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Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.
Abbott, Thomas, 182, 183, 184
abolitionists, 60, 64–65, 167, 264–65, 317
Aboriginia, 6, 17, 83, 241
Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians, 79, 82, 147, 227, 275, 299, 308, 312, 317
Adams, John Quincy, xix, 35, 36, 48, 68, 85, 86, 163
African Americans
allied with Seminoles, 294–95
Dred Scott decision and, 304
mixed communities with native people, 183, 310–11
not welcome in the North, 80
plan for deportation to Africa, 17–18, 70
plan for relocation to the West, 18–19
southern state laws governing free blacks, 94
Alabama. See also Creek people
cotton production on expropriated lands, 310, 310
Creeks owning 10,000 square miles of, 37–38
desertion by company of militia in, 250
eager for expulsion of indigenous Americans, 32, 37–38
enslaved population more than doubled in 1830s, 245, 246
Georgia planters with investments in, 38
oppressive laws of, 86, 97
white people moving onto Creek land, 174
Alabama bonds, 189–90
propped up with Chickasaw trust fund, 214–17, 215
Alabama Emigrating Company, 252
alcohol consumption
by native people, 5, 11, 15, 61, 157, 159
by soldiers fighting Seminoles, 295–96, 298
Allen, G.W., 288
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 60–61, 63, 64, 70, 168
American Colonization Society (ACS), 17–18, 65, 70, 167
American Land Company, 256
American Revolution, values of, 320–22
Apess, William, 61–62, 81, 254–56, 314
Armistead, Walker Keith, 292
Armstrong, Francis W., 140–41, 149, 152–53, 154
Armstrong, Robert, 296
Armstrong, William, 122
Atkinson, Henry, 144–45, 147, 306
auctions. See General Land Office
Baldwin, Henry, 100
Baldwin, Joseph, 200
banknotes, regional, 210, 210
Barbour, James, 15, 20, 24
Bates, Isaac, 73
Beanstick, Joseph, 96
Beaumont, Gustave de, 128, 129, 130
Beecher, Catherine, 67
Beers, Joseph Davis, 184–90
Apess and, 254–55, 314
buying interest in Seminole land, 300
depreciated banknotes and, 210
despised in Creek Nation, 201
distinguished reputation of, 201, 312
heirs enriched by wealth of, 312–15
Hubbard as associate of, 190, 194, 210, 245–46
investment in gold mining, 271
portrait of, 188
Treasury’s rescue of Alabama bonds of, 214, 216
Bell, John, 73, 213, 272, 275
Benton, Thomas Hart, 68
Berrien, John, 33, 37, 60, 99–100
Black Hawk, 146, 160, 161, 242, 301, 305–6
Black Hawk War. See U.S.-Sauk War
Black Prairie lands, 192–95, 193
contract for sale of portion, 209
purchased in Chickasaw Nation, 211
seized by 1838, 271
transformed to grow cotton, 311
Blair, Francis Preston, 216
Bolton, John, 192–93, 195–96, 212
Bolton, Richard, 212
border wall, 248, 317
Boudinot, Elias
Beers and, 255
as editor of Cherokee Phoenix, 16, 59, 60, 61, 161
Evarts’s acquaintance with, 65
Georgia Guard and, 161
pressured to resign from Cherokee Phoenix, 237
Treaty of New Echota and, 238
urging Cherokees to sign a treaty, 168, 237, 238, 267
Worcester v. Georgia and, 163
Brish, Henry, 136, 137, 139–40
Brown, David, 60–61, 65, 107
Brown, John, 164–65
Bureau of Indian Affairs, 85, 102–3
Butler, Elizur, 162, 168
Caldwell, Charles, 59
Calhoun, John C., 24, 34, 167, 266, 271
Call, Richard, 48, 290, 296
Call, Samuel, 64
Campbell, Robert, xv, 25–26
Campbell, William Bowen, 293–94
Cass, Lewis
advised by the Cherokee Nation’s unscrupulous attorney, 166
career after being secretary of war, 303–4
Creek leaders and, 20, 176
early endorsement of expulsion, 63
as Eaton’s successor, 104, 106, 135
land surveyor asking for guidance from, 179–80
McCoy’s communication with, 7, 63
new regulations after first year of deportations, 141–42
officer’s complaining letter to, 157
privatization of deportation and, 220
Schermerhorn’s cultivation of, 234
Shorter’s protestations to, 170
troops sent against Cherokees and, 247–48
war against Creeks and, 247
war against Sauks and Meskwakis and, 143, 145
war against Seminoles and, 241, 244, 282, 285
censuses of Native Americans, 182–84
Cherokee constitution of 1827, 41, 56, 268, 307
The Cherokee Nation v. The State of Georgia, 99–100, 161, 162, 166
Cherokee people. See also Georgia; Ridge, John; Ross, John
civilizing policy and, 7, 24
final expulsion in 1838, 268–71, 275–81, 277
final expulsion’s motivations, 271–75
Georgia’s distribution of 4.28 million acres from, 166–67
Harris’s calamitous deportation of, 221–25, 222, 224
