FILMOGRAPHY: 1950: Sasidharan; Chechi; Prasanna; 1951: Yachakan; 1952: Atmashanti; 1953: Lokaneethi; 1954: Avakashi; Avan Varunnu; Manasakashi; Snehaseema, Kidappadam; 1955: Kalam Marunnu; CID, 1956: Atmarpanarn; Manthravadi; 1957: Padatha Paingili; Jailpully, 1958: Thaskara Veeran; Randidangazhi; 1959: Nadodikal; Minnal Padayali; 1960: Poothali; 1961: Christmas Rathri; Bhakta Kuchela; Umminithanka; Shri Sabarimalai Shri Ayyappan; 1962: Veluthampi Dalawa; Sneha Deepam; Sreekovil; Puthiya Aksham Puthiya Bhoomi; Shri Rama Pattabhishekham; Bhagya Jatakam; 1963: Nithya Kanyaka; Snapaka Yohannan; Satyabhama; Kadalamma; Rebecca; 1964: Anna; Pazhassi Raja; Althara; Devalayam; 1965: Shyamalachechi; Inapravugal; Thommente Makkal; Kalyanaphoto; Kattuthulasi; Mayavi; Shakuntala; Pattu Thoovala; Sarpakadu; Chemmeen; 1966: Rowdy, Jail; Pennmakkal; Kootukar, Kalyana Rathriyil; Anarkali; Kanmanikal; Tilottama; Mayor Nair, Kunjali Marakkar, 1967. Jeevikan Anuvadhikuka; Kottayam Kola Case; Balyakalasakhi; Lady Doctor, Mainatharuvi Kola Case, Collector Malathi; Cochin Express; Pooja; Kasavuthattam; Ollathu Mathi; 1968: Thirichadi; Viruthan Sanku; Hotel Highrange, Punnapra Vyalar, Midumidukki; Adhyapika; Kodungalluramma; 1969: Vila Kuranja Manushyar, Almaram; Janmabhoomi; Nurse, Susie, Jwala; Kootu Kudumbam; Kumara Sambhavam; 1970: Pearl View, Kurukshetram; Cross Belt; Kakathampurati; Sabarimala Shri Dharmasastha; Detective 909 Keralathil; Aranazhikaneram; 1972: Puthanveedu; Ananthasayanam; Chhayam; Panimudakku; Professor, Chemparathi, Achannum Bappayum; Thottilla; Shri Guruvayoorappan; 1973: Enippadikal, Nirmalayam; Gayatri; Swapnam; Darshanam; Achani; Kaadu (Mal); Driksakshi; Thottavadi; Yamini; Chuzhi; Checkpost; Thekkan Kattu; Swargaputhri; Padmavyuham; 1974: Chanchala; Nellu; Devi Kanyakumari; Atithi; Mazhakkaru; 1975: Akkaldama; Kamam Krodham Moham; Palkadal; Prayanam; 1976: Amba Ambika Ambalika; Colonel and Collector, 1977: Shri Murugan; Vezhambal; 1978: Padasaram; Priyadarshini; 1979: Kayalum Kayarum; Radha Enna Pennkutti; 1980: Kadalkattu; Kalika; Ragam Thanam Pallavi; Vedikkettu; 1981: Parvathi; Tharattu; 1982: Ithum Oru Jeevitham; Snehapoorvam Meera; 1984: My Dear Kuttichathan/Chhota Chetan, 1985: Daivathe Orthu.

NAIR, MADATHU THEKEPATTU VASUDEVAN (B. 1934)

Malayalam director born in Kodaloor, Kerala. Major Malayalam novelist and scenarist. His first major novel, Nalukettu (1958), contributed to the renewal of a literary tradition initiated by Thakazhy Shivashankar Pillai, Basheer and Uroob in the 50s. Sub-editor of the influential literary journal Mathrubhoomi (1956); later its editor (1968–81). Best-known writing addresses the tensions, incarnated by a central character, between traditional family structures in the declining feudal system of the Tharavad (non-Brahminic matrilineal castes) and economic development (e.g. Appunni in Nalukettu, 1958, Govindakutty in Asuravithu, 1962, or Sethu in Kalam, 1969). The melodrama of feudal nostalgia, ambivalently presented, had a major influence on 70s Malayalam cinema (e.g. Vincent and Sethumadhavan) and was one of the major forces behind the P.N. Menon/P.A. Backer breakthrough into realist cinema with Olavum Theeravum (1969). First film as director, Nirmalayam, is an influential contribution to the ‘literary’ version of 70s New Indian Cinema. He directed only four more films, all based on his own stories. Currently top Malayalam scenarist with independent star status. Script credits include Murappennu (1965), Nagarame Nandi (1967) and Asuravithu (1968) for Vincent; S.S. Rajan’s Pagal Kinavu (1966); Bhaskaran’s Irutinte Atmavu (1967); P.N. Menon’s Kuttiyedathi (1971); Sethumadhavan’s Kanyakumari (1974) and Oppol (1980). Scripted Hariharan’s Edavazhiyile Pucha Mindappucha (1979), Valarthu Mrugangal (1981), Evedayo Oru Sathru (1983), Vellom (1984), Panchagni (1986), Nakhakshathangal (1986), Amritam Gamaya (1987) and Oru Vadakkan Veeragatha (1989). Also wrote several films for I.V. Sasi including Aroodam (1983), Alkoottathil Thaniye (1984), Adiyozhukkukal (1984), Uyyarangalil (1984); and Prathap Pothan’s Ruthubhedam (1987), Recently returned to directing with Kadavu. Aravindan Vallachira (1991) has a book-length analysis of his films.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1973: Nirmalayam, 1977: Mohini Attam (Doc); 1978: Bandhanam; 1982: Manju; Varikkuzhi; 1991: Kadavu.

