson, see Samuel Barclay Charters, The Country Blues (1959; New York: Da Capo, 1975), 49-51; and R.M.W. Dixon and J. Godrich, Recording the Blues (New York: Stein and Day, 1970), 34, 78. We need more research on black fans of minstrelsy.

On the history of the blues, I have relied heavily on W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues (1941; New York: Da Capo, 1969); Handy, ed., Blues: An Anthology (1926; rev. ed., New York: Da Capo, 1990); Ralph Ellison, Going to the Territory (New York: Vintage, 1986); Albert Murray, Stomping the Blues (1976; New York: Vintage, 1982); Lawrence Levine, Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977); Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones), Blues People: The Negro Experience in White America and the Music That Developed from It (New York: William Morrow, 1963); Samuel Barclay Charters, The Roots of the Blues: An African Search (New York: M. Boyars, 1981); Charters, Country Blues; Jeff Todd Tilton, Early Downhome Blues:A Musical and Cultural Analysis (1977, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Charles Kiel, Urban Blues (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966); Alan Lomax, The Land Where the Blues Began (New York: Delta, 1993); Paul Oliver, Blues Fell Down This Morning: Meaning in the Blues (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1960); Oliver, The Story of the Blues (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998); William Ferris, Blues from the Delta (New York: Da Capo, 1978); Robert Palmer, Deep Blues: A Musical and Cultural History of the Mississippi Delta (New York: Penguin, 1981); Angela Y. Davis, Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude “Ma” Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday (New York: Pantheon, 1998); Daphne Duval Harrison, Black Pearls: Blues Queens of the 1920s (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1988); Hazel Carby, “‘It Just Be’s Dat Way Sometimes’: The Sexual Politics of Women’s Blues,” Radical America 20 (June-July, 1986): 9-22; Gene Santoro, Highway 61 Revisited: The Tangled Roots of American Jazz, Blues, Folk, Rock, and Country Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). Davis, Blues Legacies, 42, 91, 135, argues that the image of the self that blues musicians make in their music anticipates the new conceptions of the self of the 1960s. My argument here is that blues songs help create these new ideas of the self.

13. Elijah Wald, Escaping the Delta:Robert Johnson and the Invention of the Blues (New York: HarperCollins, 2004); Marybeth Hamilton, In Search of the Blues (New York: Basic, 2008).

14. Davis, Blues Legacies; Carby, “‘It Just Be’s Dat Way Sometime’”; Sandra R. Lieb, Mother of the Blues: A Study of Ma Rainey (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981); Harrison, Black Pearls; Dexter Stewart Baxter, Ma Rainey and the Classic Blues Singers (New York: Stein and Day, 1970); Chris Albertson, Bessie (New York: Stein and Day, 1972); Samuel B. Charters and Leonard Kunstadt, Jazz: A History of the New York Scene (1962; New York: Da Capo, 1981); Douglas, Terrible Honesty. On white singers’ performances of blues songs, like those by W. C. Handy, see Miller, Segregating Sound.

15. Bessie Smith, Bessie Smith:The Complete Recordings, vols. 1-5 (Columbia, 1991-96). The lyrics of “‘Tain’t Nobody’s Bizness if I Do” and “Beale Street Papa” are published in Davis, Blues Legacies, 342-43 and 264. On the segregation of Atlantic City, see Bryant Simon’s excellent Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

16. Ellison, “Change the Joke”; Hamilton, In Search of the Blues.

17. John W Work, ed., American Negro Songs (New York: Howell, Soskin, 1940), 28. It is important to remember that how blues musicians and blues fans during the music’s commercial heyday heard the music (these people were mostly black) and how blues scholars from the early twentieth century through the present hear the music (these people were and are mostly white) often diverge. Most writing about the blues is more accurately described as a history of whites’ romanticization of black people.

18. Ralph Ellison and Albert Murray, Trading Twelves: The Selected Letters of Ralph Ellison and Albert Murray (New York: Modern Library, 2000), 29; Davis, Blues Legacies.

19. For the songs, see Ma Rainey, The Complete Ma Rainey Collection, 1923-1928 (King Jazz, 1994). For a transcription of the lyrics, see Davis, Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: “Hear Me Talking to You,” 221-22; “Prove It on Me Blues,” 238; “Victim of the Blues,” 252; “Travelin’ Blues,” 252, “Sweet Rough Man,” 247-48. Advertisement for Ma Rainey’s “Prove It on Me Blues,” Chicago Defender, September 22, 1928, reproduced in Lieb, Mother of the Blues, 127.

20. William Barlow, Looking Up at Down:TheEmergence of Blues Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); Douglas, Terrible Honesty, 387-433.

21. For biographies of female blues musicians of the 1920s, see Harrison, Black Pearls.

22. Hale, Making Whiteness; Ellison and Murray, Trading Twelves; Albert Murray, “The Blues Idiom and the Mainstream,” 54-69, in The Omni-Americans: Some Alternatives to the Folklore of White Supremacy (1970; New York: Da Capo, 1990); Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), 217-52; Miles Orvell, The Real Thing: Imitation and Authenticity in American Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).

23. Langston Hughes, “Happy New Year! With Memphis Minnie,” Chicago Defender, January 9, 1943, in Write Me a Few of Your Lines: A Blues Reader, ed. Steven C. Tracey (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 321-22; Paul Garon and Beth Garon, Woman with Guitar: Memphis Minnie’s Blues (New York: Da Capo, 1992); Memphis Minnie, Bumble Bee: The Essential Recordings of Memphis Minnie (Indigo, 1994).

24. Rock music sources consulted include Gillian Gaar, She’s a Rebel:The History of Women in Rock and Roll, 2nd ed. (New York: Seal Press, 2002); Nelson George, The Death of Rhythm and Blues (New York: Plume, 1988); George Gillett, The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll (New York: Da Capo, 1995); Gerri Hirshey, We Gotta Get Out of This Place: The True, Tough Story of Women in Rock (New York: Grove, 2001); Lipsitz, “Against the Wind”; Greil Marcus, Mystery Train: Images of American in Rock’n’ Roll Music (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999); John Street, Rebel Rock: The Politics of Popular Music (New York: Black- well, 1986); David Szatmary, A Time to Rock: A Social History of Rock’n’ Roll (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1996). In an almost direct inversion of “respectable” opinion at the time, the standard story of the rise of rock and roll emphasizes the liberatory, anti-racist effects of its racially mixed sound and performance styles. In the work of many scholars, rock and roll became instead an effect of and even a force for progressive social change. More recently, an alternative account has arisen that sees this liberation as a lie. See Lawrence Grossberg, We Gotta Get Out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (New York: Routledge, 1992); Grossberg, Dancing in Spite of Myself: Essays on Popular Culture (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997); Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool:Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997); and Sean McCann and Michael Szalay, “Paul Potter and the Cultural Turn,” 209-20, and “Do You Believe in Magic? Literary Thinking After the New Left,” 435-68, both in Yale Journal of Criticism 18:2 (Fall 2005), a special issue on “Countercultural Capital,” edited by McCann and Szalay. The best recent accounts of rock music’s origins argue that the music is a part of postwar capitalism that enabled both accommodation and resistance. See Medovoi, Rebels. Medovoi offers a neo- Marxist account, in which white middle-class teenagers use working-class rebellion against postwar capitalism to express a sense of their own alienation and difference. See Miller, Segregating Sound, for the smart argument that rock is a transgression of the early twentieth-century idea that music has to be racially embodied rather than racially performed.

25. On authenticity, see Orvell, Real Thing; and David Grazian, Blue Chicago:The Search for Authenticity in Urban Blues Clubs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003).

26. Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis; Marcus, Mystery Train; Charles L. Ponce de Leon, Fortunate Son: The Life of Elvis Presley (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006); Dave Marsh, Elvis (New York: Thunder Mouth Press, 1992); Erika Doss, Elvis Culture: Fans, Faith, and Image (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999).

27. Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis, quote, 96.

28. Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis, 5-6, 95-135.

29. Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis; Marcus, Mystery Train. Today, Presley fans and scholars are still debating the degree to which Presley sounds “black” on his cover of Crudup’s tune. Part of the problem is that there is no clear consensus on what sounding black means, because black and black-sounding are such shifting and contested terms. In fact, it is impossible with any analytic precision to describe “black” music (or “white music” either) as a historical category. See Miller, Segregating Sound.

30. Elvis Presley: The Ed Sullivan Shows:The Performances (Image Entertainment, 2006); Elvis #1 Hit Performances (RCS, 2007); Elvis #1 Hit Performances & More, Vol. 2, video (RCA, 2008); Alan Raymond and Susan Raymond, Elvis’56: In the Beginning, documentary film (Lightyear Video, 2000); 1950s photographs at http://www.elvispresleymusic.com.au/pictures, accessed October 27, 2009.

31. On Elvis and his female fans, see the photos in “A Howling Hillbilly Success,” Life, April 30, 1956, 64; and “Elvis—A Different Kind of Idol” Life, August 27, 1956, 101-9.

32. Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis, 152, 182, 182, 191.

33. Photographs, October 16, 1954, and January 22, 1955, at http://www. elvispresleymusic.com.au/pictures, accessed October 27, 2009.

34. Photographs, August 5,1955, at http://www.elvispresleymusic.com.au/pictures/1955_august.html, accessed October 27, 2009.

35. Photographs, August 5,1955, at http://www.elvispresleymusic.com.au/pictures/1955_august.html, accessed October 27, 2009.

36. Presley advertisement in Billboard, December 3, 1955. The same photograph appears on the cover of the album Elvis Presley (RCA Victor, 1956).

37. Presley: Ed Sullivan Shows; Elvis #1 Hit Performances; Elvis #1 Hit Performances & More, Vol. 2; 1950s photographs at http://www.elvispresleymusic.com.au/pictures.

38. Elvis #1 Hit Performances; Elvis #1 Hit Performances & More, Vol. 2; Raymond and Raymond, Elvis’56.

39. Elvis #1 Hit Performances; Elvis #1 Hit Performances & More, Vol. 2. I want to thank Bonnie Gordon, a University of Virginia musicologist, for pointing out key differences between Presley’s and Thornton’s performances.

40. Elvis #1 Hit Performances; Elvis #1 Hit Performances & More, Vol. 2; Raymond and Raymond, Elvis’56.

41. Elvis #1 Hit Performances; Elvis #1 Hit Performances & More, Vol. 2; Raymond and Raymond, Elvis’56.

42. In addition to the videos already cited, see Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis, 327-50.

43. Presley: Ed Sullivan Shows.

44. Presley: Ed Sullivan Shows.

45. Presley: Ed Sullivan Shows.

46. Presley: Ed Sullivan Shows.

47. Steve Chapple and Reebee Garofalo, Rock’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay: The History and Politics of the Music Industry (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977), 246.

48. Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis, 253.

49. “Relax and Be Yourself,” Ebony, November 1953; Norman Mailer, “The White Negro: Superficial Reflections on the Hipster,” originally published in Dissent in 1957, reprinted in Advertisements for Myself (1959; New York: Berkeley Publishing, 1966), 311-31, quotes, 314. The first popular account of a “white Negro” was Mezz Mezzrow, Really the Blues (New York: Random House, 1946), the autobiography of a white Jewish kid who discovers jazz and the African American men playing it in Chicago in the 1910s and lives the rest of his life acting like he is a black musician.

50. Mailer, “White Negro”; Mailer, September 25, 1957, to Jean Malaquais, in a selection of letters printed in Mailer, “In the Ring: Grappling with the Twentieth Century,” New Yorker, October 6, 2008, 10.

51. Mailer, “White Negro,” quote, 331.

52. Jack Kerouac, On the Road (1957; New York: Penguin, 1976), quote, 251; Kerouac, May 28, 1955, to Arabelle Porter, editor of New World Writing, in Charters, Letters I, quote, 487. I used the following Kerouac sources: Ann Charters, ed., Selected Letters of Jack Kerouac, 1940-1956 (New York: Penguin Books, 1995), cited as Letters I; Charters, Selected Letters of Jack Kerouac, 1957-1969 (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), cited as Letters II; Charters, Kerouac, A Biography (New York: Warner Books, 1974); John Tytell, Naked Angels: The Lives and Literature of the Beat Generation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976); Carolyn Cassady, Off the Road: My Years with Cassady, Kerouac, and Ginsberg (New York: William Morrow, 1990); Barry Miles, Jack Kerouac, King of the Beats: A Portrait (New York: Henry Holt, 1998); Ellis Amburn, Subterranean Kerouac: The Hidden Life of Jack Kerouac (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998); Gerald Nicosia, Memory Babe: A Critical Biography of Jack Kerouac (New York: Grove, 1984); and unpublished Kerouac letters on microfilm at Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, New York, New York. Unlike J. D. Salinger, Kerouac encouraged critics to read his work autobiographically.

Kerouac wrote On the Road about the same time Salinger published Catcher, and the novel is set in the same historical period, sometime in the late 1940s. Yet because On the Road was not published until 1957, it reached many readers in a different historical moment than Catcher.

53. Kerouac, On the Road, quotes, 9, 7, 8; Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (New York: Vintage, 1993). See Kerouac, November 4, 1950, to Ellen Lucey, in Kerouac Collection at Columbia University, on his second novel, which is about “a ten year old Negro boy in his hitch-hiking woes from Carolina to the Coast and back”: “I feel like a Negro, and especially a child.” This manuscript was published after Kerouac died as Pic (New York: Grove, 1971).

54. Kerouac, On the Road, 8, 11, 159, 40, 68, 79, 8, 155, 158, 82, 67, 14.

55. Kerouac, On theRoad, quote, 252; Kerouac, RockyMount, N.C., October 2,1948, to Neal Cassady, in Charters, Letters I, 165. See also Kerouac, December 28, 1950, to Neal Cassady, 246-63, quotes, 247, 246, 24, 248, 261; Kerouac, January 8, 1951, to Neal Cassady, 273-81, quote, 274; and Kerouac, [before April 15, 1955], to Neal Cassady, 472-73, all in Charters, Letters I.

56. Kerouac, On the Road, quotes, 175-77.

57. Kerouac, On theRoad, quotes, 180.

58. Kerouac, Rocky Mount, NC, October 3, 1948, to Neal Cassady; and Kerouac, Ozone Park, N.J., October 19, 1948, to Hal Chase, in Charters, Letters 1, 167,170.

59. Jack Kerouac, “The Essentials of Spontaneous Prose,”written in 1953 for Allen Ginsberg and William S. Burroughs, published in Black Mountain Review 7 (Autumn 1957) and Evergreen Review 8 (Spring 1959) and reprinted in Ann Charters, ed., The Portable Beat Reader (New York: Viking, 1992). See also “Belief and Technique for Modern Prose: List of Essentials” (another version of this list), in Kerouac, May 28, 1955, to Arabelle Porter, editor of New World Writing, in Charters, Letters I, 486-88; and Charters, Kerouac, 188.

60. Richard Eberhart, “West Coast Rhythms” New York Times Book Review (September 2, 1956); Ginsberg, May 18, 1956, to Eberhart, in To Eberhart from Ginsberg (Lincoln, Mass.: Penmaen Press, 1976), quote, 18. On the Beats, see Tytell, Naked Angels; Steven Watson, The Birth of the Beat Generation: Visionaries, Rebels, and Hipsters, 1944-1960 (New York: Pantheon, 1995); Cornelis A. van Minnen, Jaap van der Bent, and Mel van Elteren, eds., Beat Culture: The 1950s and Beyond (Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1999); Ann Charters, ed., The Penguin Book of the Beats (New York: Penguin, 1992); and George Plimpton, ed., Beat Writers at Work: The Paris Review (New York: Modern Library, 1999).

61. “Big Day for Bards at Bay,” Life, September 9, 1957; “New Test for Obscenity,” Nation, November 9, 1957; Barry Miles, ed., Howl: Original Draft Facsimile, Transcript and Variant Versions, Fully Annotated by the Author, With Contemporaneous Correspondence (New York: Harper and Row, 1986); Bill Morgan and Nancy J. Peters, eds., Howl on Trial: The Battle for Free Expression (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2006); J. W. Ehrlich, Howl of the Censor (San Carlos, Calif.: Nourse, 1961); Peter B. Levy, “Beating the Censor: The’Howl’ Trial Revisited,” in van Minnen, van der Bent, and van Elteren, Beat Culture, 107-16; Maurice Berger, “Libraries Full of Tears: The Beats and the Law,” in Beat Culture and the New America: 1950-1965, ed. Lisa Phillips (New York: Whitney Museum of Modern Art, 1995), 123-40; and Edward de Grazia, Girls Lean Back Everywhere: The Law of Obscenity and the Assault on Genius (New York: Random House 1992).

62. Jacket copy, first edition of On the Road, 1957, in The Beats:A Literary Reference, ed. Matt Theado (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2003), 150; “Trade Winds” Saturday Review, October 5, 1957, 5-7.

63. Gilbert Millstein, “Books of the Times” New York Times, September 5,1957; Thomas Curley, “Everything Moves, but Nothing Is Alive” Commonweal, September 1957; Phoebe Adams, “Reader’s Choice,” Atlantic Monthly, October 1957; Gene Baro, “Restless Rebels in Search of—What?” New York Herald Tribune, September 15, 1957; David Dempsey, “In Pursuit of Kicks” New York Times Book Review, September 8, 1957. For examples of bad reviews, see Herbert Gold, “Hip, Cool, Beat—and Frantic,” Nation, November 16, 1957, 349-54, quote, 353, who describes Kerouac and Ginsberg as creating an “ascetics of excess,” yearning “for the annihilation of the senses through the abuse of the senses” (354); “Flings of the Frantic,” Newsweek, September 9, 1957; and “The Ganser Syndrome,” Time, September 16, 1957, 120. For an early broad review of the Beats that pays special attention to Kerouac and On the Road, see Norman Podhoretz, “The Know-Nothing Bohemians” Partisan Review 25:2 (Spring 1958): 305-18: “This tremendous emphasis on emotional intensity, this notion that to be hopped-up is the most desirable of all human conditions, lies at the heart of the Beat Generation ethos” (307). On Kerouac’s reaction to the publication of On the Road, see Jerry Tallmer, “Back to the Village—But Still On the Road ” Village Voice, September 18, 1957; and Joyce Johnson, Minor Characters (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983).

64. Kerouac reading from Visions of Cody and On the Road, Steve Allen Show, season 5, episode 7, aired November 16, 1959.

65. Jack Kerouac and Steve Allen, Poetry for the Beat Generation (Hanover, 1959); Kerouac, Zoot Sims, and Al Cohn, Blues and Haikus (Hanover, 1958); Kerouac, “Aftermath: The Philosophy of the Beat Generation,” Esquire, March 1958; Kerouac, “The Origins of the Beat Generation,” Playboy, June 1959. Holmes wrote an earlier piece, “This Is the Beat Generation,” New York Times Magazine, November 16, 1952. See Charters, Letters II, for evidence of his discomfort with the role of Beat Generation spokesman. See also William F. Buckley, “The Hippies” an episode of Firing Line (taped September 3, 1968; air date differs among television stations), available online at http://hoohila.stanford.edu/firingline/searchResult.php, accessed July 10, 2009.

66. Paul O’Neil, “The Only Rebellion Around,” Life, November 30, 1959, 114-32. The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis ran on CBS from 1959 to 1963. The Nervous Set opened (and closed) at Henry Miller’s Theater in May 1959. Bob Hope dressed up like a beatnik in the episode of The Bob Hope Buick Show that aired on April 19, 1960. Mr. Magoo was created at the UPA animation studio in 1949. Cool Cat was created by Alex Lovy for Warner Bros. Animation and first appeared in Cool Cat (1967).