increasing population of, 15–16
investment in dispossessed lands of, 189, 255
Jackson and, 31, 86, 264
leaders despairing of future in the East, 168, 237–38, 267
literate after invention of syllabary, 54, 56, 59
plants used by, 197–98
resistance to deportation, 11, 47, 200, 258–63
seeing Seminole victories as opportunity, 243
state laws and, 74, 86
survivors in mountains of North Carolina, 276–77, 316
uprising of native peoples in 1836 and, 246, 247–48
values of American Revolution and, 321
violently attacked after Jackson’s election, 69
Washington’s proposal for wall and, 248
White Georgians urging expulsion, 29–30, 33–35, 37, 38
Cherokee Phoenix, 16, 54, 56, 59–60, 71, 161, 162, 199
Boudinot pressured out of, 237
seized by Georgia Guard, 238
Cherokee-U.S. treaties. See also Treaty of New Echota
emigration of a few thousand individuals in 1817, 7
memorial sent to Congress and, 56, 57
U.S. confusion about 1828 treaty, 104
violated by Georgia, 54–55, 99
Chickasaw people
auction of lands, 203, 208–17, 315
Black Prairie lands of, 192–95, 193
deportation expenses deducted from land sales, 212–14
doubting Jackson’s promises, 11–12
expulsion treaties with, 84, 88, 104, 108–10
family structures of, 183
fearful of western native peoples, 108
federal census of, 183, 184
investment in dispossessed lands of, 188–89, 190, 192
Jackson and, 86, 87–88, 263
land speculators and, 200, 202, 208–17, 315
required to sell their land allotments, 196
resistant to leaving Mississippi, 37, 38
slaveholding by, 13
state laws and, 95, 97
suffering less than others in deportation, 269
treaty controlling land sales of, 203, 208–9
trust fund pillaged to prop up state bonds, 214–17, 215
values of the American Revolution and, 321
wealth lost by, 315
Choctaw people. See also Mississippi; Pitchlynn, Peter; Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
auction of national domain in Mississippi, 203, 204, 205–6
Black Prairie lands of, 192–93, 193
community of African Americans mixed with, 310–11
driven out by invaders, 149, 206–7
federal census of, 183, 184
federal compensation of dispossessed with scrip, 206–7
a few surviving on marginal lands, 316
first year of deportations, 110–11, 118, 124–36, 131, 134
investment in dispossessed lands of, 188–89
land speculators and, 200, 202–8
leaders invited to meet with Jackson, 86
McCoy’s illusions about western land and, 107
reluctant to leave for the West, 12, 196–97, 198
replaced by slave labor camps, 208, 245
second year of deportations, 145, 148–55, 268
southern politicians eager for land of, 37, 38
wealth lost by, 315
cholera
biology of, 146, 148
Black Hawk War and, 146–48, 242
effect on paths of expulsion, 150
global route to North America, 145–46
in Harris’s deportation of Cherokees, 223, 224, 225
in second round of Choctaw deportations, 145, 149–55, 268
in three indigenous communities expelled from Ohio, 155, 157–58
Chuwoyee, 69
civilization
cited by opponents of expulsion, 66
Indians claimed incompetent for, 59
as rationale for expulsion, xiv, 27, 195, 290
civilizing policy, 22–24
expulsion policy winning out over, 24–26
terrifying to ruling elite, 40
White Georgians’ complaints about, 29, 34–35
Civil War
Confederacy invading Indian Territory, 306
Ross’s political savvy during, 307
Clark, J. B., 120, 128
Clark, John, 14, 33, 36
Clark, William, 20, 123
Clayton, Augustin, 98, 163–65
Clinch, Duncan, 240, 241, 244
Clinton, DeWitt, 93
Cobb, Samuel, 181–82
Cobb, Thomas W., 38
Coffee, John, 88–90, 104, 109
Colbert, George, xvii
Colbert, James, 202, 208–9
Colbert, Levi, 108, 109–10, 214
Colt, Samuel, 289
Commerce Clause of U.S. Constitution, 44
commissary general. See Gibson, George
commutation payments, 134, 134–35
Congress. See also Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians
amendment on violation of treaties, 82
anti-expulsion petitions to, 65–67
Cherokee memorial of 1834 blaming Jackson, 233
Creeks’ memorial addressed to, 56–59
debate and vote on expulsion policy, 70–78, 79, 81
debate on final expulsion of Cherokees, 272–73
“Memorial of the Cherokees” addressed to, 54–56, 59
reacting to uprising in 1836, 248
Constitution. See U.S. Constitution
Cooper, James Fenimore, 15, 43
cotton
congressional vote on expulsion and, 77
Creek land in Alabama and, 217
Georgia’s white citizens desiring expulsion and, 28, 38
investment in, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192–94