NAIR, MIRA (B. 1957)

English and Hindi director born in Bhubaneshwar, Orissa; daughter of a civil servant. Educated at the Irish Catholic School in Simla and at the University of New Delhi. Active as an actress in repertory theatre in India. Went to Harvard (1976) where she graduated in sociology (1979). Started making films in the USA for R. Leacock and DA. Pennebaker. Produced her own documentaries and short films. Achieved major international success with India Cabaret and Salaam Bombay. Works mainly in the USA. Made a cameo appearance as a gossip in her Mississippi Masala.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1979: Jama Masjid Street Journal (Sh); 1982: So Farfrom India (Doc); 1985: India Cabaret-(TV); 1987: Children of Desired Sex (TV); 1988: Salaam Bombay, 1991: Mississippi Masala; 1995: The Perez Family, 1996: Kama Sutra.

NAIR, THIKKURISI SUKUMARAN (1917–97)

Actor, scenarist, lyricist, playwright and director born in Thikkurisi, Kerala. Major Malayalam star since 1950. Known more recently for elderly ‘character’ roles. Wrote five plays 1944–9, the best known being Stree, the film version of which was also his acting début. His early work helped the Malayalam stage and cinema move away from the pervasive influence of the Tamil stage by eliminating the musical conventions of the Tamil Bhagavathars’ (actor-singers) hour-long invocations, their emphasis on the high scale and the use of the pedal-organ. He kept his accompanyists behind the stage curtain and recited his own Malayalam compositions in metrical structures closer to lyric poetry than to Carnatic forms. Extended this style in his early films, e.g. Jeevitha Nauka, the Koshy-Kunchako production that tried to establish an indigenous Kerala film culture. Directed many remakes of Tamil hits, rewritten and reperformed to address a local milieu: e.g. Palunku Pathram remade K.S. Gopalakrishnan’s Kaikodutha Daivam (1964). One of the three stars (with Prem Nazir and comedian Adoor Bhasi) who dominated Malayalam films in the 60s and 70s. In addition to his big Udaya Studio films, famous roles include key films by Kariat (e.g. Maya), Bhaskaran (Irutinte Atmavu) and Vincent (Abhijathyam). Also wrote dialogues and lyrics for Devasundari (1957), dialogues for Sabarimalai Shri Ayyappan (1962) and Muthalaly (1965), and st/dial for P. Subramanyam’s Ana Valarthiya Vanampadi (1971).