67. Allen Ginsberg, “Howl,” in Miles, Howl; Kerouac, On the Road, 181.

Chapter 3: Black as Folk

1. Jeff Rosen, liner notes for Murray Lerner, Festival, video (1967; reissued, Eagle Rock Entertainment, 2005).

2. Lerner, Festival.

3. The lyrics for “We Shall Overcome” are printed in Guy Carawan and Candie Carawan, eds. and comps., Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs (Bethlehem, Pa.: Oak Publications, 1990), 15. Many Freedom Song lyrics are also in Folder 26, Freedom Songs, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Records, Martin Luther King Center, Atlanta, Georgia (hereafter cited as SNCC).

4. The 1963 Newport Folk Festival is described in Robert Cantwell, When We Were Good: The Folk Revival (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), 293-352, photograph of the famous sing-along, 354; Ronald D. Cohen, Rainbow Quest: The Folk Music Revival and American Society, 1940-1970 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002); Cohen, A History of Folk Music Festivals in America (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2008); Dick Weissman, Which Side Are You On? An Inside History of the Folk Music Revival in America(New York: Continuum, 2006); and David Hajdu, Positively 4th Street: The Life and Times of Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Mimi Baez Farina, and Richard Farina (New York: Northpoint Press, 2001), 164-68. Music at the March on Washington is described in Bernice Johnson Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement” (PhD diss., Howard University, 1975), 165-67; Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), 877-81; and We Shall Overcome: Documentary of the March on Washington (Folkways FH 5592).

5. For the best description of how a person becomes a folk fan and then a revivalist musician, see Jeff Todd Titon, “Reconstructing the Blues: Reflections on the 1960s Blues Revival,” in Transforming Tradition: Folk Music Revivals Examined, ed. Neil V Rosenberg (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 220-240, esp. 220-22.

6. Barry Shank, “‘That Wild Mercury Sound’: Bob Dylan and the Illusion of American Culture,” boundary 2 29:1 (2002): 97-123, helped shape my arguments here.

7. Branch, Parting the Waters; Taylor Branch, Pillar of Fire:America in the King Years, 1963-1965 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998); Charles M. Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Wesley Hogan, Many Minds, One Heart: SNCC’s Dream for a New America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); Richard H. King, Civil Rights and the Idea of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997). In his narrative approach, Branch uses and extends rather than analyzes the romanticism of civil rights movement that I am examining here.

8. Cantwell, When We Were Good.

9. David E. Whisnant, All That Is Native and Fine: The Politics of Culture in an American Region (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983); Benjamin Filene, Romancing the Folk: Public Memory and American Roots Music (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

10. See the John Lomax biography, part of “Southern Mosaic: The John and Ruby Lomax 1939 Southern States Recording Trip,” Library of Congress American Memory Web site, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/lohtml/lohome.html, accessed July 10, 2009.

11. On the folk song revival of the Depression era, see Robbie Lieberman, My Song Is My Weapon: People’s Songs, American Communism, and the Politics of Culture, 1930-1950 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989); William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973); Richard H. Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams (New York: Harper and Row, 1973); Michael Denning, The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture (New York: Verso, 1996); Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, “Disorderly Women: Gender and Labor Militancy in the Appalachian South,” Journal of American History 73 (1986): 354-82; Bill C. Malone, Country Music, USA (1968; Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000), 129-30; Irwin Silber, “Folk Music and the Success Syndrome” Sing Out! 14:4 (September 1964): 2-4; Joe Klein, Woody Guthrie: A Life (New York: Knopf, 1980), 142-49.

12. John Lomax and Alan Lomax, Folk Song U.S.A. (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1947), preface by Alan Lomax, quotes, ix; Alan Lomax, The Land Where the Blues Began (New York: Pantheon, 1993); Klein, Guthrie, 142-79.

13. Dave Van Ronk with Elijah Wald, The Mayor of MacDougal Street (New York: Da Capo, 2005), 46-47, quote, 46; John Cohen, “A Rare Interview with Harry Smith” Sing Out! 19:1 (April/May 1969): 2-11, 41, and 19:2 (July/August 1969), 23-28, quote, 3; Folkways Anthology of American Folk Music (Folkways, 1952).

14. Cohen, “A Rare Interview with Harry Smith,” quote, 10; Cantwell, When We Were Good, 190; Folkways Anthology of American Folk Music (Folkways, 1952); Van Ronk, Mayor of MacDougal Street, 49. See Paul Oliver, Songsters and Saints: Vocal Traditions on Race Records (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 33-34, for examples of minstrel songs reworked by African Americans. On hillbilly musicians using the blues, see Malone, Country Music, USA; John Cohen, “The Folk Music Interchange: Negro and White,” Sing Out! 14:6 (January 1965): 42-49; Hobart Smith, “I Just Got the Music in My Head” Sing Out! 14:6 (January 1965): 10-13; John Cohen, “Roscoe Holcomb: First Person” Sing Out! 16:2 (April/May 1966): 3-7; and Charles Wolfe, “A Lighter Shade of Blue: White Country Blues,” in Cohn, Nothing but the Blues, 233-63.

15. The recording of Lomax’s Folksong’59 concert is Alan Lomax Presents: Folk Song Festival at Carnegie Hall (United Artists, 1960); Irwin Silber and David Gahr, “Top Performers Highlight First Newport Folk Festival,” Sing Out! 9:2 (Fall 1959): 21-24; Israel Young, “Frets and Frails,” Sing Out! 15:2 (May 1965): 75, and 8:4 (Spring 1959): 84; and Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (New York: Little, Brown, 1998).

16. Susan Montgomery, “The Folk Furor,” Mademoiselle, December 1960, 98-100, 117-19, quote, 100. Figures like Pete Seeger and Irving Silber, Sing Out! editor, linked the left folksong revival to the later folk music revival. See Silber, “Pete Seeger—Voice of Our Democratic Heritage,” Sing Out! 4:6 (May 1954): 4-7. Silber’s annual Sing Out! issues devoted to Negro History Week condemned segregation, advocated black rights in Popular Front-era language and reprinted spirituals, black union songs, and other black songs of protest. See, for example, the February 1952 issue (vol. 2, no. 8) with Leadbelly on the cover and a song collected by Lawrence Gellert inside. See also Silber, “Racism, Chauvinism Keynote US Music,” Sing Out! 2:5 (November 1951): 6-7, 10; Aaron Kramer and Clyde R. Appleton, “Blues for Emmett Till,” Sing Out! 6:1 (Winter 1956): 3; Lawrence Gellert, Me and My Captain: Chain Gang Negro Songs of Protest (New York: Hours Press, 1939); and Gellert, “Negro Songs of Protest in America,” Music Vanguard 1.1 (March/April 1935): 3-13.

17. Alan Lomax, “Sage of a Folksong Hunter,” Hi/FiStereo Review, May 1960, 40-46; Lomax, “Folk Song Traditions Are All Around Us,” Sing Out! 11:1 (February/March 1961): 17-18; Alan Lomax Presents: Folk Song Festival at Carnegie Hall; Alan Lomax interview on the concert at http://www.alan-lomax.com/links_spitzer.html, accessed May 1, 2008; Harriet Van Horne, “Square Toes Blues,” New York World-Telegram and Sun (June 17, 1960); Montgomery, “Folk Furor,” 99.

18. Titon, “Reconstructing the Blues,” quote, 221. On the folk music revival, see David A. De Turk and A. Poulin Jr., The American Folk Scene: Dimensions of the Folksong Revival (New York: Dell, 1967); Cantwell, When We Were Good; Cohen, Folk Song Revival; Filene, Romancing the Folk; Rosenberg, Transforming Tradition; Irwin Silber, untitled editorial, Sing Out! 14:4 (September 1964); Cohen, Rainbow Quest; Kingston Trio, The Kingston Trio (Capitol Records, 1958), and Harry Belafonte, SwingDat Hammer (RCA, 1960). The version of “Grizzly Bear” collected by Pete Seeger and John Lomax was issued on Negro Prison Camp Worksongs (Folkways, 1956). John McPhee, “Folk Singing: Sibyl with Guitar,” Time, November 23, 1962, 54-60, quote, 54.

19. Alan Lomax, “‘The Folkniks’—and the Songs They Sing,” Sing Out! 9:1 (Summer 1959): 30-31, quotes, 31; “Folk Song as It Is,” Newsweek, April 14, 1958, 80; B. A. Botkin, “The Folksong Revival: Cult or Culture?” (1964), in De Turk and Poulin, American Folk Scene, 95-100, quote, 99; Grace Jan Waldman, “Life Among the Guitars,” Mademoiselle, May 1959, 88-89, 14, 27, 32, quotes, 88, 89, 14.

20. “Black Is the Color” is on Joan Baez, Ted Alevizos, and Bill Wood, Folksingers Round Harvard Square (Veritas, 1959). “All My Trials” is on Joan Baez, Joan Baez (Vanguard, 1960). Nat Hentoff, “Folk Finds a Voice,” Reporter, January 4, 1962, quotes, 40; McPhee, “Sibyl wih Guitar,” quotes, 56; Davis, Blues Legacies.

21. John Pankake, “Mike Seeger, the Style of Tradition,” Sing Out! 14:3 (July 1964): 6-9, quotes, 7; Pete Welding, “Crusaders for Old Time Music: The New Lost City Ramblers,” Sing Out! 11:5 (December 1961/January 1962): 5-7; Mike Seeger, “Mountain Music, Bluegrass Style,” Sing Out! 11:1 (February/March 1961): 10-13; Ellen J. Stekert, “Cents and Nonsense in the Urban Folksong Movement: 1930-1966” (1966), reprinted with a new introduction by the author in Rosenberg, Transforming Tradition, quotes, 97-98, 87. Field recordings made by Mike Seeger in Baltimore were released as Mountain Music Bluegrass Style (Folkways, 1959).

22. Sources on the controversy over white musicians playing the blues include Paul Garon, “Whites Versus Blacks,” in Blues and the Poetic Spirit (1975; San Francisco: City Lights, 2001); Garon, introduction to special section “Surrealism & Blues,” Living Blues 25 (January/February 1976); Garon, “White Blues,” http://www.bluesworld.com/WHITEBLUES.html, accessed April 2, 2010; and Hollie I. West, “Can White People Sing the Blues?” Ebony, July 1979,14-42.

23. Liner notes to Dave Van Ronk, Gambler’s Blues (Verve Folkways, 1965), a reissue of his earlier Folkways recordings; Mike Goodwin, “Dave Van Ronk: The Paradox of the Urban Blues Singer” Sing Out! 14:6 (January 1965): 26-30; Robert Shelton, “Folk Music Makes Mark on City’s Night Life,” New York Times, November 17, 1960; Newport Folk Festival program, quoted in Cantwell, When We Were Good, 300.

24. Nat Hentoff, “The Future of the Folk Renascence” in De Turk and Poulin, American Folk Scene, 326-31, quotes, 327; Frederic Ramsey Jr., Sing Out! 15: 2 (May 1965): 82; Barbara Dane, “Blues,” Sing Out! 15:5 (September 1965): 65-71, quote, 70. For a more positive account of white blues singers, see Paul Nelson, “Country Blues Comes to Town” Sing Out! 14:3 (July 1964), 14-24. For an optimistic account of whites’ ability to sing like blacks, see Waldemar Hille, “Can an All-White Group Sing Songs from Negro Culture?” Sing Out! 2:7 (January 1952): 2, 6-7, 14. According to Hille, whites need to capture “the real spirit of the blues”; otherwise, they are guilty of “cultural opportunism.” What is interesting about all the discussion of whites singing like blacks is how quickly the sentiment turns after 1965, when it becomes much less acceptable among revivalists. On the Society for the Preservation of Spirituals, see Stephanie Yuhl, A Golden Haze of Memory: The Making of Historic Charleston (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).

25. Letter to the editor from Joel Fritz, Castro Valley, Calif., Sing Out! 15:1 (March 1965): 102.

26. Sam Hinton, “The Singer of Folksongs and His Conscience,” Sing Out 7:1 (Spring 1957): 24-27, quotes, 24, 25; Hentoff, “Future of the Folk Renascence,” 327.

27. Montgomery, “Folk Furor,” 118; John Cohen, “A Reply to Alan Lomax: In Defense of City Folksingers,” Sing Out! 9:1 (Summer 1959): 332-34, quote, 33; Irwin Silber, “They’re Still Writing Folksongs Says Sing Out’s Editor,” Sing Out! 7:2 (Summer 1957): 30-31.

28. John Cohen and Mike Seeger, eds., The New Lost City Ramblers Song Book (New York: Oak Publications, 1964).

29. McPhee, “Sibyl with Guitar,” quote, 55; Montgomery, “Folk Furor,” 118; Bob Dylan, Chronicles (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004), 236; Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes; David Potter, People of Plenty: Economic Abundance and the American Character (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954); Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (New York: Free Press, 1960).

30. Leadbelly (Huddie Ledbetter), Rock Island Line (Naxos, 1951).

31. Pete Seeger, “Johnny Appleseed Jr.” Sing Out! 14:1 (February/March 1964): 71-73.

32. Nelson, “Country Blues Comes to Town.”

33. Ed Badeaux, “Please Don’t Tell What Train I’m On” Sing Out! 14:4 (September 1964): 6-12; Paul Nelson, “Newport: The Folk Spectacle Comes of Age” Sing Out! 14:5 (November 1964): 6-10.

34. Cantwell, When We Were Good, 49-80. Shelton, “Singing for Freedom: Music in the Integration Movement” Sing Out! 13:1 (December 1962/January 1963), 4-7, 12-17; Theodore Bikel, “We Shall Overcome… from Egypt to Mississippi,” Hootenanny, February 1964, manuscript copy sent by Bikel to James Forman, in Bikel File, Folder 4, Box 11, SNCC; Van Ronk, Mayor of MacDougal Street, 131-32, 184. Hobart Smith, for example, played in minstrel shows too. See Smith, “I Just Got the Music in My Head,” 13.

35. “Folk Music: They Hear America Singing” Time, July 19,1963, 53; Paul Nelson, “What’s Happening” review of 1965 Newport Folk Festival, Sing Out! 15:5 (November 1965): 4.

36. Mississippi John Hurt, Mississippi John Hurt Today! (Vanguard, 1963); and Hurt, Avalon Blues: The Complete 1928 Okeh Recordings (Columbia, 1966); Dock Boggs, Legendary Singer and Banjo Player (Folkways, 1963). Hurt’s “Spike Driver Blues” and “Frankie” and Boggs’s “Sugar Baby” and “Country Blues” appeared on Smith’s Anthology of American Folk Music; Smith, “I Just Got the Music in My Head;” Cantwell, When We Were Good, 290; Robert Cantwell, Bluegrass Breakdown: The Making of the Old Southern Sound (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984); Neil V. Rosenberg, Bluegrass: A History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Malone, Country Music, USA; John Hammond, From Spirituals to Swing (Vanguard, 1999) reproduces recordings of this concert in New York City on December 23, 1938, as well as its sequel, a concert with the same name that occurred on December 24, 1939. This set also reproduces the original 1938 program. The McMichen quote is in Nelson, “Newport: The Folk Spectacle Comes of Age,” 7.

37. Folk revivalists (fans and musicians) exist on a continuum from the academic scholar and the purist musician like Mike Seeger to the casual fan and most popular adapters of folk songs like the Kingston Trio.

38. Nat Hentoff, “Folk Finds a Voice,” Reporter (January 4,1962), 39-42, quotes, 42: Silber, “Folk Music and the Success Syndrome.”

39. Cantwell, When We Were Good, 51; Michael Rogin, Blackface, White Noise:Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Silber, “Folk Music and the Success Syndrome” quote, 2.

40. The most popular romanticism of the twentieth century—folk revivalism—was in this sense different from the most popular romanticism of the nineteenth century, minstrelsy. In revivalism, the love was right out in the open, but the politics of that love, the theft, the belief that the folk should not change but they might set you free, was denied. Alan Lomax wrote repeatedly of the love. See “Folk Song Traditions Are All Around Us”: “In folklore, more than in any other of the arts, the performer or student must have a devotion to the material which is akin to love” (17).

41. Bernice Reagon, “The Song Culture of the Civil Rights Movement,” liner notes to Voices of the Civil Rights Movement, 1.

42. Seeger Biographical Material for promoting SNCC benefits. Seeger File, Folder 3, Box 20, SNCC.

43. Len Holt, Norfolk, Va., [sometime in 1962 before June], to Jim Foreman, Atlanta; both in Seeger File, Folder 3, Box 20, SNCC.

44. The first scholar to write about these issues was W. E. B. DuBois, Souls of Black Folks (1903). On the Jubilee Singers, see Cohen, Folk Song America, 12-14; and Fisk Jubilee Singers: The Gold and Blue Album (Folkways records, 1955). Ed Badeaux, “Please Don’t Tell What Train I’m On,” Sing Out! 14:4 (September 1964): 6-12. The politics of folk revivalism at the turn of the century were conservative.

45. Seeger File, Folder 3, Box 20, SNCC; Irwin Silber, “Pete Seeger: Voice of Our Democratic Heritage,” in Sing Out! 4: 6 (May 1954): 4-7; David King Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), 219-24.

46. Lomax quote in Silber, “Pete Seeger,” 7; and Miles College Seeger Concert Promotional Materials and Morehouse College Seeger Concert promotional materials, in Folder 3, Box 20, SNCC.

47. Lee was murdered on Sept. 25. 1962. “We’ll Never Turn Back” is in Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 93.

48. For the Freedom Song version of “Hold On” see “Keep Your Eyes on the Prize,” in Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 111; Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, quote, 222.

49. Dunaway, How Can I Keep From Singing, 219-24.

50. Seeger, [Beacon, N.Y.], May 31, 1963, to Chico, Bob [Moses], and Sam, [Kilby State Prison, Miss.]; and Seeger, Beacon, NY, May 31, 1963, to Jim Forman, [Atlanta]; all in Folder 3, Box 20, SNCC. Seeger also got his manager, Harold Leventhal, involved collecting writer’s royalties for three songs copyrighted to SNCC workers, “If You Miss Me At the Back of the Bus,” “I Ain’t Scared of Your Jail,” and “Woke Up This Morning.” See Freedom Singers, Folder 6, Box 70, SNCC. The statements from August 1964 show the songs earning almost $800 in the six months ending June 30, 1964. Seeger included Freedom Songs on many of his records in the mid-sixties. See, for example, We Shall Overcome, a live recording of Seeger’s Carnegie Hall Concert, June 8, 1963 (Columbia, 1963), on which five of the thirteen songs are Freedom Songs.

51. Guy Carawan, La Jolla, Calif., May 15, 1962, to Jim Forman, Atlanta; and Jim Forman, [Atlanta], [November, 1962], to Carawan, La Jolla, Calif.; all in Cara- wan, Folder 4, SNCC. On Carawan’s own troubles in Albany, see Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement.” On Freedom in the Air, see the review in The Reporter (December 7, 1963), and SNCC News Release, Freedom Singers File, Folder 10, Box 130, SNCC. For different approaches to the Freedom Singers and the Freedom Songs, see Bradford Martin, The Theater is in the Street: Politics and Public Performance in Sixties America (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004), 20-48; and T. V. Reed, The Art of Protest: Culture and Activism from the Civil Rights Movement to the Streets of Seattle (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 1-39.

52. Carson, In Struggle, 64; Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement,” 39-40.

53. Reagon, “In Our Hands” and “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement.” Dunaway, How Can I Keep from Singing, 224-25; Toshi Seeger File, Folder 4, Box 20, SNCC. See also the Freedom Singers Folders scattered throughout SNCC.