land division to favor U.S. citizens and, 179
in monocrop agriculture, 194–95
pollution from plantations of, 169
prime lands for growing, 193
prime lands purchased in Chickasaw Nation, 211, 212
production on expropriated lands, 245, 309–10, 310
slave labor producing wealth from, 87, 245
Crawford, William, 39
Creek people. See also Alabama; Micco, Neha; U.S.-Creek War of 1813–14; U.S.-Creek War of 1836; Opothle Yoholo
Black Prairie lands of, 192–93, 193
Calhoun’s praise for success of, 24
death toll among early migrants to the West, 155
divided by U.S. Civil War, 306
English-language memorial to U.S. Congress, 56–58
federal attempt at census of, 182–84
a few surviving on marginal lands, 316
following events in Florida, 243
forcibly deported in 1836, 251–54, 268
fugitives from 1836 deportation, 252–54, 257, 283
Georgia law requiring permit to enter state, 94–95
hemmed in by increasing white population, 31
investment in dispossessed lands of, 184, 189
invited to meet with Jackson, 86
land speculation and, 200, 217–21
land survey of, 184
lies about declining population of, 16–17
military operations against, 247, 249–51
Northerners speaking in defense of, 45
not required by treaty to leave, 196
plundered after Jackson’s election, 68
reluctant to leave for the West, 196–97, 198, 199
slavery expanded in dispossessed land of, 245
sparing slaves in their attacks, 244, 247
speaking out against expulsion, 47
starvation and, 176, 177–78
in uprising of 1836, 243, 246, 247
values of the American Revolution and, 321
wealth lost by, 315
White Georgians intent on seizing land of, 27–28, 32, 33, 34–38, 170, 173–74, 175–77
Creek-U.S. treaties
of 1790, 57, 68
before Alabama existed, 175
land survey system and, 177–78, 180
McIntosh’s fraudulent treaty, 35–36, 60
petition to Congress invoking, 56–58
Cross, Truman, 291
Crutchfield, Peggy Scott Vann, 62
Cuba, 288, 292, 304
Currey, Benjamin F., 233–34, 238
Cusick, David, 61
Cusseta Micco, 304
Dade Massacre, 239–40, 241, 243, 244, 286
Dancing Rabbit Creek. See Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
Davis, Jefferson, 305
Dawes Act of 1887, 303
Dawson, William, 272–74, 275
Deas, Edward, 252
Declaration of Independence, 30, 47, 65, 321
Delaware people, 7, 137, 138, 140
“deportation,” xiii–xiv
deportation operations. See also expulsion policy of 1830s; Gibson, George
with clerks making life-and-death decisions, 118–19
cost of, 308–9, 309
monumental paperwork of, 116–18
native peoples blamed for failures of, 140–41, 199
new regulations after first year of, 141–42
privatization of, 219–20, 251–52, 279, 309
problem of finding destinations, 101, 102–10
seeming feasible to white southerners, 41–44
unsuccessful by end of 1835, 227
domestic dependent nations, 99, 162, 274
Dougherty, Cornelius, 98
Douglass, Frederick, 317
Dred Scott decision, 304
Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, 277
Eaton, John
abdication of federal authority to aid Creeks, 174–75, 176
Cherokee complaints to, 69
claiming expulsion was voluntary, 89
confused about Indians’ destination, 104
lacking a plan for deportation, 110
McCoy and, 70, 84–85
negotiations with Chickasaws and, 84, 87, 88
reducing budget of Bureau of Indian Affairs, 102–3
state laws and, 96, 97, 175
succeeded by Lewis Cass, 104, 106, 135
Treaty of Payne’s Landing and, 236
economics of expulsion policy, 308–10, 315
Elliott, John, 14–15, 19–20, 28
Ellsworth, William, 74
Emathla, Charley, 283
Emathla, Holata, 283–84
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 266–67
“ethnic cleansing,” xiii
Eulogy on King Philip (Apess), 254
Evarts, Jeremiah, 64–65, 67, 71
Everett, Edward, xiii, 74–75, 111, 133
“expulsion,” xiv
expulsion act. See Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians
expulsion policy of 1830s. See also deportation operations
absence of reckoning with, xix
claimed to be humanitarian, 26, 41, 42, 57, 63, 159, 232, 241, 259
congressional debate and vote on, 70–78, 79, 81
distinction between slavery and, 320
economics of, 308–10, 315
geographical segregation created by, xvii, 316, 316–18, 319
as model for colonial empires, xv–xvi
not inevitable, xviii–xix, 30–31, 318, 320–22
opposition to, xvii, 47, 60–68, 70–71, 73, 74–75, 263
parallels to slavery, 318, 320
pragmatic compromises offered by Native Americans, 320
terminology for, xii–xiv
as turning point, xvii–xviii
unprecedented nature of, xv
extermination, xiv, 45, 46, 64, 98, 159–60. See also war of extermination
extinction of native peoples, 15, 17, 30
Falstaff, in Shakespeare’s Henry IV, 291
Featherstonhaugh, George William, 271–72
Female Aboriginal Relief Society, 22
Fickhiyea, 209
Fields, Richard, 298
financiers, 256–57. See also investment in land and its transformation
First U.S.-Seminole War of 1817–18, 232
Florida. See Seminole people
Ford, James, 76
Forsyth, John, 33, 37, 71, 94
Franklin & Armfield, 43
Frelinghuysen, Theodore, 70–71
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, 303–4
fugitive slaves, 244–45, 292, 299
Gadsden, James, 236, 237
Gadsden Purchase, 236
Gaines, Edmund, 144
Gardiner, James, 156, 157
Garrison, William Lloyd, 64–65, 167
General Land Office
auctioning Chickasaws’ land, 208, 210, 212
auctioning Choctaws’ national domain, 203, 204–6
land divisions and, 178, 179
native wealth lost in auctions of, 315
Odawas purchasing land from, 11
profits from sales of expropriated lands, 309, 309
“genocide,” xiii
geographical segregation, xvii, 316, 316–18, 319
Georgia. See also Cherokee people
African American population of, 28
Cherokee and Creek nations owning 7,000 square miles of, 38
Cherokee lands distributed by lottery to citizens, 98, 233
Compact of 1802 with federal government, 34
Dawson’s threat of secession, 274
laws to control communication by “persons of colour,” 59–60
needing population more than land, 32–33
significant indigenous population in 1825, 31–32
Georgia Guard, 161–62
Georgia’s white citizens
ambition to dominate the nation, 28
of Columbus, 168–70, 173–77
in conspiracy of southern politicians, 38
electing governor hostile to Indians, 36
intent on seizing Creeks’ land, 27–28, 32, 33, 34–38, 170, 173–74, 175–77
Northerners’ opposition to plans of, 45–47
Gibson, George
admitting lack of success in 1835, 227
alliance between natives and “negroes” and, 244
attention to detail and cost savings, 110–11, 119–24, 133
Cass’s revised regulations and, 142
clerks of, 115–19, 221
critical of starving Indians, 154–55
defending his operations, 136
later years of, 304–5
personal history of, 119
privatization of deportation and, 219, 220
receiving complaints from officer escorting Seminoles, 284
second round of Choctaw deportations and, 145, 148, 149, 154–55
still confident in 1835, 221
gold in Appalachia, 69, 98, 271–72
Grayson, Sandy, 174
“great father,” U.S. president as, 23, 87–88, 106–7, 175
Gregory, Sherlock, 265–66
Gunter, Edward, 49
Hancock, Richardson, xi
Harkins, George, 89
Harney, William S., 145, 148, 301–2, 317–18
Harper, William, 16
Harris, Joseph W., 221–27, 239
Harrison, Albert G., 248
Henry, Patrick, 38
Hicks, George, 280–81, 282
Hicks, William, 11, 47
Hitchcock, Ethan Allen, 237, 292, 300
Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) people, 116, 144, 147
Holata Micco, 237
Hollingsworth, Henry, 297
Hook, J.H., 118
Horseshoe Bend, massacre of, 48, 85, 87
hot-air balloon, 289, 290
Howitt, William, xvii
Hubbard, David, 190, 192, 194, 210, 245–46
Hunter, Nathaniel Wyche, 291, 292, 296
Huntt, Henry, 115
“Indian,” xii–xiii
Indian Canaan, 3, 6, 303, 308
“Indian question,” xiv, 53
“Indian Removal,” xii–xiii
Indian Territory, xii, xviii, xix
hatred for Eaton during travel to, 89–90
invaded by Confederacy, 306
native peoples’ doubts about, 8
significant plants not found in, 197–98
white Americans’ ignorance about, 20–21
indigenous nations, legal relations between U.S. and, 99–100
indigenous people. See native people
intercourse law of 1802, 54–55, 166
intermarriages between U.S. citizens and native people, 39
investment in land and its transformation. See also land speculators
Beers’ role in, 184–90, 312–13
Black Prairie lands and, 192–94, 193
bonds issued by Alabama for, 189–90, 214–17, 215
bonds issued by Mississippi for, 188–90
joint-stock companies for, 188, 190–94
magnitude of capital needed, 184
native peoples’ delaying of, 196–200
replacing exhausted lands, 194–95
two streams of capital in, 188
Iroquois people, 116, 317
Irwin, William, 250
Ishtehotopa, 97, 109, 183
Jackson, Andrew
believing indiscriminate war would end uprising, 247
Black Hawk sent to meet, 305
calling for “voluntary” emigration, 49, 68, 89
Cass as secretary of war for, 63
Chickasaw leaders doubting words of, 11–12
Creek leader appealing to, 174
Eaton’s boundless loyalty to, 84–85
elected by common interest of North and South, 320