54. Dorothy Zellner interview, June 7, 2006, and Mary King interview, June 7, 2006, both in the author’s possession; Seeger, Everybody Says Freedom, 88-89. On SNCC’s office, see Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 272. Press materials, Freedom Singers File, Folder 10, Box 130, SNCC; Robert Shelton, “Negro Songs Here Aid Rights Drive,” New York Times (June 23, 1963); Ralph Gleason, “The Voice of Freedom,” San Francisco Chronicle (April 25, 1965), clipping in Freedom Singers File, Folder 7, Box 70; Fundraising-Freedom Singers File, Folder 8, Box 70, SNCC. The 1964 lineup was all men—James Peacock, Marshall Jones, Charles Neblett, and Emory Harris.

55. Freedom Singers, We Shall Overcome (Mercury Records, 1962); Mercury Records File, Folder 5, Box 71; SNCC.

56. See the schedule notes for 1963 in Freedom Singers File, Folder 10, Box 130, SNCC.

57. Neblett is quoted in Clipping, “Out of Southern Jails: Freedom Singers Present Story,” Carltonian (May 8, 1963), [no author listed in the part that survives]; in freedom Singers, Folder 6, Box 70, SNCC. See the fund-raising folders, confusingly separated into New York, Atlanta, and other offices’ files, in SNCC. SNCC used the Freedom Singers, concerts by Pete Seeger and other folk singers (see the Chicago Second City benefit in 1964, which used Theodore Bikel, the Greenbriar Boys, and the Even Dozen Jug Band, among other musicians—see Benefits, Folder 2, Box 121, SNCC) to raise a significant proportion of its annual budgets in 1963, 1964, and 1965. With SNCC’s problematic record keeping, exact figures are hard to come by. But in 1963, the year the Freedom Singers began touring, SNCC raised $309,000, up from the $50,000 it raised the year before; $142,000 came from institutions and $74,000 from individuals, but most of the remaining $93,000 came from musical benefits and concerts, many of them featuring the Freedom Singers. Freedom Singer Receipts for concerts between October 3-December 31, 1964 (at which only the Singers performed) account for income of $6,000.79. See Freedom Singers, Folder 7, Box 70, SNCC. The large benefits, at which the Freedom Singers often joined more famous entertainers, did bring in a lot more money per event than the Freedom Singers’ college concerts. It is impossible to calculate, however, how many of the increasing number of individuals who sent money to SNCC’s national office from all over the country had heard the Freedom Singers. The Singers, in this sense, functioned always as an advertisement for the organization. Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 293, 307, 430, 449, 454, talks a great deal about SNCC fund-raising and describes the Freedom Singers in these terms. According to Forman, SNCC’s funds, between 1963-1966, besides money from foundations for voter registration efforts, came almost entirely from white liberals, including college students, and black entertainers like Harry Belafonte, Lorraine Hansberry, Diahann Carroll, and Sidney Poitier. See also Carson, In Struggle.

Less successfully than SNCC, CORE also formed its own singing group, the CORE Freedom Singers, also called the CORE Singers, to raise money for and awareness of its civil rights work. See CORE Papers, microfilm, Series II, Reel 11 for CORE’s attempt to use a group called “Afro-American Folkloric Troupe” for fund-raising in 1964 and 1965.

The Freedom Singers’ southern tour of historically black colleges in early 1964 was a part of SNCC’s efforts to recruit more black student workers in reaction to the fact that northern white students began joining the organization in increasing numbers in 1963. One third of the participants at the annual conference in the spring of 1963, for example, were white. The tour was not particularly successful, either in fund-raising or recruitment. The schedule is in Freedom Singers, Folder 6, Box 70, SNCC.

58. The quotes are from Freedom Singers, Folder 6, Box 70, SNCC. See all the SNCC Freedom Singer files for scattered responses to concerts, often in letters asking to host the group again, and clippings from college newspapers.

59. Reagon, “In Our Hands,” 2. On unsuccessful efforts to raise money by selling the Freedom Singers Mercury Records album The Freedom Singers Sing of Freedom Now, see Fundraising-Mercury Records File, Folder 5, Box 71, SNCC.

60. Hate Mail, Folder 11, Box 15; Jim Ryerson, Station Manager, Radio Station WMUU, Bob Jones University, August 19, 1964, to Morrie Diamond, Mercury Records, Chicago, Illinois, in Mercury Records, Folder 5, Box 71, SNCC.

61. “Folk Music: They Hear America Singing,” Time (July 19,1963), 53.

62. Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement,” 165-67. We Shall Overcome: Documentary of the March on Washington (Folkways FH 5592); Branch, Parting the Waters, 877; Cantwell, When We Were Good, 301.

63. We Shall Overcome:Documentary of the March on Washington (Folkways FH 5592); Reagon, “Songs of the Civil Rights Movement^’165-7; Branch, Parting the Waters, 877.

64. Thomas Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Strugglefor Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008); Virginia Durr, Freedom Writer: Virginia Foster Durr, Letters from the Civil Rights Years, edited by Patricia Sullivan (New York: Routledge, 2003), 334-35.

65. Porter Grainger and Bob Pickett, How to Play and Sing the Blues Like the Phonograph and Stage Artists, quoted in Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1996), 393-94.

66. This section draws on Jann Weiner, “The Bob Dylan Interview,” Rolling Stone (November 29, 1969); Robert Shelton, No Direction Home: The Life and Music of Bob Dylan (1986; rpt., New York: Da Capo, 2003); Clinton Heylin, Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991); Heylin, A Life in Stolen Moments: Day by Day: 1941-1995 (New York: Schirmer Books, 1996), and Bob Dylan: The Recording Sessions 1960-1994 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995); Hadju, Positively 4th Street; Carl Benson, ed., The Bob Dylan Companion: Four Decades of Commentary (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998); John Nogowski, Bob Dylan: A Descriptive, Critical Discography and Filmography, 1961-1993 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1995); Bob Dylan, Lyrics, 1962-1985 (New York: Knopf, 1995); Bob Dylan, Chronicles, Volume One (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004); and all of Dylan’s Columbia recordings through 1966 and Bob Dylan, Live 1966, recorded in 1966 and released by Sony Music in 1985. The quote is from the interview with Dylan in Gil Turner, “Bob Dylan—A New Voice Singing New Songs,” Sing Out! (October/November 1962), 5-10.

Dylan, Chronicles, quote, 244; and Klein, Woody Guthrie, 255-61. Jack Kerouac called Woody Guthrie “the first white Negro.” See John Cohen, “Roscoe Holcomb at Zebriskie Point,” Sing Out! 9 (September/October 1970), 20-21.

67. Hadju, Positively 4th Street, 63-88; Sounes, Down the Highway, 43-72; Heylin, Stolen Moments, 3-7, includes photos of Dylan in high school; Woody Guthrie, Bound for Glory (1943, rpt., New York: E. P. Dutton, 1976). Whitaker is spelled Whittaker in Dylan, Chronicles, 245.

68. Hadju, Positively 4th Street, 71-88, quote, 71; Heylin, Stolen Moments, 12; Steve Turner, Angelheaded Hipster: A Life of Jack Kerouac (New York: Viking, 1996), viii. In October 1975 while on his Rolling Thunder tour, Dylan visited Kerouac’s grave in Lowell, MA.

69. Turner, “Bob Dylan” 5-10, quote, 5; Hadju, Positively 4th Street, 71-88.

70. Izzy Young’s diary entries recording his conversations with Dylan, published in 1968 and reprinted in Benson, Dylan Companion, 3-10, quotes, 3-4, 4, 5, 6; Turner, “Bob Dylan” 5-6; Hadju, Positively 4th Street, 64-75; Dylan, Chronicles, 21; Cantwell, When We Were Good.

71. Dylan, Chronicles, 255.

72. Klein, Woody Guthrie, 139-79, quote, 164. Bob Dylan, Freewheelin’Bob Dylan (Columbia, 1963); The Times They Are A-Changin (Columbia Records, 1964); Dylan, Lyrics. Leadbelly faced the same dilemma when he came to NYC in 1934 but approached it from a very different history, from life in the Delta and in southern prisons. He never dropped his deferential-to-whites southern sharecropper demeanor, even in front of white men he knew well. Woody slept on Huddie and Martha Ledbetter’s Murphy bed many nights in the early forties and yet Leadbelly still called him Mr. Woody. Leadbelly had learned in Mississippi that there are reasons to perform that are not aesthetic or commercial or psychological. See Klein, Woody Guthrie, 157-58.

73. Cantwell, When We Were Good, 351; Klein, Woody Guthrie, 363-65; Dylan, Chronicles, 247, 250-53.

74. Klein, Woody Guthrie, 363-65; Dylan, Chronicles, 247, 250-53.

75. Robert Shelton, “Bob Dylan: A Distinctive Folksong Stylist” New York Times, September 29, 1961, 31.

76. Dylan, Lyrics, quotes, 6, 3, 4; Klein, Woody Guthrie, 288-89; Nogowski, Discography, 20-21; J. R. Goddard, “Records: Bob Dylan” Village Voice, April 26, 1962.

77. Paul Nelson and Jon Pankake, “Flat Tire,” Little Sandy Review (June 1963), reprinted in Benson, ed., Dylan Companion, 20-23, quote, 22-23.

78. Review in Village Voice 1962, reprinted in Benson, ed., Dylan Companion, 12-13; Heylin, Behind the Shades, 58-111; Shelton, No Direction Home, 116-208.

79. Dylan, Lyrics, quotes, 56, 59; Nogowski, Discography, 20-25.

80. “Northern Folksingers Help Out at Negro Festival in Mississippi,” New York Times, July 7, 1963; “Folk Music: They Hear America Singing,” Time, July 19, 1963, 53; Danny Lyon, Memories of the Southern Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), photograph, 110.

81. Hadju, Positively 4th Street, 164-68; Heylin, Stolen Moments, quotes, 47, 49-50; Dylan, Lyrics, quote, 111.

82. “I am My Words,” Newsweek, November 4, 1963, 94-95; and Irwin Silber and Paul Nelson, “What’s Happening,” Sing Out! 15: 5 (November 1965), 4-8.

83. Dylan, Lyrics, 135,129,139.

84. Some of Bruce Springsteen’s early work, especially his 1982 album Nebraska (Sony, 1982), is another cycle of this revival.

85. “Bob Dylan’s Dream.” Dylan, Lyrics, 62.

86. “Like a Rolling Stone” in Dylan, Lyrics, 167-68. The best description of Dylan’s performance at Newport is in Hadju, Positively 4th Street, 253-63.

87. Dylan, Lyrics, 62. In Chronicles, Dylan links his own experiences symbolically and historically to an aesthetic, literary, and musical history of the folk rather than claiming that he is of the folk. A perfect example, among many, of how Dylan in Chronicles subtly connects himself to a now canonical line of American music is his description of singing the Bessie Smith hit “Nobody Knows You When You’re Down and Out” to audition for Dave Van Ronk and a gig at the Greenwich Village folk venue The Gaslight (21-22). All Dylan interviews, autobiographical writings, etc., are self-conscious performances. The real Dylan isn’t any one of these self-representations and cannot be found in Dylan’s own words any more than anywhere else. The real Dylan is the performing, continually self-inventing Dylan.

88. Irwin Silber, “After Newport—What?” Sing Out! 14: 5 (November 1964): 2.

Chapter 4: Rebels on the Right

1. John Judis, William F. Buckley: Patron Saint of the Conservatives (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); William F. Buckley, God and Man at Yale (1951; South Bend, Ind.: Gateway Editions, 1977), quotes, 151; Grace Elizabeth Hale, “Rebels on the Right: Conservatives as Outsiders from William F. Buckley to Operation Rescue” UVA Miller Center of Public Affairs American Political Development Program’s Colloquia Series on Politics and History, February 23, 2006, and the Lockmiller Seminar, Emory University, Atlanta, March 23, 2006; Kevin Mattson, Rebels All! (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University, 2008).

2. “Publisher’s Statement,” National Review, November 19, 1955, quote, 5. The Wallace program is quoted in “Mike Wallace Asks William F. Buckley, Jr., Where Is the Right Wing?” New York Post, January 15, 1958.

3. Judis, Buckley, 264, 269-70, 309-10; Larry King, “God, Man, and William F. Buckley, Jr.,” Harper’s, March 1967, 53-61; “William F. Buckley: Conservatism Can Be Fun” cover article, Time, November 3, 1967, 70-80, quotes, 70, 72.

4. Quotes are from “Publisher’s Statement,” National Review, November 19,1955, 5, except “the Buckley style,” in “Conservatism Can Be Fun,” 70.

5. Joan Didion, The WhiteAlbum (New York: Noonday, 1979), quote, 98.

6. Gregory L. Schneider, Cadres for Conservatism:Young Americansfor Freedom and the Rise of the Contemporary Right (New York: New York University Press, 1999); John A. Andrew, Young Americans for Freedom and the Rise of Conservative Politics (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997); Jennifer Burns, Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

7. Sources on American conservatism in the postwar period that have influenced my thinking here include Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion (New York: Basic Books, 1995); Chip Berlett and Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort (New York: Guilford Press, 2000); Jonathan M. Schoenwald, A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001); Thomas Frank, What’s the Matter with Kansas? (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004); Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001); David Farber and Jeff Roche, eds., The Conservative Sixties (New York: Peter Lang, 2003); Bruce J. Schulman and Julian Zelizer, eds., Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008); Godfrey Hodgson, The World Turned Right Side Up: A History of the Conservative Ascendancy in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996); Mary C. Brennan, Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Lawrence Grossberg, We Gotta Get Out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (New York: Routledge, 1992); Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Eliot (Chicago: Regnery, 1953); Kirk, The Portable Conservative Reader (New York: Penguin, 1982); George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); R. Laurence Moore, Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Carol Flake, Redemptorama: Culture, Politics, and the New Evangelicalism (New York: Anchor Books, 1984); William Martin, With God on Our Side (New York: Broadway Books, 1996); Martin Anderson, Revolution: The Reagan Legacy (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988). On the growth of conservatism as a backlash against civil rights and feminism, see Cornel West, Race Matters (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993); Dan Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996); and Susan Faludi, Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women (New York: Crown, 1991).

8. While corporate funding of conservative institution-building, federal government infiltration and harassment of left-wing organizations through the FBI’s COINTELPRO, the right-wing political strategizing of figures like Paul Weyrich and Kevin Phillips, and the direct mail genius of Paul Viguerie are all key elements in the history of the rise of the New Right, not enough attention has been paid to why so many Americans responded to these new conservative institutions, what I would call the cultural history of the rise of the New Right. It is important, however, to remember in any discussion of the right the tremendous power of the financial resources available to conservatives across the twentieth century. See Kim Phillips-Fein, “Right On,” Nation, September 9, 2009.

9. Dwight Macdonald, “God and Buckley at Yale,” and Irving Kristol, “On the Burning Deck,” both in Reporter, May 27, 1952; Dan Wakefield, “WF.B. Jr., Portrait of a Complainer,” Esquire. January 1961, 49-52, quote, 52. On Macdonald, see Gregory D. Sumner, Dwight Macdonald and the Politics Circle (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996).

10. King, “God, Man, and William F. Buckley, Jr.” 53; “Conservatism Can Be Fun” quotes, 70, 72; Mailer quote in Judis, Buckley, 267. Buckley ran for mayor in 1965, and Mailer ran in 1960 (an attempt cut short) and 1969. See Wakefield, “Portrait of a Complainer” quote, 53.

11. Judis, Buckley, quote, 42; King, “God, Man, and William F. Buckley, Jr.”; “William F. Buckley, Jr.: A Candid Conversation,” Playboy, May 5, 1970, 75-88, 180-91; “Conservatism Can Be Fun.” Judis disputes the details of these stories and ignores others altogether. Whether they are true or not is less important for my purposes than that Buckley felt compelled to create an autobiography that figured rebelliousness as a trait he had possessed since childhood. Being a rebel, in this figuration, is not a break with his parents and upbringing, an adolescent or young adult transition. It is instead a mark of continuity.

12. “Conservatism Can Be Fun” 72.

13. Buckley, Cruising Speed:A Documentary (New York: Putnam, 1971), quote, 142; Judis, Buckley, 52-82, quote, 56.

14. Buckley, God and Man at Yale, quotes, 151,150,148, v; Macdonald, “God and Buckley at Yale.”

15. Buckley, God andMan at Yale, quotes, 151.

16. Macdonald, “God and Buckley at Yale” quotes, 37 (typo used “ruled” for “rude”); Buckley, God and Man at Yale, quote, lix-lx.

17. Judis, Buckley, 92-98. Macdonald cites America in “God and Buckley at Yale,” 36, as well as sales figures, reviews, and the reactions of other conservatives.

18. Macdonald, “God and Buckley at Yale,” quotes, 35, 38; Judis, Buckley, 97. See also Peter Viereck, “Conservatism Under the Elms,” New York Times Book Review, November 4, 1951, as accessed July 23, 2010, at http://www.nytimes.com/books/00/07/16/specials/buckley-yale.

19. Buckley and Brent Bozell, McCarthy and His Enemies:The Record and Its Meaning (Chicago: Regnery, 1954), quote, 252; William S. White, “What the McCarthy Method Seeks to Establish,” New York Times Book Review, April 4, 1954, 4; Harry W. Baehr, review of McCarthy and His Enemies, New York Herald Tribune, April 4, 1954, 12; Francis Coker, review of McCarthy and His Enemies, Journal of Politics 17:1 (February 1955): 113-22. Buckley and Bozell appeared on the television program Author Meets the Critics, aired on WABD in New York City on March 28, 1954.

20. C. Wright Mills, “The Powerless People: The Role of the Intellectual in Society” (Politics, 1944), in The Power of Truth: Selected Writings of C. Wright Mills, ed. John H. Summers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 13-24; Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society (New York: Scribner, 1932); Michael Harrington, The Other America: Poverty in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1962).

21. First quote, Judis, Buckley, 133; W. F. Buckley Jr., “Memorandum, RE: A New Magazine,” September 1954, Henry Regnery Papers, quoted in Schoenwald, Time for Choosing, 167; Richard H. Pells, The Liberal Mind in a Conservative Age: American Intellectuals in the 1940s and 1950s (New York: Harper and Row, 1985), 183-261, quotes, 185. Buckley indeed aimed for a “manly” style, and very few women wrote for National Review in its first decade.

22. National Review, November 19, 1955. For the conspiratorial tone, pick up any issue of National Review for the first five years.

23. Judis, Buckley, 134-47. For Buckley, being a rebel against “the liberal establishment” was paradoxically a way for him to be like his father. Buckley’s brand of rebellion was in effect the family tradition. The best expression of Buckley’s political philosophy in his words is Buckley, Up from Liberalism (New York: McDowell, Obolensky, 1959). Democracy, he argues there, is a means, not an end, to the just, virtuous, and harmonious society. Democracy warps liberals’ judgments, Buckley insists, and he offers two examples, the American South and Africa. He also condemns liberals for the “great emptiness of their faith.” Liberalism, he argues, has no vision and therefore no passion: “Liberalism cannot care deeply, and so cannot be cared about deeply” (112).

24. Editorial, National Review, February 29,1956; Buckley, “Why the South Must Prevail,” National Review, August 24, 1957; Buckley, “Can We Desegregate Hesto Presto?” (Saturday Review, 1961), in Buckley, Rumbles Left and Right: A Book About Troublesome People and Ideas (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1963); “Candid Conversation”; Judis, Buckley, 138-39.

25. Robert Welch, The Politician:A Look at the Political Forces That Propelled Dwight David Eisenhower into the Presidency (John Birch Society, 1963); Schoenwald, Time for Choosing, 62-99.

26. Buckley, National Review, February 3,1962; Judis, Buckley, 200.

27. Buckley saw Ayn Rand’s kind of conservatism, expressed most fully in her books Atlas Shrugged (New York: Random House, 1957) and The Fountainhead (Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1943), as immoral.