Gibson as commissary general and, 110–11, 119
hostile and paternalistic toward native peoples, 263
inaugurated as president, 48–49
invading Seminoles in 1817, 12
inviting native leaders to Tennessee meeting, 86–89
lampooned by Apess, 255–56
lectured by Chickasaw leader about native families, 183
Levi Colbert’s letter of protest to, 109–10
losing votes for persecution of Cherokees, 31
Lumpkin’s defense of, 73
McCoy’s meeting with, 70
native complaints about destinations in the West and, 107, 108–9
native complaints about state laws and, 96–97
native peoples’ opinions of, 263–64
negotiating 1817 treaty with some Cherokees, 7
Opothle Yoholo’s letter to, on privatized deportation, 220
pressure from elderly Shawnee women and, 155
requiring public lands be purchased with gold or silver, 216
Ridges’ letter to, on Cherokee situation, 258
Ross’s verbal jabs at, 11
self-justification by, 97
Seneca representatives to, 93
slaughter of Creeks in 1813–14 and, 48, 61, 85, 240–41
slave laborers on plantation of, 279
as southern war hero, 48
Treaty of New Echota and, 266
violent response to his election, 68–70
war with Sauks and, 145
Jefferson, Thomas, 6–7, 14, 15, 18, 23, 30, 274
Jesup, Thomas S., 247, 251, 286, 290–91, 300, 306, 307
“Jewish question,” xiv–xv
Johnson, William, 100
John W.A. Sanford and Company, 219–20, 251, 252
joint-stock companies, 188, 190–94
Kent, James, 93
Kerr, Joseph, 135–36
Ketchum, Morris, 255
land sales. See General Land Office
land speculators. See also investment in land and its transformation
in Chickasaw Nation, 208–17
in Choctaw Nation, 202–8
with corrupt market in scrip, 206
in Creek Nation, 200, 217–21
after Dawes Act of 1887, 303
devastating behavior of, 201–4
distributing Bibles to “benighted Indians,” 256
extracting wealth and doing long-term damage, 312, 315
fraudulent behavior in land auctions, 205, 212
illegal collusion of, 212, 216–17
in Seminole land, 299–300
land surveying, 177–82
Chickasaws billed for expenses of, 213
Choctaw and Creek lands and, 177–78, 180, 184
land valuation, under Treaty of New Echota, 259–62, 261
Lane, John F., 156, 157, 296
The Last of the Mohicans (Cooper), 15, 43
lead mining, 143–44
LeFlore, Greenwood, 134–35
Lewis, Meriwether, 20
The Liberator, 78, 167
Lincoln, Abraham, 145, 306
Long, Stephen, 21
Louisiana Purchase, 6–7
Lowe, B.M., 214
Lumpkin, Wilson
blaming indigenous Americans, 232
emancipation of slaves of, 304
gubernatorial campaign of, 94
manuscript on deporting native peoples, 304
McCoy and, 49, 72–73
overseeing expulsion of Cherokees, 262–63
promoting expulsion in Congress, 20, 49, 72–73
Worcester v. Georgia and, 168
malaria, 154, 200, 290, 294–95
Malthus, Thomas, 15
Mann, Abijah, Jr., 246
Marshall, John, 99–100, 162–63, 165, 169
Martin, George, 179, 181
mass deportations of twentieth century, xiv–xv, xix
Mather, Increase, 255
McCoy, Isaac, 3–8
American Colonization Society and, 17–18
civilizing policy and, 22, 23
claiming emigration would be voluntary, 84
destination of expulsion and, 21, 102, 103, 104–7
dislike for Schermerhorn, 235
helping southern planter-politicians, 57
lobbying in Congress for expulsion plan, 49, 70, 72, 73
McKenney’s false-front organization and, 63
naive to the end, 303
nightmare resulting from fantasy of, 83, 153–54, 199
as perfect partner for advocates of expulsion, 48
relocation of natives of northern states and, 90
McDuffie, George, 76–77
McElvain, John, 140
Mcintosh, William, 35, 37, 105
McKenney, Thomas, 20, 23, 24, 59, 63, 70, 85, 101–2, 124, 199
McKinley, John, 37, 38
McLean, John, 99, 166
measles, 139, 153, 223, 283, 307
Meehchikilita, 8
Meek, Alexander Beaufort, 242, 293
“Memorial of the Cherokees,” 54–56, 57, 58, 76
Meskwaki (Fox) people, 143, 144
Metamora (Broadway play), 15
Metoxen, John, 8
Mexico, war with proslavery secessionists, 246, 247, 301
Miami people, 8, 47
Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida, 300
military cordon, as boundary wall, 248, 317
Mingo Homa, 206
missionaries. See also American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions; McCoy, Isaac
Cherokee resistance to leaving and, 268
dislike for Schermerhorn, 235
federal government’s civilizing policy and, 22
women’s voices mediated by, 62
Worcester v. Georgia and, 161–62, 168
Mississippi. See also Black Prairie lands; Chickasaw people; Choctaw people
auction of Choctaws’ national domain in, 203, 204
bonds issued by, 188–90
Choctaws and Chickasaws owning half of area in, 38
Choctaws and Chickasaws refusing to leave, 37
cotton production on expropriated lands, 310, 310
Georgia planters with investments in, 38
oppressive laws of, 86, 87, 88, 97, 109
preparations for mass deportation from, 110
slave population greatly expanded by 1836, 245, 246
Missouri, as slave state unfriendly to Indians, 107
Missouri Compromise, 102
Monroe, James, 86
Morton, Samuel George, 202
Mott, Valentine, 308
Nance, James, 311–12
native people
agricultural practices of, 194–95
claimed to be inferior by Cass, 63–64
claimed to be savage, 27, 59, 61, 64, 96
Commerce Clause of Constitution and, 44
consequences of expulsion act for, 308, 315
declining populations of, 14–17, 31–32
diversity of, 9–10
economic interests shared with U.S. citizens, 10–11, 13
family structures of, 182–83
lives of leaders after the expulsion, 305–8
of Northwest, 8–11, 9, 16
oppressed in the North as well as the South, 78, 80–81
plants used by, 197–98
practical knowledge of the land, 196–98, 315
resistance to deportation, 8, 10, 11, 47, 86–88
of Southeast, 11–14, 12, 16
staggering economic losses of, 315
supposedly unable to coexist with U.S. citizens, 10, 14, 16, 19
Negro Fort, 244
Neha Micco, xvii, 68, 96, 108, 174, 196, 200, 217
“The New Jawbone,” 132, 141, 322
New York and Mississippi Land Company, 190, 191, 191, 192
Beers’ financial fraud and, 312
cotton lands purchased in Chickasaw Nation, 211, 212
hypocrisy of partner Ketchum, 255
illegal collusion of, 212
New York Indian Board for the Emigration, Preservation, and Improvement of the Aborigines of America, 63
Niles, Thomas, 209
Nisbet, Eugenius Aristides, 32–33
North American Trust and Banking Company, 312
Northwest, native peoples of, 8–11, 9, 16
Nullification movement, 167–68
Odawas, 155, 158–59, 203, 316
Ohio cessions, 90–91, 92
Opothle Yoholo, 96, 97, 107, 116, 196, 201–2, 218, 220, 252, 306
Osceola, 239, 240–41, 243, 250, 283, 290–91, 307–8
Parsons, Enoch, 182, 183, 184
Payne, John Howard, 238
Penn, William. See Evarts, Jeremiah
“people of color,” state laws governing, 60, 94–96, 311
petitions to Congress
invoking Creek-U.S. treaties, 56–58
opposing expulsion, 65–67
Pew, William, 294
Pike, Zebulon, 21
Pitchlynn, Peter, 107, 108, 198, 207–8, 233
Plains Wars, xvii–xviii
planter-politicians. See slaveholders, white
Poinsett, Joel, 272, 291, 300
Polk, James, 88
Potawatomis, 8, 47, 147
Powell, Billy. See Osceola
privatization of deportation, 219–20, 251–52, 279, 309
Rains, Gabriel J., 154, 155
Ramsay, David, 25
Ramsey, William, 76–77
Randolph, John, 68
Rattling Gourd, 69
Red Bird, 10
Red Jacket, 61
Reed, Thomas Buck, 38
Reynolds, Benjamin, 208–10, 212
Rhett, Robert, 102
Ridge, John, 61, 160–61, 163, 168, 237–38, 255, 258, 264
Ridge, Major, 237, 238, 258
Robertson, William, 63, 64
Ross, Andrew, 237, 238
Ross, John
arrested by Georgia Guard, 238
Black Hawk embracing strategy of, 306
Cherokees standing alone in 1834 and, 317
command of English language, 11
congressional vote and, 76, 259
criticized by Cherokees as “rich half breed,” 267
dislike for Schermerhorn, 235–36
on expulsion as a political choice, 320
on expulsion as scheme to get rid of native peoples, xvii
final expulsion of Cherokees and, 273, 275
foreseeing plan to starve out Cherokees, 270
Gunter as ally of, 49
hatred for Jackson, 264
on literacy of Cherokees, 54
Lumpkin’s antagonism toward, 232
marveling at indigenous westerners, 108
partly European ancestry, 95
personal characteristics, 160–61
portrait of, 161
resisting pressures for Cherokees to move west, 34, 47, 165–66, 168, 198, 237–38, 265, 267
as slaveholder, 265
small Cherokee population and, 16
state governments and, 96
still negotiating with U.S. government in 1837, 265
successes of later years, 307
Supreme Court decisions and, 100, 161–62, 165, 168
Treaty of New Echota and, 263, 265–67
on white men’s “avarice and cupidity,” 20
white Southerners’ views of, 267–68
Ross, Lewis, 95
Rush, Benjamin, 15
Russell, Samuel, 282
Sanford, John, 219–20
Santa Anna, Antonio López de, 246, 247
Sauk people, 143–45. See also Black Hawk; U.S.-Sauk War
Schermerhorn, John F., 234–38, 267
Scott, Winfield
in actions against Creeks, 243, 247, 251
in command against Seminoles, 241, 242, 244, 247, 290
inadequate maps and, 286
in 1838 operations against Cherokees, 270–71, 275–76, 278
in U.S.-Sauk War, 145–48