28. William F. Buckley Jr., “A Conservative’s View,” and Norman Mailer, “A Liberal’s View,” Playboy, January 1963; Mailer and Buckley, “The Right Wing” debate, Playboy, February 1963; “Debate: James Baldwin versus William Buckley: Has the American Dream Been Achieved at the Expense of the American Negro,” October 26, 1965, at Cambridge University, Cambridge, England, broadcast in the United States on NET, available online at http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/videodir/asx2/2299.asx, accessed March 30, 2010; James Baldwin and Norman Mailer, “The American Dream and the American Negro,” New York Times Magazine, March 7, 1965, 32-33, 87-89; “An Interview with William F. Buckley, Jr.,” Mademoiselle, June 1961, 78-79, 120-24; Judis, Buckley, 221.

29. Firing Line Television Program Collection, Hoover Institution, Stanford University, online at http://hoohila.stanford.edu/firingline/, accessed May 1, 2009. This site includes information about the program as well as a full, chronological listing of episodes, many of which are available online in either a transcript or video format.

30. Firing Line episodes: Harrington on “Poverty: Hopeful or Hopeless?” taped on April 4, 1966; Thomas on “Vietnam: Pull Out? Stay In? Escalate?” taped on April 8, 1966; Lynd on “Vietnam—What Next?” taped on May 23, 1966; Farmer on “Where Does the Civil Rights Movement Go Now?” taped on April 18, 1966; McKissick on “Civil Rights and Foreign Policy,” taped on August 22, 1966; Gregory on “Civil Disobedience: How Far Can It Go?” taped on May 16, 1966; Leary on “The World of LSD,” taped on April 10, 1967; Murray the K on “What to Do with the American Teen-ager,” taped on November 14, 1966; Hefner on “The Playboy Philosophy,” taped on September 12, 1966; Ginsberg on “The Avant Garde,” taped May 7, 1968; Goodman on “Are Public Schools Necessary?” taped on September 12, 1966; Alinsky on “Mobilizing the Poor,” taped December 11, 1967; all at http://hoohila.stanford.edu/firingline.

31. Buckley, “How I Came to Rock,” Saturday Evening Post, August 24,1968; “William F. Buckley, Jr.: A Candid Conversation,” Playboy, May 5, 1970, 75-88, 180-91, quotes, 185, 188; Judis, Buckley, 263-76.

32. Frederick C. Klein, “Rapier on the Right: Editor-Debater Buckley Gains More Prominence as Conservatives’ Voice,” Wall Street Journal, January 31, 1967, Mailer quote, 1, 16.

33. Tom Hayden, “Who Are the Student Boat-Rockers?” Mademoiselle, August 1961, 239, 333-37, quote, 239. Other contemporary sources on conservative students in the sixties include M. Stanton Evans, Revolt on Campus (Chicago: Regnery, 1961); Edward Cain, They’d Rather Be Right (New York: Macmillan, 1963); and Erik Erickson, ed., “Youth: Change and Challenge Special Issue,” Daedalus 91 (1962).

34. Alan Dunn, cartoon, New Yorker, April 1,1961; “Campus Conservatives,” Time, February 3, 1961, quotes, 34, 34, 34, 37, 37; Russell Kirk, “New Direction in the US: Right?” New York Times Magazine, August 7, 1966; Harold Taylor, “The New Young Are Now Heard,” New York Times Magazine, January 29, 1961; Cain, They’d Rather Be Right.

35. Young Americans for Freedom, “The Sharon Statement,” National Review, September 24, 1960, 173; Andrew, Young Americans for Freedom, 53-101, call quoted on 55. The estimate of the number of delegates comes from Schneider, Cadres for Conservatism, 33.

36. Hayden, “Who Are the Student Boat-Rockers?” 333.

37. Evans, Revolt on Campus, 64; and Schneider, Cadres for Conservatism, 32-34.

38. William F. Buckley, “The Young Americans for Freedom,” National Review September 24, 1960, 172; Edward interview quoted in Schneider, Cadres for Conservatism, 34.

39. Andrew, Young Americansfor Freedom, 5; Dan Wakefield, New York in theFifties (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992), 270; Rebecca Klatch, Women of the New Right (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Lee and Anne Edwards, Rebels with a Cause (Washington, D.C.: YAF, 1969); “Campus Conservatives.”

40. New Guard 1 (April 1961); New Guard 1 (March 1961); Andrew, Young Americans for Freedom, 53-101.

41. Andrew, Young Americansfor Freedom, 53-101. He estimates that YAF had as many as thirty thousand members by the summer of 1961 (93).

42. See photographs in “Campus Conservatives;” Taylor, “The New Young Are Now Heard;” Kirk, “New Direction”; Schneider, Cadres for Conservatism; Andrew, Young Americans for Freedom.

43. Lawrence F. Schiff, “Dynamic Old Fogies: Rebels on the Right,” in Campus Power Struggles, ed. Howard S. Becker (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1970), 121-36, quote, 129; George F. Gilder, “God’s Right Hand: The Views and Vita of William F. Buckley, Jr.” Playboy, May 1969, 130-32, 236-46, quotes, 242. Schiff’s article, which I discovered long after I thought I had coined the phrase “rebels on the right,” must take credit as the source.

44. Port Huron Statement, in Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 329-74, quotes, 332, 333, 331; Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).

45. Wakefield, “Portrait of a Complainer” 49-52, quotes, 52.

46. Sources on libertarianism include Craig Duncan and Tibor Machan, Libertarianism: For and Against (Lanhan, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005); David Boaz, Libertarianism: A Primer (New York: Free Press, 1997); and Larry Norman, On Classic Liberalism and Libertarianism (New York: St. Martin’s, 1987).

47. Many of Thompson’s letters are published in Hunter S. Thompson, Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman, 1955-1967 (New York: Ballantine Books, 1997), and Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist, 1968-1976 (New York: Touchstone, 2000). Much like populism, the politics of a turn-of-the-century vision of individualism anchored in the political economy, the postwar politics of expressive individualism disrupted earlier political categories.

48. Albert Camus, The Rebel (New York: Knopf, 1954); Colin Wilson, The Outsider (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956); Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (New York: Philosophical Library, 1956). Thompson is like Kerouac and Ginsberg in his saving of his letters and papers.

49. This news release appeared in the Command Courier on November 8,1957, and is reprinted in Thompson, Proud Highway, 74-75, quote, 74; quotes from letters, Proud Highway, 71, 68, 69, 70-71, 73.

50. Thompson, ProudHighway, 110.

51. Thompson, ProudHighway, 118,119,121,101-2,159,165,128,176.

52. Thompson, ProudHighway, 109,137, 420, 452, 492, 496, 509, 492. See especially Thompson’s letter to Johnson, 495-97.

53. Thompson, ProudHighway, quotes, 507, 509, 496.

54. Thompson, Proud Highway, quote, 110; references to the beatniks include 109, 120, 127-29, 139-40; Thompson, Fear and Loathing in America, quotes, 7-11, and see the reprinted article, 5-11.

Chapter 5: New White Negroes in Action

1. Tom Hayden, Reunion:A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1988), 39-41; Virginia Durr, Freedom Writer: Virginia Foster Durr, Letters from the Civil Rights Years, ed. Patricia Sullivan (New York: Routledge, 2003), 175; James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), 33-34, 185-87; Bob Zellner with Constance Curry, The Wrong Side of Murder Creek: A White Southerner in the Freedom Movement (Montgomery, Ala.: New South Books, 2008), 61.

2. Scholars have thoroughly explored the intellectual, theoretical, political, and economic origins of the New Left. See Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets; Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987); Wini Breines, Community and Organization in the New Left, 1962-1968: The Great Refusal (New York: Praeger, 1982); Maurice Isserman, The Death of the Old Left and the Birth of the New Left (New York: Basic Books, 1987); Sohnya Sayres, Anders Stephanson, Stanley Aronowitz, and Fredric Jameson, The 60s Without Apology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984); Arthur Marwick, The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States(New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); and Van Gosse, Rethinking the New Left: An Interpretative History (New York: Palgrave, 2005). Scholars have also examined questions of cultural origins in the increasingly popular images of rebellion circulating in rock and roll, movies, and literature in the postwar period. See Steven Watson, The Birth of the Beat Generation: Visionaries, Rebels, and Hipsters, 1944-1960 (New York: Pantheon, 1995); George Lipsitz, “Against the Wind: Dialogic Aspects of Rock and Roll,” in Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1990), 99-132; George Gillett, The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll (New York: Da Capo, 1995); and Leerom Medovoi, Rebels: Youth and the Cold War Origins of Identity (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005). What is missing in this scholarship is an account of what the romance of the rebel does, not for the political economy, but for the people who embrace it—the history of the emotional origins of the New Left.

3. Hayden, Albany City Jail, Albany, Georgia, December 11, [1961], to SDS, Folder 18, Box 9, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Records, Martin Luther King Center, Atlanta, Georgia (hereafter cited as SNCC). Sources on SDS include the 1977 microfilm edition of the Students for a Democratic Society Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison (hereafter cited as SDS microfilm); Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets; Kirkpatrick Sale, SDS (New York: Random House, 1973); G. Louis Heath, Vandals in the Bomb Factory: The History and Literature of the Students for a Democratic Society (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1976); and Gitlin, Sixties. Sources on Hayden include Tim Findley, “Tom Hayden: Rolling Stone Interview Parts I and II” Rolling Stone, October 26, 1972, 36-50, and November 9, 1972, 28-36; Steven V Roberts, “Will Tom Hayden Overcome?” Esquire, December 1968, 176-79, 207-9; and Hayden, Reunion.

4. Hayden, Albany City Jail, Albany, Georgia, December 11, [1961], to SDS, Folder 18, Box 9, SNCC.

5. “Student Riots in San Francisco—A Communist Coup,” U.S. News and World Report, July 25, 1960, 68-71; Carl Werthman, “The Student Organization of Protest,” New University Thought, Autumn 1960, 15-18; Jerold Simmons, Operation Abolition: The Campaign to Abolish the House Un-American Activities Committee, 1938-1975 (New York: Garland, 1986), 179-97; W. J. Rorabaugh, Berkeley at War: The 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 15-16; Walter Goodman, The Committee: The Extraordinary Career of the House Committee on Un-American Activities (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1968).

6. Northern Student Movement, Building a New Reality, 1963 pamphlet, quoted in Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 48-50, 186-87; James Brook, “Ghetto Students,” Common Sense, February 1962, 8-10; Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

7. Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 28-40; Sale, SDS; Findley, “Hayden Interview II,” 38.

8. SDS Conference on Human Rights in the North, May 1, 1960, SDS File, Folder 18, Box 9, SNCC; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 28-40. Massimo Teodori, ed., The New Left: A Documentary History (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969), provides useful estimates of New Left numbers (35) and a good overview of the broad variety of New Left organizing across the decade.

9. SNCC letters to SDS members thanking them for support; Haber letter to supporters about the integration of the University of Georgia; Haber, SDS, NYC, September 27, 1960, to Tim Jenkins, Philadelphia, all in SDS File, Folder 18, Box 9, SNCC.

10. Hayden, Reunion, quote, 18; Findley, “Hayden Interview I, II,” quote, I-38; Roberts, “Will Tom Hayden Overcome?” Hayden had a very different background than other earlier SDS members. On Sharon Jeffrey’s path into politics, see Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 31-34,184-87.

11. Hayden, Reunion, 33-52, quotes, including Cason’s, 33, 39-41. Only a few students at the time knew that the National Student Association was funded and controlled by the CIA. Hayden, like other radicals, was unaware of the connection and saw NSA as a convenient forum for airing ideas and winning converts. Haber was there in 1960 too, looking for student leaders to recruit into SDS. The NSA-CIA connection was exposed in 1967. See Sol Stern, “A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, Etc.,” Ramparts, March 1967, 29-39.

12. Hayden, Reunion, 42-43, 46-47; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle:SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), quote, 27. Hayden’s Daily article quoted in Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 57; Roberts, “Will Tom Hayden Overcome?” quote, 179.

13. Hayden, Atlanta, November 10, 1961, to Robb [Burlage], SDS microfilm.

14. “Southern Report #2,” October 7, 1961, SDS File, Folder 18, Box 9, SNCC. See all the SDS Southern Reports, Series 1, Reel 1, Folders 11, 13, SDS microfilm.

15. Hayden memo to Haber, NYC, “SNCC Meeting; Jackson, Mississippi, September 14-17, 1961,” SDS File, Folder 18, Box 9, SNCC. Somehow, a memo marked confidential ended up in SNCC’s files.

16. Findley, “Hayden Interview I” 42; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 150.

17. Tom Hayden, Revolution in Mississippi (SDS Publication, 1962), Series 4B, Reel 37, Folder 159, SDS microfilm, quotes, 22. See also A. L. Hopkins, “Investigation of Negro Student Demonstrators, and Adult Negro Agitators, McComb, Mississippi, October 20, 1961”; September 6, 1962, letter to Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission members; and memo on Revolution in Mississippi, n.d.; all in Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission Papers, http://www.mdah.state.ms.us. The memo states: “This booklet (not meant for the eyes of white people) fell into the hands of white officials.” In fact, Hayden’s intended audience was white students.

The beating incident received a great deal of newspaper coverage. See, for example, “Miss. Plumber Beats Two Men,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, October 12, 1961; “Plumber Charged in Attack on Two” Jackson Clarion-Ledger, October 12, 1961; and “54 Burglund Students State Second Walkout,” McComb Enterprise-Journal, October 11, 1961: “Hayes told the police the incident did not involve the race issue.” The UPI and AP wire services picked up the story and the photo.

18. Findley, “Hayden Interview I,” 42; Hayden, Reunion, 64-72. This photograph is reproduced in Hayden, Reunion, between 236 and 237, and in Guy Carawan and Candie Carawan, eds. and comps., Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs (Bethlehem, Pa.: Oak Publications, 1990), 91.

19. Hayden, Revolution in Mississippi, quotes, 5.

20. Sale, SDS, 36-37, 663.

21. Hayden quoted in Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 59; Tom Hayden, “Who Are the Student Boat-Rockers?” Mademoiselle, August 1961.

22. Haber, NYC, to Nash, Atlanta, n.d. [late September-early October 1961]; Haber, memo to “Supporters of the SNCC fund raising program,” October 26, 1961, both in SDS File, Folder 18. Box 9, SNCC. SNCC remained broke through 1963. James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985) argues that SNCC counted on SDS and NSA to raise money for them in 1961 and 1962 and that the effort largely failed.

23. “Southern Report #2,” October 7, 1961; Hayden memo to Haber, NYC, “SNCC Meeting: Jackson, Mississippi, September 14-17, 1961”; Haber memo, October 26, 1961, all in SDS File, Folder 18, Box 9, SNCC.

24. Sale, SDS, 38-41, quotes, 39, 41.

25. On civil rights organizing outside the South, see Thomas J. Sugrue, SweetLand of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008).

26. Tom Hayden, “Student Social Action: From Liberation to Community,” in Mitchell Cohen and Dennis Hale, The New Student Left: An Anthology (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966), 270-88; Sale, SDS, 43; Hayden, Reunion, quotes, 77, 78.

27. Mills, “The Powerless People: The Role of the Intellectual in Society,” Politics 1 (April 1944), reprinted as “The Social Role of the Intellectual” in Mills, Power, Politics, and People: The Collected Essays of C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), 292-304, quote, 299. Hayden wrote his MA thesis at Michigan on Mills. See Hayden, Reunion, 81.

28. Hayden, “Student Social Action.”

29. Sale, SDS, 42-70; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 141-54.

30. All quotes are from SDS, “The Port Huron Statement,” 1962, in “Takin’It to the Streets”: A Sixties Reader, ed. Alexander Bloom and Wini Breines (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 51-61.

31. Miller, DemocracyIs in the Streets, 143-51; Breines, Community and Organization. SDS continues this emphasis on both the material and psychological aspects of oppression in its 1963 manifesto, “America and the New Era.”

32. Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, quote, 103; Findley, “Hayden Interview I, II;” Roberts, “Will Tom Hayden Overcome;” Herbert J. Gans, “The New Radicalism: Sect or Political Action Movement?” Studies on the Left 5 (Summer 1965): 126-40, which includes replies by Tom Hayden, Staughton Lynd, and James Weinstein.

33. Hayden’s quote is in SDS Bulletin, March-April 1963, Series 4A, Reel 35, Folder 19, SDS microfilm; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 187; Sale, SDS; Findley, “Hayden Interview I,” 42.

34. Tom Hayden and Carl Wittman, “An Interracial Movement of the Poor” Series 4B, Reel 37, Folder 151, SDS microfilm. See also “Prospectus for ERAP Project in Chester, Pennsylvania, During the Summer of 1964” Series 4B, Reel 39, Folder 371, SDS microfilm; Sale, SDS, 95-115; and Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 184-217.

35. Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 103. This was the argument liberals and labor leaders made in the 1930s as they dedicated resources to civil rights issues like fighting the poll tax. See Patricia Sullivan, Days of Hope: Race and Democracy in the New Deal Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).

36. Al Haber, “A Reply to the President’s Report,” SDS Bulletin, March 1964, Series 4A, Reel 35, Folder 19, SDS, 1, 23-25; Sale, SDS, 106-50

37. On the ERAP project, see the copies of the ERAP Newsletter in Economic Research and Action Report File, Folder 1, Box 123; ERAP file, Folder 10, Box 55; and Economic Research and Action Project File, Folder 4, Box 13, all in SNCC; and Series 2B, ERAP Papers, SDS microfilm. See also Rennie Davis, “The War on Poverty: Notes on Insurgent Response,” Series 4B, Reel 36, Folder 68; Kim Moody, “Organizing Poor Whites,” Series 4B, Reel 38, No. 250; “Philadelphia Research and Action Project Prospectus,” Series 4B, Reel 36, Folder 82; “Chester, PA: A Case Study in Community Organization,” Series 4B, Reel 38, Folder 273; and “Trenton, New Jersey: Report of the ERAP Summer Project, 1964,” Series 4B, Reel 39, Folder 373, all in SDS microfilm.

Writings about ERAP projects by participants and observers at the time include Norm Fruchter and Robert Kramer, “An Approach to Community Organizing Projects,” Studies on the Left 6 (1966): 31-61; Connie Brown, “Cleveland: Conference of the Poor,” in Bloom and Breines, “Takin It to the Streets,” 77-81; Richard Flacks, “Organizing the Unemployed: The Chicago Project,” in Cohen and Hale, New Student Left, 132-46; “Chicago: JOIN Project,” an interview with JOIN members Richie Rothstein, Judy Bernstein, Casey Hayden, Rennie Davis, and David Palmer, Studies on the Left 5 (Summer 1965): 107-25; and Todd Gitlin and Nanci Hollander, Uptown: Poor Whites in Chicago (New York: Harper and Row, 1970). Writings on community organizing include Stanley Aronowitz, “Poverty, Politics and Community Organizing,” Studies on the Left 4 (Summer 1964): 102-5; and Robert Fisher, Let the People Decide: Neighborhood Organizing in America (Boston: Twayne, 1984). Participants’ comments years later include Gitlin, Sixties, 165-92, 223-26; and Hayden, Reunion, 123-72. Secondary sources on ERAP include Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 184-217; Breines, Community and Organization, 123-49; Sale, SDS, 95-150; and Jennifer Frost, “An Interracial Movement of the Poor”: Community Organizing and the New Left(New York: New York University Press, 2001).

38. ERAP Newsletters; Sale, SDS, 95-115,131-50; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 184-217; Gitlin, Sixties, 105-26.

39. Andrew Kopkind, “Of, By and For the Poor: The New Generation of Student Organizers,” New Republic 152 (June 19, 1965): 15-19, quotes, 18; ERAP Newsletters.