Second U.S.-Seminole War
challenging terrain of, 286, 287, 288
consequences of, 299–302
cost in lives and dollars, 300–301, 309
death and disease of troops and militia, 294–96, 300–301
ending in May 1842, 300
first phase of, 239–44, 247
military advantage over U.S. troops, 285–90, 293–94
in name of civilization, 290
native peoples’ suffering during, 297–99
ostensible technological advantage of U.S., 288–90, 289
seven failed commanding generals in, 290–92
soldiers losing enthusiasm for, 292–94
tracking families with bloodhounds in, 292
secretary of war. See Cass, Lewis; Eaton, John
Seminole people. See also First U.S.-Seminole War of 1817–18; Osceola; Second U.S.-Seminole War
Creek dissidents joining, 257, 283
Dade Massacre of U.S. troops, 239–40, 241, 243, 244, 286
fugitive slaves living among, 244–45, 299
group deciding to leave with U.S. escort, 283–84
Harris’s plan for deportation of, 225–27
immunity to malaria, 294–95
marksmen thwarting U.S. army, 246, 247, 282–83
pressured to leave Florida, 236–37
religious inspiration of, 285
remaining numbers by early 1838, 268
remnants surviving Second U.S.-Seminole War, 300, 316
resilience and adaptability of, 12–13
resistance to leaving, 47
speculation in dispossessed lands of, 190
Treaty of Moutrie Creek of 1823, 236–37
Treaty of Payne’s Landing of 1832, 236–37
Seminole Tribe of Florida, 300
Senecas, 90–91
expulsion treaty of 1831, 93, 136, 140
leader Maris Pierce, 235
of Lewistown, Ohio, 155, 157, 158–59
of New York, 80, 93
of Sandusky, Ohio, 90, 136–40, 138
treaty assigning proceeds from land sales, 203
values of American Revolution and, 321
Sequoyah, 54, 59
Sergeant, John, 162
settler colonialism, xviii
Shawnees, 155–59, 203
Shorter, Eli
advertising lands to cotton planters, 194, 194
contempt for starving Creeks, 221
criticized as rich man using the militia, 249–50
despised in Creek Nation, 201
dishonest land speculation scheme, 218, 219
distinguished reputation, 201
Farmers Bank of Chattahoochee and, 173, 174, 177, 184
premature death, 304
refugee fleeing with promissory note from, 257
sense of entitlement and aggrievement, 169–70
Sioux people of Dakotas, 301
slaveholders, in Cuba, 304
slaveholders, native, 13, 183, 265
Greenwood LeFlore, 134–35
John Ross, 265
Opothle Yoholo, 306
slaveholders, white
Cass’s consistent placation of, 303–4
claiming slavery was good for the enslaved, 19
condemning plans to relocate African Americans, 18–19
corrupt agent to the Chickasaws, 209–10
coveting lands of indigenous population, 19, 28
defended by New York business leaders, 186–87
entitlement and aggrievement felt by, 71, 170
excusing themselves from service against Seminoles, 293
executing African Americans who rebelled, 18
fearing greatly expanded number of enslaved, 245–47
fearing native peoples joining forces with slaves, 243–45, 250
federal tariff and, 76–77, 167, 170
feeling deprived of power by North, 28
Georgia congressman’s defense of, 164–65
Princeton graduates among, 33, 37, 38, 60
proposing enslavement of indigenous people, 16, 268
in Senate debate on expulsion, 70
white supremacy over native peoples and, 274–75
slavery. See also Fugitive Slave Act
America’s reckoning with, xix
Apess on pious hypocrisy of, 255
in Appalachian gold mines, 271
deportation of native peoples for purpose of, 28, 75, 77, 78, 265
distinction between Native American expulsion and, 320
Dred Scott decision and, 304
investment in indigenous land for expansion of, 184, 196
on lands of the dispossessed, 311–12, 313
Missouri Compromise for expansion of, 102
native peoples threatened with, 94–96
New York business leaders’ defense of, 186–87
Nullification movement and, 167–68
parallels to dispossession, 318, 320
rapidly expanding after expulsion of Native Americans, 245
state laws governing “people of color” and, 94–96, 311
three-fifths clause of Constitution and, 28, 77, 79, 318
wealth of southern towns produced by, 87
white supremacy and, 274–75
slave uprising
feared by white citizens of Georgia, 274
organized by Nat Turner, 70, 167
“Socrates,” 27–29, 30, 34, 275
Southeast, native peoples of, 11–14, 12, 16
Spencer, Ambrose, 72
Sprague, J.T., 119, 300
Stanbery, William, 76
Standish, Miles, 255
state bonds, 188–90
purchased with Chickasaw trust fund, 214–17, 215
state laws oppressing native peoples
complaining to Jackson and Eaton about, 96–97
conspiracy of southern politicians and, 37–41, 44–45, 85–86
Jackson’s reliance on, 85–86, 87, 88, 90
in Mississippi, 86, 87, 88, 97, 109
as most effective U.S. weapon for expulsion, 93–97
motivating Cherokee Treaty Party to leave, 238
in northern states, 78, 80
testimony under oath and, 94, 96, 97
as violation of treaties, federal law, and U.S. Constitution, 99
Worcester v. Georgia and, 163
state laws oppressing “people of color,” 93–96, 311
state sovereignty, 27–29, 37–40, 44–45
final expulsion of Cherokees from Georgia and, 274
Worcester v. Georgia and, 162, 164, 165, 166, 169–70
Stephens, Alexander, 305
Stevens, Thomas, 164
Stevenson, Andrew, 59, 75
Stone, William Leete, 45
Storrs, Henry, 73, 74
Story, Joseph, 100
Supreme Court decisions
Cherokee Nation v. The State of Georgia, 99–100, 161, 162, 166
Worcester v. Georgia, 161–63, 166, 167–70
tariff, federal, 76–77, 167, 170
Tassel, George, 98–99, 163
Taylor, Zachary, 145, 148, 291–92, 300
Tecumseh, 232
Test, John, 74, 75
Thompson, Smith, 100
Thompson, Waddy, Jr., 246
Thompson, Wiley, 239, 241, 243, 245
three-fifths clause of Constitution, 28, 77, 79, 318
Tishomah, 125
Tocqueville, Alexis de, xvi, 128
Tom, Jim, 310–11
Toombs, Robert, 305
Towns, George Washington Bonaparte, 275
Trade and Intercourse Act of 1802, 54–55, 166
Trail of Tears, 272, 279–81, 280
treaties. See also Cherokee-U.S. treaties; Creek-U.S. treaties
Article 6 of U.S. Constitution and, 99
Chickasaw expulsion and, 84, 88, 104, 108–10
Chickasaw land sales and, 203, 208–9
Choctaw expulsion and (see Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek)
congressional amendment on, 82
proceeds from land sales assigned in, 203
Schermerhorn’s involvement in, 236–37
of Senecas, 93, 136, 140, 203
territorial concessions in 1810s and 1820s and, 7
Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek
almost no compensation received under, 128
failure of Ward to register names under, 125–26, 311
land allotments under, 177–78
land surveys and, 181
negotiations for, 86–87, 88–90
proceeds from land sales under, 202–3
U.S. violation of obligations under, 203
Ward’s fraudulent livestock purchases and, 128
Treaty of Indian Springs, 35–36, 60
Treaty of Moutrie Creek, 236–37
Treaty of New Echota, 238–39, 243, 247, 259, 262, 265–67
Treaty of Payne’s Landing, 236–37
Treaty of Pontotoc, 109, 214
Treaty of Washington, 36–37, 38
Treaty Party of Cherokees, 237–38, 267
Troup, George, 33–37, 39, 44, 45, 46, 60, 71
Turner, Nat, 70, 167
Tuskeneah, 68, 175
Tuskeneahhaw, 217
U.S. Constitution. See also Supreme Court decisions
Commerce Clause of, 44
state laws as violation of, 99
three-fifths clause of, 28, 77, 79, 318
U.S.-Creek War of 1813–14, 232, 240, 250, 283
Jackson’s role in, 48, 61, 85, 152, 240
U.S.-Creek War of 1836, 249–51, 283, 306
U.S.-Sauk War (Black Hawk War), 145–48, 159–60, 232, 242, 301, 305
U.S.-Seminole Wars. See First U.S.-Seminole War of 1817–18; Second U.S.-Seminole War
Van Buren, Martin, 31, 49, 75, 77, 264
Van Horne, Jefferson, 151–52, 284
Vann, James, 13
Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 167–68
Vashon, George, 106
Vattel, Emerich, 63, 64
Vesey, Denmark, 18, 19
Vibrio cholerae. See cholera
Walker, David, 60
Walker, Robert J., 205
Walsh, Robert, 25
Ward, Robert J., 216
Ward, William, 124–26, 128, 134, 203–4, 206, 311
War Department. See also Cass, Lewis; Eaton, John; Gibson, George
maps used by, 101, 103–6, 105
no longer pretending to humanitarian effort, 241
ordering special censuses, 182–84
orderly arrangement of, 101, 101–2
search for destination and, 101–6
War of 1812, 232
war of extermination, 83, 227, 231–33, 239–49, 291. See also extermination
Washington, Bushrod, 17
Washington, George, 57, 248, 321
Washington City, 115–16
Wayweleapy, 156
Weedon, Frederick, 307–8
Weems, John, 39
Western Michigan Society to Benefit the Indians, 10
White, Hugh Lawson, 264
white supremacists, 40, 41, 274–75
white supremacy
Gibson’s advancement of, 305
Morton’s “scientific” analysis and, 202
northerners sympathetic to cause of, 318
state laws based on, 94
Wilberforce, William, 186
Wilde, Richard Henry, 74
Williams, William G., 269–70
Winnebago people. See Ho-Chunk
Wirt, William, 86, 99, 161, 162
women
anti-expulsion petitions to Congress from, 66–68
barriers to public role for, 62
of Cherokee nation, 56, 62, 67
of Seminoles, 283
Wool, John E., 258, 262
Worcester, Samuel, 162, 166, 168
Worcester v. Georgia, 161–63, 166, 167–70
Wounded Knee, xvii