40. SDS Bulletins for 1964 FIX; and ERAP Newsletters. For discussions of methods, see Hayden and Wittman, “Interracial Movement of the Poor.”

41. Roberts, “Will Tom Hayden Overcome?”; Hayden, “Open Letter to ERAP Supporters and New Organizers,” Series 4B, Reel 39, Folder 369, SDS microfilm.

42. ERAP Newsletters. On the welfare rights movement, see Francis Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); and Premilla Nadasen, Welfare Warriors: The Welfare Rights Movement in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2005).

43. Fruchter and Kramer, “Approach to Community Organizing Projects,” quote, 45; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 212, and note 59, 398; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 413-19.

44. Richard Rothstein, “A Short History of ERAP,” Series 4A, Reel 33, Folder 1, SDS microfilm; Hayden, “Open Letter to ERAP Supporters and New Organizers”; Michael Harrington, “The Mystical Militants” (New Republic, 1966), in Thoughts of the Young Radicals, and Four Critical Comments on Their Views of America, ed. Andrew Kopkind (New York: Pitman, 1966), 65-73, quote, 67; Tom Hayden, “The Politics of’The Movement,’” in The Radical Papers, ed. Irving Howe (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1996), quotes, 374-75; Fruchter and Kramer, “Approach to Community Organizing Projects,” 60-61; Findley, “Hayden Interview I, II”; Hayden, Reunion, 103-50.

Hayden admitted that it was a mistake to turn away from organizing students: “I think it was a misapplication of the lesson of the South, where black students dropped out of college and became the organizers of people in the communities through SNCC. And they established a line, or a mood, even in the North, that students had no business being in school, that they should be the revolutionary inspiration and catalyst to community movements… Not that the work was irrelevant, the work actually produced some results. But I think it came more from trying to follow the SNCC motto than from disillusionment with campus activities.” Findley, “Hayden Interview I,” 42.

45. Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 239-40; the speech is described but the speaker is not named in Paul Jacobs and Saul Landau, The New Radicals: A Report with Documents (New York: Random House, 1966), 31.

46. SDS Recruiting Pamphlet for summer 1965, a movement of many voices, SDS microfilm; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 214-15.

47. Harrington, “Mystical Militants,” quote, 67-68.

48. SDS, movement of many voices; Findley, “Hayden Interview I” 42.

49. Hayden, “Open Letter to ERAP Supporters and New Organizers,” Series 4B, Reel 39, Folder 369, SDS microfilm.

50. Tom Hayden, “The Abilityto Face Whatever Comes” in Kopkind, Thoughts of the Young Radicals, 41. Hayden includes here the clearest expression of the New Left idea of a community of rebels: “Instead of workers driven into motion by class dynamics, the’proletarians’ spawned in the paralyzed society are the various outcasts whose sense of reality cannot be adjusted completely to the dominant myths and given roles. Many Negroes are outcasts in white society. Many working people are outcasts from business society, and most from union society as well. Many young people are outcasts because, if they are poor, they have no future within the existing system; and, if they are affluent, they cannot be fulfilled by endless striving for more of what they inherited at birth. Many professionals are outcasts because their talents are wasted by the Great Society. Housewives too. These outcasts do not form an economic class; they share a common status… The strain upon them comes from living with what they cannot accept but cannot change” (38-39).

51. “Memorandum on the SNCC Mississippi Summer Project,” Civil Rights in Mississippi Digital Archive, McCain Library and Archives, University of Southern Mississippi, http://anna.lib.usm/%7Espcol/crda/ellin/ellin062.html, accessed November 1, 2009. On the Mississippi Summer Project, see Doug McAdam, Freedom Summer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Kathy Emery, Linda Reid Gold, and Sylvia Braselmann, Lessons of Freedom Summer: Ordinary People Building Extraordinary Movements (Monroe, Me.: Common Courage Press, 2008); Carson, In Struggle, 96-129; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 371-86; Branch, Pillar, 341-509; Payne, Organizing Tradition; and Eric Burner, And Gently He Shall Lead Them: Robert Parris Moses and Civil Rights in Mississippi (New York: New York University Press, 1994). Comedian Dick Gregory went on tour with the new lineup of the Freedom Singers in the spring of 1964. A partial schedule is in Freedom Singers, Folder 6, Box 123, SNCC.

52. Carson, In Struggle, 51-53,100-101. The $5,000 ayear SCEF gave SNCC in 1961, 1962, and 1963, supposedly for Zellner and his successor’s salary, actually was used to pay for essential organizational expenses. SNCC Executive Committee Meeting Minutes, December 29, 1963, Reel 3, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Papers, 1959-1972 (Sanford Microfilming, 1982, hereafter cited as SNCC microfilm).

53. Minutes from June 10,1964, SNCC staff meeting, Reel 3, SNCC microfilm; Danny Lyon, Memories of the Southern Civil Rights Movement (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 144-47.

54. Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 371-87, quote, 371; Carson, In Struggle; Julius Lester, Look Out, Whitey! Black Power’s Gon Get Your Mama (New York: Dial Press, 1968).

55. Ralph Allen’s letter is quoted in Howard Zinn, SNCC: The New Abolitionists (1965; Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985), 184.

56. M. S. Handler, “Rustin Sees Losses,” New York Times, December 2, 1963, 1, 40; Danny Lyon’s letter to his parents, February 12, 1964, in Lyon, Memories of the Southern Civil Rights Movement, 13. Lyon erroneously describes the Rustin interview as a letter to the New York Times written by Rustin. Rustin did write a letter to the New York Times that the newspaper published December 28, 1963: “In the Civil Rights Fight: Attack on Political Alignments Now Blocking Reform Urged,” 22.

57. SNCC Executive Committee Meeting Minutes, December 29, 1963, Reel 3, SNCC microfilm; Carson, In Struggle, 101; Gregg Michel, Struggle for a Better South: The Southern Student Organizing Committee (New York: Palgrave, 2004); Constance Curry documents, online at Civil Rights Digital Library, http://crdl.usg.edu/people/c/curry_constance_1933/, accessed July 10, 2009.

58. William H. Chafe, Never Stop Running:Allard Lowenstein and the Struggle to Save American Liberalism (New York: Basic Books, 1993); Burner, Robert Parris Moses, 115, 252-53; Carson, In Struggle; Branch, Pillar, 122-23, Lowenstein quote, 23.

59. Minutes from June 10,1964, SNCC staff meeting, Reel 3, SNCC microfilm.

60. Minutes from June 10,1964, SNCC staff meeting, Reel 3, SNCC microfilm.

61. For a description of the COFO Mississippi staff meeting in November in which the plan for the summer project was debated and ambiguously approved, as well as the quote from Moses, see Zinn, SNCC, 187-88; the other Moses quote is in Mississippi Free Press 3:6 (January 18, 1964): 2; Lewis is quoted in Bob Robertson, “Militant Plan to Create Crisis in Mississippi,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 7, 1963, 4; Carson, In Struggle, 99; Burner, Robert Parris Moses, 134-37.

62. Lowenstein quoted in Branch, Pillar, 123: Chafe, Allard Lowenstein; Sally Belfrage, Freedom Summer (1965; Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990), quote, 82; Kenneth Kipnis Mississippi Summer Project Application Form, Mississippi Sovereignty Commission Papers Online, SCR ID # 2-166-1-8-1-1, http://www.mdah.state.ms.us/arlib/contents/er/sovcom/result/php; Paul Cowan, The Making of an Un-American (New York: Viking, 1970); all other quotes, Freedom Summer Applications, Box 31, SNCC.

63. Estimates of the number of student or “nonprofessional” volunteers vary widely. McAdam, Freedom Summer, 35, 292-93, estimates 900. Elizabeth Sutherland Martinez, ed., Letters from Mississippi (Brookline, Mass.: Zephyr Press, 2002), 3, estimates 650. This is a revised edition of Elizabeth Sutherland, Letters from Mississippi (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965).

64. Moses quote in Burner, Robert Parris Moses, 155; Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, quote, 19; Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Vintage, 1980), quotes, 70; Carson, In Struggle; Branch, Pillar.

65. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, quote, 13; Tracy Sugarman, Stranger at the Gates: A Summer in Mississippi (New York: Hill and Wang, 1966), 13-14; Burner, Robert Parris Moses.

66. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, 3-4,10,18. On white women’s sense of connection with the black women they met in the movement, see Evans, Personal Politics, 25-82. On the power of southern blacks’ religious faith and its importance in the movement, see David L. Chappell, A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); and Charles Marsh, God’s Long Summer: Stories of Faith and Civil Rights (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).

67. Vincent Harding is quoted in Belfrage, Freedom Summer, 7; Elizabeth Sutherland, “The Cat and Mouse Game,” Nation, September 14, 1964: 105-8; Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, 12, 25, 268; Evans, Personal Politics, 60-82.

68. Julius Lester, “The Angry Children of Malcolm X,” Sing Out! 16:5 (October- November 1966): 21-25, quote, 23; John Herbers, “Quiet Saturday in Ruleville, Miss., Ends as Rights Workers Arrive,” New York Times, June 29, 1964, 17; “Students Set to Open Mississippi Campaign,” Los Angeles Times, June 20, 1964, 5. Some coverage quotes volunteers leaving for Mississippi as quite articulate about why they want to go and help. Still, even their tone suggests elite whites saving blacks. See David Kraslow, “Civil Rights Volunteers to Expand Dixie Project,” Los Angeles Times, August 2, 1964, C; and Susana McBee, “800 Youths Gird for Mission to South,” Washington Post, June 21, 1964, E1.

69. Sherrod quoted in Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 276; Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, quotes, 57, 59; Evans, Personal Politics, 60-82; Constance Curry et al., Deep in Our Hearts: Nine White Women in the Freedom Movement (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000).

70. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, 6, quotes, 24, 23, 58, 23.

71. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, quotes, 13, 200-201. On SNCC workers’ changing dress, see Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 349, 365.

72. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, photo, 240, quote, 172.

73. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, 5,13,17, 36, 66-70, 251-52, quote, 230-31. “We’ll Never Turn Back” is printed in Carawan and Carawan, Sing for Freedom.

74. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, quote, 56.

75. Martinez, Letters from Mississippi, 21-22, 235-38; Belfrage, Freedom Summer, quote, 81; SNCC internal documents reprinted in Kathy Emery et al., Lessons from Freedom Summer (Monroe, Me.: Common Courage Press, 2008), 216-24; SNCC Executive Committee Meeting Minutes, December 29, 1963, and SNCC Staff Meeting Minutes, June 9-11, 1964, Reel 3, SNCC microfilm.

76. “They Won’t Have a Chance,” headline of SNCC advertisements with photo of integrated training session for the summer project, New York Times, June 29, 1964, 14, and Washington Post, July 12, 1964, B5; Van Gosse, “A Movement of Movements: The Definition and Periodization of the New Left” in Companion to Post-1945 America, ed. Jean-Christophe Agnew and Roy Rosenzweig (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002), 277-302.

Chapter 6: Too Much Love

1. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Strugglefor Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008); Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm X, ed. Alex Haley (New York: Grove, 1965); Guy Carawan and Candie Carawan, eds. and comps., Sing for Freedom: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement Through Its Songs (Bethlehem, Pa.: Oak Publications, 1990), 115. See also Don L. Lee (Haki Madhubuti), “No More Marching,” in Directionscore: Selected and New Poems (Detroit: Broadside, 1971).

2. Jon Pankake, “Pete’s Children: The American Folk Song Revival, Pro and Con,” Little Sandy Review 29 (March-April 1964): 25-31, in The American Folk Scene: Dimensions of the Folksong Revival, ed. David A. De Turk and A. Poulin Jr. (New York: Dell, 1967), 280-86; Julius Lester, “The Angry Children of Malcolm X,” Sing Out! 16:5 (October-November 1966): 21-25. See also Julius Lester, “Beep! Beep! Bang! Bang! Umgawa! BLACK POWER!” 97-107 (which overlaps with “The Angry Children”) and “We Shall Overcome,” 1-30, both in Look Out, Whitey! Black Power’s Gon Get Your Mama (New York: Dial Press, 1968). On Lester, see Carawan and Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 27; Lester, Lovesong (New York: Henry Holt, 1988); and James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1985), 481. See also Malcolm X’s criticism of moderate civil rights organizations: “The harder you kick my ass the more I love you,” in The End of White Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X, ed. Iman Benjamin Karin (New York: Seaver, 1971), 147.

3. Lester, “Angry Children of Malcolm X.”

4. Lester, “Angry Children of Malcolm X.”

5. For an early account of the growing “Black Fury,” see Lerone Bennett Jr., The Negro Mood (Chicago: Johnson, 1964). For descriptions of the New Left written at the time, see R. David Myers, ed., Toward a History of the New Left: Essays from Within the Movement (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson, 1989).

For criticism of the New Left of the 1960s and 1970s by scholars who do not see themselves as conservatives, see Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: Norton, 1979); Russell Jacoby, The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in the Age of Academe (New York: Basic Books, 1987); Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth-Century America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); and most recently, Sean McCann and Michael Szalay, guest eds., “Countercultural Capital: Essays on the Sixties from Some Who Weren’t There,” special issue, Yale Journal of Criticism 18:2 (Fall 2005), and their contribution “Do You Believe in Magic: Literary Thinking after the New Left,” 435-68. For much more sympathetic coverage, see the pioneering Wini Breines, Community and Organization in the New Left: The Great Refusal (New York: Praeger, 1982); and James Farrell, The Spirit of the Sixties: Making Postwar Radicalism (New York: Routledge, 1987).

For different versions of the narrative of good sixties/bad sixties, see James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994); Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987); and Allen J. Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York: Harper and Row, 1984). For analyses and criticism of these narratives, see Sohnya Sayres, Anders Stephanson, Stanley Aronowitz, and Fredric Jameson, eds., The 60s Without Apology (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984); Wini Brienes, “Whose New Left?” JAH 75:2 (1988): 528-45; Van Gosse, “A Movement of Movements: The Definition and Periodization of the New Left,” in Jean-Christophe Agnew and Roy Rosensweig, A Companion to Post-1945 America (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2006); and Gosse, Rethinking the New Left: An Interpretative History (New York: Palgrave, 2005); David Farber, “The 60s: Myth and Reality,” Chronicle of Higher Education, December 7, 1994, B1; and Rick Perlstein, “Who Owns the Sixties? The Opening of a Scholarly Generation Gap,” Lingua Franca, May/June 1996, 30-37.

Scholars have long debated the reasons for the New Left’s shift away from the South after 1965. Crucial victories (the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act) and failures (the Democratic Party’s failure to seat the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party at the 1964 Atlantic City convention) certainly had an effect. Local movements’ demands for more political power and on-the-ground equality than national civil rights leaders and their liberal allies could produce also played a role. External to the movement, growing American involvement in Vietnam also contributed. On the anti-war movement, see Thomas Powers, The War at Home: Vietnam and the American People, 1964-1968 (New York: Grossman, 1973); Fred Halstead, Out Now! A Participant’s Account of the American Movement Against the Vietnam War (New York: Monad, 1978); Nancy Zaroulis and Gerald Sullivan, Who Spoke Up? American Protest Against the War in Vietnam, 1963-1975 (New York: Doubleday, 1984); Charles DeBenedetti and Charles Chatfield, An American Ordeal: The Antiwar Movement of the Vietnam Era (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1990); Tom Wells, The War Within: America’s Battle over Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); Richard Moser, The New Winter Soldiers: GI and Veteran Dissent During the Vietnam Era(New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996); and Andrew Hunt, The Turning: A History of the Vietnam Veterans Against the War (New York: New York University Press, 1999).

6. Angela Davis, “Black Nationalism: The Sixties and the Nineties,” in Black Popular Culture, ed. Gina Dent (Seattle: Bay Press, 1992), 320.

7. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle:SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 134-36, 156-57; Fannie Lou Hamer et al., To Praise Our Bridges: An Autobiography (Jackson, Miss.: KIPCO, 1967); Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 407-11.

Standard accounts of this period trace a shift of activism from the southern civil rights movement, nonviolence, and integration to the national Black Power movement, armed resistance, and separation. What this narrative actually describes is not the history of black organizing but the history of white middle-class interest in black organizing. As a new generation of historians has argued, civil rights organizing outside the South surged at the end of World War II and continued through the 1950s and into the 1960s. Most of the test cases combined to make the Brown case, for example, grew out of attempts to desegregate schools outside the South. The sit-in movement did not stop at the old borders of Dixie. And in 1963 and 1964, as SNCC increasingly became the focus of white liberal and left attention, African American activists worked Philadelphia, New York, Detroit, and elsewhere to end racial discrimination in education, housing, employment, and policing. See Jacquelyn Jones, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91:4 (March 2005), http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/9L4/hall.html, accessed April 8, 2010; and Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty.

8. For the history of Black Power, see Malcolm X, Autobiography of Malcolm X; Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, ed. George Breitman (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970), 63-64; Peniel E. Joseph, Waiting’til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006); Joseph, ed., The Black Power Movement: Rethinking the Civil Rights-Black Power Era (New York: Routledge, 2006); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Jeffrey Ogbar, Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004); Komozi Woodard, Nation Within Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); Jerry Gafio Watts, Amiri Baraka: The Politics and Art of a Black Intellectual (New York: New York University Press, 2001); Patricia Hill Collins, From Black Power to Hip Hop: Racism Nationalism, and Feminism (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006).

9. Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Random House, 1967), quotes, 208-10; Carson, In Struggle, 191-228; Forman, Making of Black Revolutionaries, 456-60. Carmichael’s major writings in this period include “What We Want,” New York Review of Books, September 22, 1966; “Toward Black Liberation,” Massachusetts Review 7:4 (Autumn 1966): 637-51; and Stokely Speaks: Black Power back to Pan-Africanism (New York: Random House, 1971). See also Carmichael with Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) (New York: Scribner, 2003).

10. “Negroes Divided by’Black Power’ Cry” Chicago Tribune, July 8,1966, A5; “Black Power Is Black Death” New York Times, July 7, 1966, 35; “Black Power” New York Times, July 10, 1966, 143; Jack Nelson, “Ex-Chairman of SNCC Quits over Militancy,” Los Angeles Times, July 1, 1966, 6; Gene Roberts, “Why the Cry for’Black Power,’” New York Times, July 2, 1966; Roberts, “Black Power Idea Long in Planning,” New York Times, August 5, 1966; I. F. Stone, “Why They Cry Black Power, “ I. F. Stone’s Weekly, September 19, 1966; Jack Nelson, “Ousted Chairman Tells of New Setup in SNCC,” Los Angeles Times, July 29, 1966, 5; Nelson, “Black Power Bid Hurt March, Dr. King Says,” Los Angeles Times, June 29, 1966, 4; Nelson, “The’Color’ Line Closes on King,” Los Angeles Times, July 3,1966, B5, B1; “’Black Power’: Negro Leaders Split over Policy,” New York Times, July 10, 1966, 143; “Distorted Cry?” Newsweek, August 8, 1966, 54.

11. “Uses of Black Power,” LosAngeles Times, June 24,1966, A4; “Militancy on the March,” Wall Street Journal, June 24, 1966, 8; Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, “The Tragedy of Black Power,” Los Angeles Times, July 8, 1966, A5; Nelson, “The’Color’ Line Closes on King;” Robert Lewis Shayon, “The Real Stokely Carmi- chael,” Saturday Review, July 9, 1966, 42; “The Politics of Frustration,” New York Times, August 7, 1966; William S. White, “Rights Crossroads,” Washington Post, July 9, 1966, A15.

12. “’Black Power’: Negro Leaders Split over Policy,” 143; “’Black Power’ Labeled Damaging to the Country,” Los Angeles Times, July 1, 1966, 6; Tom Wicker, “White Moderates and Black Power,” New York Times, July 21, 1966, 25; John D. Pomfret, “President Warns Negroes of Peril to Their Advance,” New York Times, July 21, 1966; Paul Good, “A White Look at Black Power,” Nation, August 8,1966,112-17.

13. “Black Power—How Powerful?” Christian Science Monitor, July 11,1966; “Distorted Cry?” 54; Wicker, “White Moderates and Black Power;” Good, “White Look at Black Power,” 112.

14. Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks (New York: Grove, 1965); and Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary.

15. Lerone Bennett Jr., “Stokely Carmichael: Architect of Black Power,” Ebony, September 1966, 25-32; “A’Black Power’ Speech That Has Congress Aroused,” U.S. News and World Report, August 22, 1966, 6; Peter Goldman, “Black Power: Politics of Frustration,” Newsweek, July 11, 1966; Gene Roberts, “Black Power Idea Long in Planning,”; Roberts, “Black Power Prophet: Stokely Carmichael,” New York Times, August 5, 1966, 1, 10; Carmichael, Ready for the Revolution. For the speech Carmichael gave at UC Berkeley in October 1966, see Carmichael, “Black Power,” audio recording and text, online at American Rhetoric, http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/
stokelycarmichaelblackpower.html, accessed April 1, 2010.

16. Carmichael and Hamilton, Black Power; Carmichael, “What We Want.”

17. Abbie Hoffman, “SNCC: The Desecration of a Delayed Dream,” Village Voice, December 15, 1966; Carson, In Struggle, 295.

18. Lester, “Angry Children of Malcolm X,” 21; Good, “White Look at Black Power,” 114; Vincent Harding, “Black Power and the American Christ,” Christian Century, January 4, 1967, 10-13, quote, 12; June Meyer, “Spokesman for the Blacks,” Nation, December 4, 1967, 597-99. Losing white liberal support, however unrealistic, unreliable, and coated with romance it had always been, hurt more than the group’s finances. It also destroyed the small brake white liberals could apply to attempts by conservatives to use federal resources against the movement. Facing down racist sheriffs and police officers in the South was difficult enough. But challenging local law enforcement officials able to access active FBI and other federal support was suicidal. The FBI had received reports about SNCC since the fall of 1960, and after 1964, FBI field offices began investigating whether Communists had successfully infiltrated the organization. By 1965, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover had ordered wiretaps on SNCC phones. The FBI did not begin active surveillance, infiltration, and sabotage tactics against SNCC, however, until the summer of 1967, when Hoover placed the group in the Counterintelligence Program (COINTELPRO). There, SNCC joined a growing list of other black organizations the FBI and other law enforcement agencies were actively working to subvert, including the Black Panthers and US, a black nationalist organization led by Ron Karenga. COINTELPRO damaged all these organizations. A more structured and disciplined SNCC, however, would have been less vulnerable to government subversion and more able to strategize about the risks and benefits of proposed SNCC actions. See Carson, In Struggle, 257-64; David Cunningham, There’s Something Happening Here: The New Left, the Klan, and FBI Counterintelligence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Kenneth O’Reilly, “Racial Matters”: The FBI’s Secret File on Black America, 1960-1972 (New York: Free Press, 1989); and Ward Churchill and Jim Vander Wall, Agents of Repression: The FBI’s Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement (Boston: South End Press, 1988).

19. I. F. Stone, “SNCC Does Not Wish to Become a New Version of the White Man’s Burden,” I. F. Stone’s Weekly, June 6, 1966, 3; Andrew Kopkind, “The Future of Black Power: A Movement in Search of a Program,” New Republic, January 7, 1967, 16-18, quotes, 18.

20. Alvin Poussaint, “A Negro Psychiatrist Explains the Negro Psyche,” New York Times Magazine, August 20, 1967; Poussaint, “How the’White Problem’ Spawned’Black Power,’” Ebony, August 1967, 88-90. 92, 94, quotes, 90, 92; Charles Hamilton, panel celebrating the fortieth anniversary of the publication of Black Power, American Historical Association Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, January 4, 2007. Poussaint is much more critical of whites in Ebony.

21. James Baldwin, Nobody Knows My Name (1961; New York: Vintage, 1993), 79; Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon, quotes, 5, 11; “Lester, “Beep! Beep! Bang! Bang! Umgawa! BLACK POWER!” 100, 102; “Black Power and Black Pride,” Time, December 1, 1967; Harold Cruise, Rebellion or Revolution (New York: William Morrow, 1968), 95.

22. Lester, Look Out, Whitey, 23,113; Carawan and Carawan, Sing for Freedom, 115; 113; National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (the Kerner Commission), Report of the National Advisory Committee on Civil Disorders (New York: Dutton, 1968); Zaroulis and Sullivan, Who Spoke Up? 128-29. The Kerner Commission, appointed by Congress to study the unrest, counted forty-one serious episodes of violence in the first nine months of 1967 alone.

23. Sources on the Black Panther Party include Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party [Reconsidered] (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1998); Jama Lazerow and Yohuru Williams, eds., In Search of the Black Panther Party: New Perspectives on a Revolutionary Movement (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006); Joseph, Wait’til the Midnight Hour.

24. Sol Stern, “A Short Account of International Student Politics and the Cold War with Particular Reference to the NSA, CIA, etc.,” Ramparts, March 1967, 29-38. For Malcolm’s use of the phrase “by any means necessary,” see Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary. The phrase first appeared as a translation of a line in Jean-Paul Sartre’s 1948 play Dirty Hands.

25. Sources on the 1967 National Conference for a New Politics include Simon Hall, “On the Tail of the Panther: Black Power and the 1967 Convention of the National Conference for New Politics” Journal of American Studies 37 (2003): 59-78; “Symposium: Chicago’s’Black Caucus,’ “ Ramparts, November 1967, 99; Renata Adler, “Letter from the Palmer House” New Yorker, September 23, 1967, 58; Richard Blumenthal, “New Politics at Chicago,” Nation, September 25, 1967, 274; Andrew Ridgeway, “Freak-Out in Chicago: The National Conference of New Politics” New Republic, September 16, 1967, 10; Walter Goodman, “Yessir, Boss, Said the White Radicals: When Black Power Runs the New Left” New York Times Magazine, September 24, 1967, 28-9, 124-26; Kirkpatrick Sale, SDS (New York: Random House, 1973), 269, 277, 347; Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 258. On the Free Huey movement, see “Backers Pack Court for Huey,” Berkeley Barb, December 8-14, 1967, 1, 3; and Joel Wilson, “’Free Huey’: The Black Panther Party, the Peace and Freedom Party, and the Politics of Race in 1968” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2002).

26. Simon Hall, Peace andFreedom:The CivilRights andAnti-warMovements in the 1960s (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); Joel Wilson, “Invisible Cages: Racialized Politics and the Alliance between the Panthers and the Peace and Freedom Party,” in Lazerow and Williams, In Search of the Black Panther Party, 191-222; W. J. Rorabaugh, Berkeley at War: The 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Berkeley Gazette, February 12, 1968.

27. Karin Asbley, Bill Ayers, Bernardine Dohrn, John Jacob, Jeff Jones, Gerry Long, Home Machtinger, Jim Mellen, Terry Robbins, Mark Rudd, and Steve Tappis, “You Don’t Need a Weatherman to Know Which Way the Wind Blows,” New Left Notes, June 18, 1969; Bob Dylan, “Subterranean Homesick Blues,” in Dylan, Lyrics: 1962-2001 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004). On the Weather Underground, see G. Louis Heath, Vandals in the Bomb Factory (New York: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Jeremy Varon, Bringing the War Home: The Weather Underground, The Red Army Faction, and Revolutionary Violence in the Sixties and Seventies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004); Ron Jacobs, The Way the Wind Blew: A History of the Weather Underground (New York: Verso, 1997); Dan Berger, Outlaws of America: The Weather Underground and the Politics of Solidarity (San Francisco: AK Press, 2006); Bernardine Dohrn, Bill Ayers, and Jeff Jones, eds., Sing a Battle Song: The Revolutionary Poetry, Statements, and Communiques of the Weather Underground, 1970-1974 (New York: Seven Stories, 2006); and David Barber, A Hard Rain Fell: SDS and Why It Failed (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2008).

28. Sale, SDS; Varon, Bringing the War Home.

29. Dohrn, Ayers, and Jones, Sing a Battle Song.

30. “You Don’t Need a Weatherman”; Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon.

31. Dohrn, Ayers, and Jones, Sing a Battle Song.

32. “You Don’t Need a Weatherman”; Dohrn, Ayers, and Jones, Sing a Battle Song.

33. Laura Browder, Slippery Characters:Ethnic Impersonators andAmerican Identities (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

34. White Panther Party Founding Document, online at http://makemyday.free.fr/wp6.htm, accessed July 1, 2009; Jeff A. Hale, “The White Panthers’’Total Assault on the Culture,’ “ in Imagine Nation: The American Counter Culture of the 1960s and 70s, ed. Peter Braunstein and Michael William Doyle (New York: Routledge, 2002); John Sinclair, Guitar Army: Rock and Revolution with the MC-5 and the White Panther Party (1972; New York: Process, 2007); David A. Carson, Grit, Noise, and Revolution: The Birth of Detroit Rock’n’ Roll (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006).

35. Hale, “White Panthers’’Total Assault on the Culture.’”

36. Hale, “White Panthers’’Total Assault on the Culture’ “; Sinclair, Guitar Army; Carson, Grit, Noise, and Revolution.

37. Hale, “White Panthers’’Total Assault on the Culture’ “; Sinclair, Guitar Army; Carson, Grit, Noise, and Revolution.

38. Hale, “White Panthers’’Total Assault on the Culture’ “; Pun Plamondon, Lost from the Ottawa: The Journey Back (Victoria, B.C.: Trafford, 2005).

39. In his memoir, Plamondon describes discovering his Native American heritage later in his life. At the time of the White Panthers, however, he thought of himself as a white man. Plamondon, Lost from the Ottawa.

40. Patrician Campbell Hearst, Every Secret Thing (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1982); Vin McLellan and Paul Avery, The Voices of Guns (New York: Putnam, 1977); Les Payne and Tim Findley, The Life and Death of the SLA (New York: Ballantine Books, 1976); James Feron, “Shouting of Slogans Disrupts a Hearing on Brink’s Holdup,” New York Times, September 16, 1982; Robert Hanley, “State Jury Finds 3 Radicals Guilty in Brink’s Killings,” New York Times, September 15, 1983; Elizabeth Kolbert, “The Prisoner,” New Yorker, July 16, 2001; Susan Braudy, The Boudins and the Aristocracy of the Left (New York: Knopf, 2003); Ayers, Fugitive Days.

41. Wells, War Within; Michael S. Foley, Confronting the War Machine:Draft Resistance During the Vietnam War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).

42. Hayden quoted in Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets, 238-313; Andrew Kopkind, “Looking Backward,” Ramparts, February 1973, 32.

43. “Draft Resistance,” project file, Series 3, Section 5, Reel 26, SDS Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, microfilm edition (hereafter cited as SDS microfilm); and Carl Oglesby, Ravens in the Storm: A Personal History of the Anti-War Movement (New York: Scribner, 2008).

44. Gregory Calvert’s January 1967 report in New Left Notes, quoted in Sale, SDS, 315-16.

45. Gregory Calvert, “In White America: Radical Consciousness and Social Change,” in The New Left: A Documentary History, ed. Massimo Teodori (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1969), 412-18.

46. Calvert, “In White America.”

47. Wells, War Within; Zaroulis and Sullivan, Who Spoke Up?; Hall, Peace and Freedom; Van Gosse, Where the Boys Are: Cuba, Cold War America, and the Making of the New Left (New York: Verso, 1993); Carol Brightman and Sandra Levinson, eds., The Venceremos Brigade: Young Americans Sharing the Life and Work of Revolutionary Cuba (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971); Jon Lee Anderson, Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life (New York: Grove, 1997); Craig J. Jenkins, The Politics of Insurgency: The Farm Workers Movement in the 1960s (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Kirkpatrick Sale, The Green Revolution: The American Environmental Movement, 1962-1992 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Philip Shabecoff, A Fierce Green Fire: the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2003). Professors too got in on this act. Historians invented social history, the study of history from “the bottom up,” and English professors challenged a literary canon that celebrated the work of “dead white males.” My comments about miners and middle-class activists’ alliances with the labor movement draw on my current research, “Shooting in Harlan: Documentary Work, the Labor Reform Movement, and New Left Activism.”

48. Foley, Confronting the War Machine; Carlos Munoz, Youth, Identity, and Power: The Chicano Movement (New York: Verso, 1989); Francisco Arturo Rosales, Chicano! The History of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement (Houston: Arte Publico Press, 1997); Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Vintage, 1979); Ruth Rosen, The World Split Open: How the Modern Women’s Movement Changed America (New York: Penguin, 2000); Rachel Blau DuPlessis and Ann Snitow, eds., The Feminist Memoir Project: Voices from Women’s Liberation (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1998); Maxine Williams and Pamela Newman, Black Women’s Liberation (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970); Gloria T. Hull, Patricia Bell-Scott, and Barbara Smith, All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, but Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women’s Studies (New York: Feminist Press, 1982); Ernesto Chavez, “jMi raza primero!” (My people first!): Nationalism, Identity, and Insurgency in the Chicano Movement in Los Angeles, 1966-1978 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); William Wei, The Asian American Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993).

49. On the hippies, see “The Hippies” cover story, Time, July 7,1967,18-21; Richard Goldstein, “Love: A Groovy Idea While He Lasted,” Village Voice, October 19, 1967, 1, 12-13; Hans Toch, “Last Word on the Hippies,” Nation, December 4, 1967, 582-88; Warren Hinckle, “The Social History of the Hippies,” Ramparts, March 1967, 5-26; Lewis Yablonsky, The Hippie Trip (New York: Pegasus, 1968); Tom Wolfe, The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1968); Paul Perry, On the Bus (New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press, 1990); Charles A. Reich, The Greening of America (New York: Crown, 1970); Timothy Miller, The 60s Communes: Hippies and Beyond (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1999); and the excellent Carol Brightman, Sweet Chaos: The Grateful Dead’s American Adventure (New York: Clarkson Potter, 1998).

50. The quotes are from Goldstein, “Love”; Toch, “Last Word;” and Time’s “Hippies.”

51. Wolfe, Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, 9,112-13, quote, 9.

52. Paul Potter, A Name for Ourselves: Feelings About Authenticity, Love, Intuitive Politics, Us (New York: Little, Brown, 1971); Timothy Leary’s 1968 Playboy interview is reprinted as “She Comes in Colors” in The Politics of Ecstasy (1972; Berkeley, Calif.: Ronin, 1998), 118-59; Yablonsky, Hippie Trip.

53. Godfrey Hodgson, America in Our Time:From World WarII to Nixon—What Happened and Why (New York: Doubleday, 1976), 337-38; Jon Landau’s early Rolling Stone pieces are collected in Landau, It’s Too Late to Stop Now: A Rock and Roll Journal (New York: Straight Arrow Press, 1972), quote, 24.

54. Andrew Kopkind, “Woodstock Nation” (Hard Times, 1969), in The Age of Rock 2: Sights and Sounds of the American Cultural Revolution, ed. Jonathan Eisen (New York: Vintage, 1970), 312-18; “A Fleeting, Wonderful Moment of’Community’ “ (New Yorker, 1969), in “Takin’ It to the Streets”: A Sixties Reader, ed. Alexander Bloom and Wini Breines (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 508-11.

55. Tom Smucker, “The Politics of Rock: Movementvs. Groovement,” 83-91, quotes, 84, 85, 87; and T. Procter Lippincott, “The Culture Vultures,” 124-32, both in Eisen, Age of Rock 2. “The Culture Vultures” examines the contradiction within the counterculture between the goal of “revolutionary” change and the fact that many people were making money off the counterculture: “The growing momentum of our groovy’alternative’ subculture… continues to be dampened by a fundamental conflict: the attempt to develop a truly human, revolutionary lifestyle within the confines of an exploitative commercial system. Profit motive is robbing us of our thing, especially our music.” For the history of how corporate exploitation of the counterculture evolved right along with the cultural rebellion itself, see Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997).

56. Kopkind, “Woodstock Nation,” 317.

57. Michael Lydon, “The Rolling Stones—At Play in the Apocalypse” (Ramparts, 1970), in Bloom and Breines, “Takin It to the Streets,” 516-20; “California Rock Bash Leaves 4 Dead and 2 Born,” New York Daily News, and George Paul Csicery, “Altamont, California, December 6, 1969,” in The Age of Rock: Sounds of the American Cultural Revolution: A Reader, ed. Jonathan Eisen (New York: Random House, 1969), 143-48; Hunter S. Thompson, Hell’s Angels: A Strange and Terrible Saga (New York: Ballantine, 1967); Albert Maysles and David Maysles, Gimme Shelter (Maysles Films, 1970).

58. Keith Melville, Communes in the Counter Culture: Origins, Theories, Styles of Life (New York: William Morrow, 1972); Richard Fairfield, Communes USA: A Personal Tour (New York: Penguin, 1972); Michael Schumacher, Dharma Lion: A Critical Biography of Allen Ginsberg (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 508. On the romanticization of Indians, a white fantasy that rivaled white Negroism, see Gary Snyder, “Why Tribe” in Earth House Hold: Technical Notes & Queries to Fellow Dharma Revolutionaries (New York: New Directions, 1969).

59. Melville, Communes, quotes, 152; Schumacher, Dharma Lion, 508; Raymond Mungo, Total Loss Farm: A Year in the Life (New York: Dutton, 1970), quotes, 11-16; Andrew Kopkind, “The New Left Looks East,” Ramparts, July 1973.

60. Melville, Communes, 133-67. On counterculture primitivism, see Reich, Greening, 284, 414-24.

61. On Gestalt, see Frederick Perls, Paul Goodman, and Ralph Hefferline, Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality (1951; New York: Julian Press, 1969); and Richard King, The Party of Eros: Radical Social Thought and the Realm of Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), 94-100. On the human potential movement, see Abraham Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being (New York: Van Nostrand, 1968); and Carl Rogers, On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961). On Esalen, see Hodgson, America in Our Time, 329-30; Wolfe, Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, 106-7. Henry Miller, Tropic of Capricorn (1938; New York: Grove, 1994), 12. On the Beatles, see John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr, The Beatles Anthology (New York: Chronicle Books, 2000).

62. Ralph Larkin and Daniel Foss, “Lexicon of Folk Etymology,” in Sayres et al., 60s Without Apology, 360-77; Jerry Faber, “The Student as Nigger” Los Angeles Free Press, March 3, 1967, reprinted by SDS as a pamphlet, Series 4B, Reel 36, Folders 85, 87, SDS microfilm, and expanded as The Student as Nigger (New York: Pocket Books, 1969); Goldstein, “Love”; Naomi Weisstein, “Woman as Nigger,” Psychology Today, October 1969. “Woman Is the Nigger of the World” was recorded by John Lennon and Yoko Ono’s Plastic Ono Band in April 1972 and released as a single in May and on the album Some Time in New York City (1972). See Philip Norman, John Lennon: The Life (New York: Ecco, 2008); and The Dick Cavett Show: John and Yoko Collection (Shout Factory, 2005) which contains this episode, aired on May 12, 1972.

63. Ayers, Fugitive Days, quotes, 89-90, 218.

Chapter 7: The Making of Christian Countercultures

1. This section draws on Edward Plowman, “Witnessing to Hippies,” Christianity Today [hereafter CT], June 7, 1968, 905-6; Plowman, “The Battle for Berkeley,” CT, May 8, 1970, 752; Plowman, “The Jesus Presses are Rolling” CT, April 9, 1971, 664; Plowman, “Shore to Shore: Wave of Witness,” CT, May 7, 1971, 762-63; Plowman, “Demonstrating for Jesus,” CT, May 21, 1971, 41-42; Plowman, “The Jesus Movement: Now It’s in the Hamlets,” CT, June 18, 1971, 903-4; Plowman, “Jesus Saves: Our Alienated Youth,” Eternity, August 1971, 8-11, 31; Maurice Allan, “God’s Thing in Hippieville,” Christian Life 29 (1968): 20-23, 35-38; “The New Rebel Cry: Jesus is Coming!” Time, June 21, 1971, 56-63; “The Jesus People,” U.S. News and World Report, March 22, 1971: 97; “The Jesus Movement: Impact on Youth and Culture,” U.S. News and World Report, March 20, 1972, 59-64; “The Jesus Craze” Life, December 31, 1971; Jess Moody, The Jesus Freaks (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1971; includes a list of “liberated churches”); “Street Christians: Jesus as the Ultimate Trip,” Time, August 3, 1970; Phil Tracy, “The Jesus Freaks: Savagery and Salvation on Sunset Strip,” Commonweal, October 1970; Brian Vachon, “The Jesus Movement Is Upon Us,” Look, February 9, 1971, 15-21; James Nolan, “Jesus Now: Hogwash and Holy Water,” Ramparts, August 1971, 20-26; Ronald M. Enroth, Edward E. Ericson Jr., and C. Breckinridge Peters, The Jesus People: Old-Time Religion in the Age of Aquarius (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerd- mans, 1972); Jeannette Struchen, Zapped by Jesus (New York: A. J. Holman, 1972); The Street People: Selections from Right On!Berkeley’s Christian Underground Student Newspaper (Valley Forge, Pa.: Judson Press, 1971); Michael Zeik, ed., New Christian Communities (New York: Roth Publishing, 1973); Stephen Prothero, American Jesus: How the Son of God Became a National Icon (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2003), 142-57; and Tom Wolfe, “The Me Decade and the Third Great Awakening,” New York Magazine, August 23, 1976. For the larger religious and cultural context, see “The Guru Game: The Peace Which Passeth All Understanding,” a special issue of Ramparts, July 1973, 26-35, 47-57; Robert S. Ellwood, The Sixties Spiritual Awakening: American Religion Moving from Modern to Postmodern (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994); Donald E. Miller, Reinventing American Protestantism: Christianity in the New Millennium (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); and Steven Tipton, Getting Saved from the Sixties (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).

2. “New Rebel Cry,” 56; “The Jesus Revolution,” Time, June 21,1975, issue includes Jesus cover image.

3. Michael Shamberg, Guerrilla Television (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1971): “No alternative cultural vision is going to succeed in Media-America unless it has its own alternative structures, not just alternative content pumped across existing ones.” He was writing about the left, but the Christian right in particular seems to have actually built its own structures. Jim Montgomery, “The Electric Church,” Wall Street Journal, May 19, 1978, 1, 7. On evangelicals’ and fundamentalists’ creation of their own countercultures, see Carol Flake, Redemptorama: Culture, Politics, and the New Evangelicalism (New York: Anchor Books, 1984); and William Martin, With God on Our Side (New York: Broadway Books, 1996), Rodgers quote, 320. Nineteenth-century evangelicals had their own institutions, but the nature of this institution-building changed dramatically in the postwar period. See R. Laurence Moore, Selling God: American Religion in the Marketplace of Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

4. Howard Phillips’s account of the meeting that set up Moral Majority is in Dinesh D’Souza, Falwell: Before the Millennium (Chicago: Regnery, 1984), 110.

5. Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, quote, 103; Keith Melville, Communes in the Counter Culture: Origins, Theories, Styles of Life (New York: Morrow, 1972), quotes, 210.

6. Allan, “God’s Thing in Hippieville.”

7. Jack Sparks, “Letters to Street Christians,” Campus Life, April 1972, 52-54; Sara Diamond, Spiritual Warfare: The Politics of the Christian Right (Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press, 1989) argues that Bill Bright and Campus Crusade for Christ always covertly funded CWLF as a way to thwart the anti-war movement. Carol Flake, Redemptorama, argues that the CWLF, which became the Berkley Christian Coalition, became genuinely radicalized.

8. “New Rebel Cry,” quote, 59; Plowman, “Jesus Saves: Our Alienated Youth.”

9. Arthur Blessitt, Turned On to Jesus (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1971), 143; Sparks, “Letters to Street Christians;” Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, quote from Hollywood Free Paper, 42. Robert Rogers focused two episodes of his NBC show First Tuesday on the Jesus People. Films about the Jesus People include “The Son Worshipers” (1971); George Landow, Thank You Jesus for the Eternal Present (1973) and A Film of Their Spring Tour Commissioned by CWLF of Berkeley, California (1974); and The Devout Young (1970).

10. Plowman, “Jesus Presses are Rolling”; Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, 105. The cheer is in Prothero, American Jesus, 125-26.

11. Plowman, “Demonstrating for Jesus”: Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, quotes, 102-5. On the business side of the Jesus movement, see Melville, Communes in the Counter Culture; Moore, Selling God, 5; and Prothero, American Jesus. Like the other counterculture, the Jesus People’s counter counterculture became a business. For example, the Hollywood Free Paper ’s store, mostly a mail order operation, sold bumper stickers, T-shirts, and other Jesus paraphernalia. On the Christian counterculture, see Doug Bandou, “Christianity’s Parallel Universe,” American Enterprise, November-December 1995, 58-61.

12. Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People. Don Wilkerson, Coffeehouse Manuel (Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany Fellowship, 1973) is a how-to guide for starting a Christian coffeehouse. On Jesus music, see Paul Baker, Why Should the Devil Have All the Good Music? (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1979); David L. C. Anderson, ed., The New Jesus Style Songs, Vol. 1 (Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg Publishing House, 1972); and Plowman, “Taking Stock of Jesus Rock” CT, February 26, 1971, 512-13.

13. Jane Howard, “The Groovy Christians of Rye,” Life, May 14,1971; Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, 79-83, 91, quote, 80; Philip Yancey, “The Norman Sound of Jesus Music” Campus Life, August-September 1971, 58-61; Larry Norman, “Right Here in America,” on Street Level (One Way, 1970), transcription mine.

14. Nolan, “Hogwash and Holy Water,” quote, 23; Bob Hollister, “Christian Communes: A New Way of Living” Christian Life 35 (June 1973): 16-18, 66-71; Melville, Communes in the Counter Culture.

15. Howard, “Groovy Christians of Rye,” quotes, 80, 84; “Guru Game”; Nolan, “Hogwash and Holy Water;” Tipton, Getting Saved from the Sixties.

16. “Guru Game”; Nolan, “Hogwash and Holy Water;” Melville, Communes in the Counter Culture; Ellwood, Sixties Spiritual Awakening; Tipton, Saved from the Sixties.

17. Prothero, American Jesus, 26-27, quote, 79; George Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).

18. John G. Turner, Bill Bright and Campus Crusadefor Christ:The Renewal of Evangelicalism in Postwar America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Jon R. Stone, On the Boundaries of American Evangelicalism: The Postwar Evangelical Coalition (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997); Steven P. Miller, Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).

19. “New Rebel Cry,” 36.

20. Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, 179-93; Larry Norman, Upon This Rock (Capitol, 1970) and Street Level (One Way, 1970). The transcription is mine. The most important Bible verse for the idea of the Rapture is 1 Thessalonians 4:16-17. Belief in the Rapture, in this sense, is part of many Americans’ intense interest during the late sixties and early seventies in ways of escaping death. Other examples are reincarnation and interest in aliens that are imagined as having ways to prolong life.

21. Prothero, American Jesus, 130,142; Paul Boyer, When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 5-7, where he cites the figure nine million copies sold between 1970 and 1978; Martin, With God on Our Side, 92. This work has been continued in the hugely successful Left Behind series of novels published by Tim LaHaye and Jerry B. Jenkins beginning in 1995.

22. Linda Meissner, founder and leader of the Jesus People’s Army, headquartered in Seattle, is the notable exception. She got her start with Don Wilkerson’s Teen Challenge. Wilkerson started a ministry that targeted drug addicts on the streets of New York City in the fifties. See Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, 116-23.

23. Craig Yoe and Joseph Hopkins, “Farm Fellowship,” CT, August 30,1974, 298-300.

24. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture; George Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1991); Martin, With God on Our Side.

25. Marsden, Fundamentalism andAmerican Culture.

26. Enroth, Erickson, and Peters, Jesus People, 194-206; Howard, “Groovy Christians of Rye,” quote, 81; James W L. Hill, “The New Charismatics 1973,” Eternity, March 1973, 23-25; Morton Kelsey, Tongue Speaking: An Experiment in Spiritual Experience (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964).

27. Edward E. Plowman, “Whatever Happened to the Jesus Movement?” CT, October 24, 1975, 102-4; Timothy Jones, “Jesus’ People,” CT, September 14, 1992, 20-25.

28. As I discovered after writing this section, Miller, Reinventing American Protestantism, makes a similar argument working from a different set of evidence. His focus is on institution-building and theology, while I am focusing here on cultural style.

29. Kenneth L. Woodward, “Born Again,” Newsweek, October 25,1976, 68-78. See also Allan J. Mayer, “Born-again Politics,” Newsweek, September 15, 1980, 28-36, which estimates thirty million to sixty-five million evangelical Christians in 1980. This section draws heavily on Martin, With God on Our Side; Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture; Perry Deane Young, God’s Bullies: Native Reflections on Preachers and Politics (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1982); William R. Goodman and James H. Price, Jerry Falwell, an Unauthorized Profile (Lynchburg, Va.: Paris and Associates, 1981); Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamentalist Language and Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000); Diamond, Spiritual Warfare; Frances FitzGerald, “A Disciplined, Charging Army,” New Yorker, May 18, 1981, 53-69; FitzGerald, Cities on a Hill: A Journey Through Contemporary American Cultures (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981); and Flake, Redemptorama. See also Falwell’s own publications: Falwell (ed.), The Fundamentalist Phenomenon: The Resurgence of Conservative Christianity (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday/Galilee, 1981); Capturing a Town for Christ (Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1973); Listen, America! (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980); Strength for the Journey: An Autobiography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987); and Falwell: An Autobiography (Lynchburg, Va.: Liberty House, 1997). Gallup’s estimate of fifty million evangelicals in 1976 was a gross overstatement, and yet the perception that there were so many conservative Christians fueled the rise of the religious right. In 1979, Gallup completed a poll for Christianity Today that estimated thirty-one million evangelicals: “The Christianity Today-Gallup Poll” CT, December 21, 1979, 13. On the controversy over the number of evangelicals and the size of the audience for evangelical television programs in particular, see Diamond, Spiritual Warfare, vi, 35-38, 251. Diamond estimates twenty million to forty million evangelicals in 1989. She cites her own interview with George Gallup Jr., who told Diamond that he had revised his early findings. Not one-third to one-quarter but about 10 percent of the population is “actively evangelical” (251).

30. Falwell, “Seven Things Corrupting America,” 39-59, quote, 44; see also Falwell, “I Love America!” 21-37, both in Jerry Falwell, America Can Be Saved (Murfrees- boro, Tenn.: Sword of the Lord Publishers, 1979). This book is hard to find, and the copy I used was located at the Lancaster Bible College in Lancaster, Pa.

31. Martin, With God on Our Side, 149-50; Falwell, “The Establishment,” in America Can Be Saved, 137-49, quote, 148-49. Another version of the sermon, given in Atlanta in 1976, is on audiotape, BR256.F3 E855, in Liberty University Archives, Liberty University, Lynchburg, Va., hereafter LUV Falwell, “Abortion-on- Demand: Is It Murder?” February 26, 1978, Sermon ID Code: SE-126, typed transcript, quote, 21, LUV.

32. Falwell, “Let’s Reach the World Together,” 9-19, quotes, 16, in America Can Be Saved.

33. Falwell, Strength for the Journey, quotes, 102-3.

34. Both cultural forms also came of age as the commercial recording industry developed, and both used recordings in various changing formats to extend the reach of life performances.

35. Falwell’s sermons and autobiographical writing on his conversion include Falwell, Strength for the Journey, 102-9; Elmer Towns and Jerry Falwell, Church Aflame (Nashville: Impact Books, 1971), 22-23; Falwell, “The Divine Mandate for All Christians,” 75-76, and “Capture America For God,” 98-99, in America Can Be Saved; and “Penthouse Interview: Reverend Jerry Falwell,” Penthouse, March 1981, 59-60, 66, 150-56, quote, 156.

36. Falwell, Strength for the Journey, 104,105,108.

37. Falwell, Strength for the Journey, 110.

38. Falwell, “Abortion-on Demand: Is It Murder?” quotes, 11- 12. See also “Legalized Abortion-on-Demand: Is It Murder?” April 30, 1978, Sermon ID Code OTGH-292, tape, LUV; and Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture. The converted person often thanks a minister or church community and says they are key, but the accounts almost always foreground the agency of the individual.

39. Martin, With God on Our Side, Carter quotes, 150; “Playboy Interview: Jimmy Carter,” Playboy, November 1976, 63-86; Charles Colson, Born Again (Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1976), quotes, 115-17.

40. Woodward, “Born Again,” 75; Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York: Dell, 1968), 44; Cleaver, Soul on Fire (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1978), 224. On Cleaver, see also James S. Tinney, “ “Views of a Regenerate Radical,” CT, June 8, 1977, 14-15.

41. Graham founded Christianity Today magazine in 1956. George Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1987); Martin, With God on Our Side, 27-46. On Falwell’s position on terms, see “Penthouse Interview: Reverend Jerry Falwell,” 150-51. Moore, Religious Outsiders, argues that a conservative theological perspective has had a continuous appeal for many Americans, but that fundamentalist ministers have taught their followers to see themselves as outsiders. Nineteenth-century evangelicals saw themselves as outsiders too (155-60).

42. On building the Thomas Road Baptist Church and its ministries, see all the sermons in Falwell, America Can Be Saved, especially 27, 69, 76, 104, and quote, 161; Falwell, Strength for the Journey; and Martin, With God on Our Side, 56, 197. Towns and Falwell, Church Aflame, claims that TRBC is the fastest-growing church in the nation, and Falwell wants it to be the largest. Falwell’s programming was heard daily on 280 radio stations and weekly on 300 television stations (56).

43. Falwell, “Ministers and Marches,” transcript of the sermon delivered at Thomas Road Baptist Church on Sunday night, March 21, 1965, as published in Young, God’s Bullies, 310-17, quotes, 310-12. Someone seems to have culled all copies (written transcripts and tapes) of this sermon—which is often referred to as “Ministers and Marchers”—from the Liberty University archives as of June 2006. See also Falwell, “America’s Lawlessness,” America Can Be Saved, 90-91.

44. Falwell, “Ministers and Marches,” quotes, 315-16.

45. Falwell, “Let’s Reach the World Together,” America Can Be Saved, quote, 17; Falwell, “Wide Open Door, but Many Enemies,” America Can Be Saved, quote, 62; Falwell, “Segregation or Integration, Which?” a 1958 sermon cited and quoted in Martin, With God on Our Side, 55-58; Goodman and Price, Jerry Falwell; Young, God’s Bullies; Harding, Book of Jerry Falwell. For Falwell’s own account, see Falwell, Strength for the Journey, 288-99.

46. Young, God’s Bullies, 199-201, quotes Robert Scheer’s interview with Falwell for the Los Angeles Times, 199; Falwell, Strength for the Journey, 288-99, quote, 296; FitzGerald, Cities on a Hill; Harding, Book of Jerry Falwell, 21-28. Observers at the time, from African Americans angry at white parents’ avoidance of integration to white southerners who embraced the new so-called seg academies certainly connected the openings of these schools to integration. See Joseph Crespino, “Civil Rights and the Religious Right” in Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s, ed. Bruce Schulman and Julian Zelizer (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008), 90-105.

47. Falwell, “America Back to God” a 1976 sermon cited in Harding, Book of Jerry Falwell, that no longer exists in the archive. There is a sermon called “America Must Come Back to God,” April 27, 1975, Sermon ID Code: OTGH-133, tape, LUV, but it does not mention politics at all, an indication of just how much Falwell changes in 1976. Falwell, “Conditions Corrupting America,” May 16, 1976, Sermon ID Code: OTGH-192, transcript, 16, LUV. On the size of Falwell’s church in the late seventies, see Falwell, “Whatever Happened to the Family,” December 2, 1979, Sermon Code: OTGH-377. See also Joe Ledlie, “Abortion Became Catalyst for Bible-Belt Politics” Atlanta Journal, March 18, 1980; Ledlie, “Politics from the Pulpit,” Atlanta Constitution, March 16, 1980; and Ledlie, “Christian Voter Drive Wants to Influence Politicians,” Atlanta Journal, March 17,1980.

48. Crespino, “Civil Rights and the Religious Right”; Martin, With God on Our Side, Weyrich quote, 173.

49. Martin, With God on Our Side, 25-73.

50. Martin, With God on Our Side.

51. Falwell, “America’s Lawlessness” America Can Be Saved, quotes, 90, 91, 86-87.

52. Falwell, “The Biblical Answer to Women’s Lib,” May 11,1975, Sermon ID Code: OTGH-135, tape, LUV; “Abortion-on-Demand: Is It Murder?” February 26, 1978, quote, 9; “Whatever Happened to the Family?” December 2, 1979, Sermon ID Code: OTGH-377, transcript, LUV, quotes, 17, 18, 19.

53. Martin, With God on Our Side, 173-74, Towns and Dobson quotes, 210, 217; D’Souza, Falwell Before the Millennium, Marty quote, 116; direct mail reproduced in Young, God’s Bullies, 309; Falwell, “A Day of Many Solomons” America Can Be Saved, 109-21, quote, 120.

54. “American Back to God,” February 3, 1980, Sermon ID Code: OTGH-386, transcript, quote, 17, LUV; Martin, With God on Our Side, quote, 202; FitzGerald, Cities on a Hill.

55. Falwell, “The Biblical Answer to Women’s Lib,” May 11,1975; “America Must Come Back to God,” April 27, 1975; “Conditions Corrupting Politics,” May 16, 1976; “The Establishment,” 1976; “Home: Ten Major Threats” May 27, 1979, Sermon ID Code: OTGH-352, tape, LUV; “America Back to God,” February 3, 1980, Sermon ID Code: OTGH-386, transcript; LUV; Patricia Pingry, Jerry Falwell: Man of Vision (Milwaukee: Ideals Publishing, 1980), quote, 6.

56. D’Souza, Falwell Before the Millennium, 111.

57. Falwell, Strength for the Journey, 334-47; Falwell, If I Should Die Before I Wake (New York: Thomas Nelson, 1986), 31-47; Francis Schaeffer, How Should We Then Live? The Rise and Decline of Western Thought and Culture (Old Tappan, N.J.: Revell, 1976); Martin, With God on Our Side, 160; Schaeffer and C. Everett Koop, Whatever Happened to the Human Race? (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Revell, 1977). Interestingly, Falwell does not mention Koop at all in his autobiography. Many fundamentalists turned against Koop for his role, as the surgeon general, in fighting AIDS during the later years of the Reagan administration.

58. Mel White (ghostwriter and script doctor for both Schaeffer and Falwell), interview, cited in Martin, With God on Our Side, 197. Scholars and journalists have repeatedly questioned Falwell’s and his organization’s figures for the size of his audience, the number of church members, the number of radio listeners, and the number of television viewers.

59. Falwell, Strength for the Journey, quotes, 336-37. Martin, With God on OurSide, gives the 1978 date and cites an interview with Elmer Towns. My own research has turned up no existing copies of sermons preached before “Abortion-on- Demand: Is It Murder?” (February 26, 1978) and “Legalized Abortion-on- Demand: Is It Murder?” (April 30, 1978). On the range of Christian perspectives on abortion, see Jeffery L. Sheler, “The Theology of Abortion,” U.S. News and World Report (March 9, 1992).

60. Falwell, Strength for the Journey, quote, 338.

61. Falwell, Strength for the Journey, 339-40.

62. Martin, With God on Our Side, 172-73, 197-202, quote, 199. Pat Robertson, Jim Bakker, and James Dobson also pushed opposition to the IRS decision issue on their radio and television programs. D’Souza, Falwell Before the Millenium, 109-11, argues that Paul Weyrich’s strategy was to protest abortion in order to split the Democratic Party coalition by pushing ethnic Catholics and southern white conservative Christians to vote Republican.

63. Joe Ledlie, “Politics from the Pulpit,” Atlanta Constitution, March 16,1980, quote, Harding, Book of Jerry Falwell, quote, 9; Myra MacPherson, “The Genesis and Gospel of the Reverend of the Right,” Washington Post, September 26, 1984, quote, D9; MacPherson, “Falwell: Big-Time Politics from the Pulpit of Old-Time Religion,” Washington Post, September 27, 1984.

64. Falwell, “Abortion-on-Demand: Is It Murder?” quote, 2.

65. Jerrold Seigel, Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeoisie Life, 1830-1930 (New York: Viking, 1986).

Chapter 8: Rescue

1. Martin Oppenheimer and George Lakey, A Manual for Direct Action (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1965), xiii.

2. Randall Terry, Accessory to Murder: The Enemies, Allies, andAccomplices to the Death of Our Culture (Brentwood, Tenn.: Wolgemuth and Hyatt, 1990); Terry direct mail letter, 1990, Randall Terry file, Political Research Associates. This section draws heavily, with the generous help of Chip Berlet, from the archives of Political Research Associates, Somerville, Massachusetts (hereafter cited as PRA). PRA is one of the few places that have collected the direct mail appeals and other literature of the anti-abortion movement, including the rare Army of God Manual: When Life Hurts, We Can Help. The date of the founding of Operation Rescue is in dispute, with Terry claiming 1986 but other participants and scholars arguing for 1987, the year Terry claims Operation Rescue set up its national office.

3. Sources on American conservatism in the postwar period and the rise of the Religious Right that have influenced my thinking here include Chip Berlet and Matthew N. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort (New York: Guilford Press, 2000); Jonathan M. Schoenwald, A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001: Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001); David Farber and Jeff Roche, eds., The Conservative Sixties (New York: Peter Lang, 2003); Bruce J. Schulman and Julian E. Zelizer, eds., Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2008); Godfrey Hodgson, The World Turned Right Side Up: A History of the Conservative Ascendancy in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1996); Mary C. Brennan, Turning Right in the Sixties: The Conservative Capture of the GOP (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Lawrence Grossberg, We Gotta Get Out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (New York: Routledge, 1992); Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Eliot (Chicago: Regnery, 1953); Kirk, The Portable Conservative Reader (New York: Penguin, 1982); George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth- Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980); R. Laurence Moore, Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); and Martin Anderson, Revolution: The Reagan Legacy (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1988);

4. The alternative to politics, in this sense, is war, which mobilizes bodies too, corpses and the maimed bodies of the injured. See Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). Terrorism, a form of warfare in which small groups kill and injure people, using the bodies to create a spectacle and to provoke a violent response from their opponents, is in this sense violent direct action.

5. On the history of direct action and civil disobedience, see Frances Fox Piven, Challenging Authority: How Ordinary People Change America (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006); and Roland Bleiker, Popular Dissent, Human Agency, and Global Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000). On civil disobedience and anti-abortion activism, from the perspective of an activist, see Randy C. Alcorn, Is Rescuing Right? Breaking the Law to Save the Unborn (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1990).

6. Ronald Formisano, Boston Against Busing (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); J. Anthony Lukas, Common Ground (New York: Knopf, 1985); Dan Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995). Pro-choice supporters often argue that there is no nonviolent direct action anti-abortion movement and that Terry and Operation Rescue in particular encourage violent attacks on clinics and abortion providers. It is true that Terry is on record praying for abortion doctors to die, that former Terry associates and OR members have attacked and killed clinics and doctors, and that Terry has never condemned convicted murderers of abortion providers like Paul Hill. Still, evidence suggests that most people who participated in OR’s rescues in the late eighties and early nineties were attracted to the group’s public position as nonviolent. All of OR’s literature on protesting, often called rescuing, demanded that protesters behave nonviolently and sign a pledge to this effect. On the violent wing of anti-abortion protest and its long history of sabotage, bombings, attacks on people, and murders, and Terry’s and other OR leaders’ connections to this violence, see Dudley Clendinen, “Abortion Clinic Bombings Have Caused Disruption for Many,” New York Times, February 6, 1985, A14; and especially Eleanor J. Bader and Patricia Baird-Windle, Targets of Hatred: Anti-Abortion Terrorism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001). Thinking seriously about anti-abortionists’ use of the civil rights movement as a model changes the history of postwar protest movements and the use of direct action. In this new story, the eighties look less like a break with a postwar tradition of protest than yet another adaptation of those protest methods by a group— conservative Christians opposed to abortion—who saw themselves as marginalized and oppressed by American society. Nonviolent direct action, and particularly its use in the church-based, Deep South civil rights movement, looks more radical and religious, based in faith in God and a moral commitment to do what is right regardless of the outcome, and much less like political liberalism with its faith in human progress. And alienation—a feeling of psychological, cultural, and moral estrangement from what a person sees as her society—looks a lot more politically promiscuous than most participants in the New Left wanted to believe at the time. On faith and theology and its role in motivating African American Christians in the South, see David L. Chappell, A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). For a terrific summary of the historiography of the New Right, see Kim Phillips-Fein, “Right On” Nation, September 9, 2009.

7. Terry direct mail, n.d. [attributed by author, 1990], Randall Terry file, PRA, emphasis in the original. Direct mailers often use italics, boldface, and varied fonts.

8. Thomas Hilgers and Dennis Horan, Abortion and Social Justice (N.p.: Sun Life, 1980), 105, i.

9. James Risen and Judy Thomas, Wrath of Angels:TheAmerican Abortion War (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 60.

10. Oppenheimer and Lakey, Manual for Direct Action, quotes, xi, 73, 78, 80.

11. Risen and Thomas, Wrath of Angels, 61.

12. On the struggle over abortion, see Cynthia Gorney, Articles of Faith: A Frontline History of the Abortion Wars (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998); Kristin Luker, Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); Rickie Solinger, Abortion Wars: A Half Century of Struggle, 1950-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Risen and Thomas, Wrath of Angels; Michele McKeegan, Abortion Politics: Mutiny in the Ranks of the Right (New York: Free Press, 1992); Carol J. C. Maxwell, Pro-Life Activists in America: Meaning, Motivation, and Direct Action (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); and Carol Mason, Killing for Life: The Apocalyptic Narrative of Pro-Life Politics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002); Garry Wills, “Evangels of Abortion,” New York Review of Books, June 15, 1989, 15-21; James Davison Hunter, Before the Shooting Begins: Searching for American Democracy in America’s Culture Wars (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994); Celia Farber, “Mixed Emotions,” Spin, December 1991, 79-86; and Susan Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong?” Mother Jones, November 1989, 22-28, 61-64. Books that cover the issue of abortion from the anti-abortion perspective include William Brennan, The Abortion Holocaust: Today’s Final Solution (St. Louis: Landmark Press, 1983); George Grant, Grand Illusions: The Legacy of Planned Parenthood (Brentwood, Tenn.: Wolgemuth and Hyatt, 1988); Robert H. Ruff, Aborting Planned Parenthood (Lewiston, N.Y.: Life Cycle Books, 1988); Dave Andrusko, To Rescue the Future: The Pro-Life Movement in the 1980s (Toronto: Life Cycle Books, 1983); and Hilgers and Horan, Abortion and Social Justice. Randall Terry’s own books include Accessory to Murder; Operation Rescue (Binghamton, N.Y.: Operation Rescue, 1988); To Rescue the Children (N.p.: Project Life, 1992), an instruction manual for starting an anti-choice ministry; and Why Does a Nice Guy Like Me Keep Getting Thrown in Jail? (Lafayette, La.: Huntington House, 1993).

13. John O’Keefe, A Peaceful Presence (1978), a self-published pamphlet, in available in PRA.

14. Joseph Scheidler, Closed:90 Ways to Stop Abortion (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1985); Joan Andrews with J. Cavanaugh-O’Keefe, I Will Never Forget You: The Rescue Movement in the Life of Joan Andrews (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1989); Richard Cowden-Guido, ed., You Reject Them, You Reject Me: The Prison Letters of Joan Andrews (Brentwood, Tenn.: Wolgemuth and Hyatt, 1989); Maxwell, Pro-Life Activists in America; and Kathy Rudy, Beyond Pro-Life and Pro- Choice: Moral Diversity in the Abortion Debate (Boston: Beacon, 1996). Closed is still the how-to book for anti-abortionists, though the ideas in the book have been copied and adapted and circulate most commonly today on the Web and in pamphlet form. For examples of a pamphlet adapted from the ideas in Closed, see California Coalition for Life and Operation Rescue of California, How to Stop Abortion in Your Community, in the Operation Rescue—California file, PRA. See also a typed excerpt from the pamphlet 52 Simple Things You Can Do To Be Pro-Life, by Anne Person and Carol Risser (Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany Publishers, n.d.), itself an adaptation of the ideas in Closed, in Operation Rescue file, PRA. Kevin Sherlock’s self-published Abortion Buster’s Manual also came out in 1985, but it focused on driving abortion doctors out of business by researching and publishing their professional histories and malpractice cases, a tactic that has not been very successful.

15. William Martin, With God on Our Side:The Rise of the Religious Right in America (New York: Broadway Books, 1996); Risen and Thomas, Wrath of Angels; Wills, “Evangels of Abortion.”

16. “Part of the Rescue Operation” America, May 21,1988, 524-26, quote, 524; see also quote from Richard Traynor, attorney and president of New Jersey Right to Life: “Philosophically, blowing up an abortion machine can’t be wrong, because it’s a machine used for killing innocent human beings. However, I would not do it myself. Instead, I choose to put my body between the machine and the innocent victim.”

17. Martin, With God on Our Side, 321; Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong?” 25; Howard Kurtz, “Operation Rescue: Aggressively Antiabortion,” Washington Post, March 6, 1989.

18. Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong?” 28; Martin, With God on Our Side, 321; Risen and Thomas, Wrath of Angels, 219, 223; C. Everett Koop and Francis A. Schaeffer, Whatever Happened to the Human Race? (Westchester, 1ll.: Crossway Books, 1983); Franky Schaeffer, Whatever Happened to the Human Race? (Muskegon, Mich.: Gospel Films, 1984), a multipart film version of the book; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, “Fetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction,” Feminist Studies 13:2 (Summer 1987): 263-329; Mason, Killing for Life.

19. Wills, “Evangels of Abortion;” Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong;” Francis Schaeffer, A Christian Manifesto (1981; Wheaton, 1ll.: Crossway Books, 2005).

20. Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong?”

21. Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong?” quote, 62.

22. Randall Terry, “Operation Rescue: The Civil Rights Movement of the Nineties,” Policy Review 47 (Winter 1989): 82-83; Kurtz, “Operation Rescue: Aggressively Antiabortion;” Ronald Smothers, “Atlanta Protests Prove Magnet for Abortion Foes,” New York Times, August 13, 1988, 6.

23. Martin, With God on OurSide, 321; David Treadwell, “Escalating Protests at Abortion Clinics Turning Atlanta into Key Battleground,” Los Angeles Times, August 13, 1988, 2; Kurtz, “Operation Rescue: Aggressively Antiabortion”; Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong?”’ Lyn Cryderman, “A Movement Divided,” Christianity Today, August 12, 1988, 48-49; “Witnesses for Human Rights,” America, May 21, 1988, 523, which compares New York City protests in May 1988, the week preceding Mother’s Day, to the Solidarity strike in May 1988 in Gdansk, Poland: “Each group was testifying to the innate dignity and rights of every human being”; Terry, “Operation Rescue: The Civil Rights Movement of the Nineties” and Richard John Neuhaus’s letter in response to the piece, Policy Review 48 (Spring 1989): 95.

24. Randall Terry, Operation Rescue (Binghamton, N.Y.: Operation Rescue, 1988). The verse is from a paraphrase of the Bible into contemporary language, The Living Bible (Wheaton, 1ll.: Tyndale House, 1971).

25. Terry, “Operation Rescue: The Civil Rights Movement of the Nineties”

26. The best account of the violence committed by anti-abortion activists is Bader and Baird-Windle, Targets of Hatred.

27. Nat Hentoff, “Civil Rights and Anti-Abortion Protests,” Washington Post, February 6, 1989, A11; Julian Bond,’Dr. King’s Unwelcome Heirs” New York Times, November 2, 1988, A27. The U.S. Civil Rights Commission refused to investigate police brutality against anti-abortion activists even when urged by one of its own members, conservative William B. Allen. But, as the ACLU and a few other liberal and leftist groups have argued in the last decade, allowing the police and the courts to shut down nonviolent protest on the part of anti- abortion activists severely limits everyone’s right to protest. See William B. Allen, “Police Brutality—but No Outrage,” Wall Street Journal, August 18, 1989.

28. “Enemy of Abortions Is Also Taking Issue with Protest Tactics,” New York Times, August 31, 1988, A14; Marshall Ingwerson, “Antiabortion Protestors Try a Tougher Strategy,” Christian Science Monitor, October 7, 1988, 5-6.

29. Faludi, “Where Did Randy Go Wrong?”; “The National Rescuer Resources,” Operation Rescue file, PRA.

30. “The OR National Newsletter,” November 1994, Operation Rescue file, PRA; Risen and Thomas, Wrath of Angels, 217-338.

31. On the protests in Atlanta, see Smothers, “Atlanta Protests Prove Magnet for Abortion Foes”; Cryderman, “Movement Divided”; “Protests in Atlanta,” Christianity Today, November 4, 1988, 34; Michelle Hiskey, “Thousands Join’Rescue Movement’ Around the Nation,” Christianity Today, December 9, 1988, 52; Charlotte Low Allen, “Anti-Abortion Movement’s Anti-Establishment Face,” Wall Street Journal, December 8, 1988, A22; and Ingwerson, “Antiabortion Protestors Try a Tougher Strategy.”

32. Terry, “Letter from the Atlanta Jail,” October 10, 1989, in Terry, Accessory to Murder; Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” 1963, in Testament of Hope: The Essential Writings of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row, 1986).

33. Tamar Lewin, “With Thin Staff and Thick Debt, Anti-Abortion Group Faces Struggle,” New York Times, June 11, 1990, A16; Smothers, “Atlanta Protests Prove Magnet for Abortion Foes”; Hiskey, “Thousands Join’Rescue Movement’ Around the Nation.”

34. Allen, “Anti-Abortion Movement’s Anti-Establishment Face.”

35. Quotes are from undated Operation Rescue materials in PRA: from the Operation Rescue file, “Everything you ever wanted to know about how to rescue preborn children,” “Spring of Life Rescue in Buffalo, New York [1992],” and “Operation Rescue: Boston: The power of prayer and nonviolence”; and from the Operation Rescue-California file, “Rescuer’s Check List,” “Legal Considerations,” and “How to Stop Abortion in Your Community.”

36. “Rescuer’s Check List”; “Everything you ever wanted to know about how to rescue preborn children.”

37. “Legal Considerations”; “Everything you ever wanted to know about how to rescue preborn children”; letters from jail include Keith Tucci, “To Pro-life Christians in America,” April 26, 1993, and Bob Jewitt, no title, handwritten on plain paper, both in Operation Rescue file, PRA; Randall Terry, “Ready… Aim… Backfire,” January 3, 1995, in Randall Terry file, PRA.

38. Dorothee Benz, “Inside Operation Rescue,” Sojourner: The Women’s Forum, December 1992, 10; “Pastor Keith Tucci to Judge Eileen O’Neil, Contempt of Court Hearing, Houston, Tex., August 20, 1992,” as distributed by Operation Rescue National, Operation Rescue file; Letter to “Dear Friend of the Unborn,” October 1992, Operation Rescue—California file; What Does One Abortion Cost? Operation Rescue file; “Everything you ever wanted to know about how to rescue preborn children,” which also includes the Cowgill poem; Cities of Refuge pamphlet for protests in seven cities in July 1993, Operation Rescue file; all in PRA.

39. NationalRescue Update, Summer of Purpose Edition, July 6-11,1992, Operation Rescue File, PRA. This sporadically produced newsletter is full of photographs and is also a good example of anti-abortion activists’ use of the Holocaust analogy—across the font beside images of abortion clinics are the words “Auschwitz, USA.”

40. On the rising class status of many evangelicals in the postwar period, see John G. Turner, Bill Bright and Campus Crusade for Christ: The Renewal of Evangelicalism in Postwar America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); Jon R. Stone, On the Boundaries of American Evangelicalism: The Postwar Evangelical Coalition (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997); and Steven Miller, Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009).

41. “Enemy of Abortions Is Also Taking Issue with Protest Tactics”; Ingwerson, “Antiabortion Protestors Try a Tougher Strategy.”

42. “The power of prayer and nonviolence: Turning the tide against abortion” Operation Rescue file, PRA; and AOG manual, When Life Hurts, We Can Help (n.p., n.d.). My copy is copied from a not very good copy at PRA, and the page numbers are illegible.

43. For the text and history of the bill, see http://www.justice.gov/crt/crim/248fin. php, accessed April 2, 2009.

44. Footage compiled by the research division of Planned Parenthood in the 1990s, videotapes at PRA; Montana Human Rights Network memo, “Missionaries to the Preborn: Combining Anti-Choice Rhetoric and the Militia Movement,” PRA; Berlet and Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America; Leonard Zeskind, “Armed and Dangerous: The NRA, Militias, and White Supremacists Are Fostering a Network of Right-Wing Warriors” Rolling Stone, November 2, 1995.

45. Terry, “Ready… Aim… Backfire”; Risen and Thomas, Wrath of Angels.

46. Baird-Windle and Bader, Targets of Hatred.

47. Army of God, part of HBO series America Undercover, 2000; transcribed by author.

48. Berlet and Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America; Diamond, Spiritual Warfare; footage compiled by the research division of Planned Parenthood in the 1990s, videotapes at PRA.

Conclusion: The Cost of Rebellion

1. Jon Krakauer, “Death of an Innocent: How Christopher McCandless Lost His Way in the Wilds,” Outside, January 1993, accessed on July 24, 2010, at http://outsideonline.com/outside/features/1993/1993_into_the
_wild_1.html. Late in his stay in the bus, a desperate McCandless—in his words, “near death”—signed his real name to an SOS note he pinned beside the bus door.

2. Ned Zeman, “The Man Who Loved Grizzlies: For Timothy Treadwell, the Grizzlies of Alaska Weren’t Just the World’s Largest Terrestrial Predators,” Vanity Fair, May 2004, accessed on July 24, 2010, at http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2004/05/timothy-treadwell200405; Werner Herzog, Grizzly Man (Lionsgate and Discovery Docs, 2005).

3. The Discovery Channel used Treadwell’s footage to make the multiple episodes of The Grizzly Diaries, first aired in 2006. After his death, Animal Planet edited more of his film footage into the eight-episode series The Grizzly Man Diaries, first broadcast in 2008.

4. Zeman, “Man Who Loved Grizzlies,” 3, 5.

5. In fact, no contemporary critique of the outsider romance has yet surpassed those offered by some Black Power advocates in the late 1960s and 1970s, most notably the commentary of Julius Lester.