FILMOGRAPHY (* also d): 1950: Stree, Chandrika; 1951: Jeevitha Nauka, Navalokam; 1952: Amma; Visappinte Vili; Achan, Andaman Kaithi, 1953: Sario Thetto* (also music d); 1954: Puthradharmam; Kidappadam; 1955: Harishchandra; Kalam Marunnu; 1956: Atmarpanarn; 1957: Achannum Maganam; 1958: Thaskara Veeran; Mariakutty, Randidangazhi; 1960: Umma; Seeta; Poothali; 1961: Christmas Rathri; Kandam Becha Coat, Unniyarcha, Shri Sabarimalai Shri Ayyappan; Bhakta Kuchela; Gnana Sundari; 1962: Laila Majnu; Veluthampi Dalawa; Sneha Deepam; Sreekovil; Shri Rama Pattabhishekham; Viyarppinte Vila; 1963: Nithya Kanyaka; Doctor, Snapaka Yohannan; Satyabhama; Chilampoli; Kaleyum Kaminiyum; 1964: Devalayam; School Master, Atom Bomb; Karutha Kayi; Shri Guruvayoorappan; Omanakuttan; Kalanjukuttiya Thangam; Kudumbini; 1965: Odeyil Ninnu; Inapravugal; Kaliyodam; Muthalaly Rosy; Mayavi; Jeevitha Yatra; Kattupookal; Kathiruna Nikkah; Kochumon; Bhoomiyile Malakha; Shakuntala; Chettathi; 1966: Kusirthikuttan/Anni; Kadamattathachan; Jail; Kootukar, Kayamkulam Kochunni; Puthri; Anarkali; Tharavatamma; Kanmanikal; Puchakanni; Kallipennu; Kanakachilanka; Karuna; Tilottama; Priyatama; Mayor Nair, 1967: Irutinte Atmavu; Postman; Madatharuvi; Anveshichu Kandatiyilla, Chitramela, Pareeksha; Nadan Pennu; 1968: Vidyarthi; Viruthan Sanku; Manaswini; Inspector, Vazhipizhacha Santhathi; Kadal; Hotel Highrange; Punnapra Vyalar, Thulabharam; Adhyapika, Aparadhini; Kodungalluramma; 1969: Ballathapahayan; Chattambi Kavala; Nadhi; Kumara Sambhavam; Nurse*; Poojapushpam*; 1970: Amma Enna Stree, Cross Belt; Ezhuthatha Katha, Nizhalattam; Vivaham Swargathil; Triveni; Tara; Saraswathi*; Palunku Pathram*; 1971: Abhijathyam; Achante Bharya*; Puthanveedu; 1972: Maya; Thavaputhalvan; Professor, Aromalunni; Shri Guruvayoorappan; Maraivil Thiruvu Sukshikuha; Swayamvaram, Shakti; 1973: Thiruvabharanam; Ponnapuram Kotta; Kavitha; Chenda; Thani Niram; Kattu Vithachavan; Kaadu (Mai); Nakhangal; Prethangalude Thazhvara; Sastram Jayichu Manushyan Thottu; Divya Darshanam; Checkpost; Swargaputhri; Asha Chakram; Jesus; Angathattu; Urvashi Bharathi*; Pacha Nottukal; 1974: Suprabhatam; Nathoon; Yauvanam; Nellu; Nagaram Sagaram; Swarna Vigraham; Ivide Thodangannu; Kalyana Saugandhikam; Thumbolarcha; Devi Kanyakumari; Nadhi Nadanmare Avasiamundu; Vishnu Vijayam; Sapta Swarangal; Swarna Malsiyam; 1975: Abhimanam; Alibaba and Forty-One Thieves; Aranyakandam; Bharya Illatha Rathri; Cheenavala; Dharmakshetre Kurukshetre, Manishada; Padmaragam; Sammanam; Surya Vamsam; Swami Ayyappan; Thomasleeha; Sathyathinde Nizhalil; Neela Ponman; 1976: Ammini Ammavan; Amritha Vahini; Appooppan; Chennai Valarthiya Kutty Chirikuduka; Dheere Sameere Yamuna Theere, Kayamkulam Kochunniyude Maghan; Mallanum Mathevanum; Romeo; Sarvekkalu; Srimadh Bhagavad Geeta; Swimming Pool; Thuruppu Gulam; Vazhi Vilakku; Yakshaganam; 1977: Aparajitha; Chaturvedam; Harsha Bhashpam; Kannappanunni; Kavilamma; Kodiyettam; Madanolsavam; Manas Oru Mayil; Minimol; Niraparayum Nilavilakkum; Parivarthanam; Rathi Manmathan; Saghakkale Munottu; Satyavan Savithri; Vishukkani; Yatheem; Suryakanthi; 1978: Kanyaka; Ashtamudikayal; Asthamayam; Avar Jeevikkunu; Chakrayudham; Jayikkanai Janichavan; Kadathanattu Maakkam; Kalpa Vruksha; Kanalkkattakal; Madhurikuna Rathri; Manoratham; Snehikkan Oru Pennu; Society Lady, Sundari Marudde Swapnangal; Thacholi Ambu; 1979: Allavudeenum Albutha Velakkum/Allavudeenum Arputha Vilakkum/Alladdin and the Wonderful Lamp; Ajnatha Theerangal; Iniyethra Sandhyakal; Hridayathinte Nirangal; Iniyum Kanam; Mamankam; Manushiyan; Pennoruppetal; Ponnil Kulicha Rathri; Prabhata Sandhya; Pratiksha; Puthiya Velicham; Sayujiyam; Valaduthavan Valal; 1980: Seeta; Adhikaram; Ambala Vilakku; Oru Nimisham Tharu; Palattu Kunjikannan; Swathu; 1981: Balloon; Grihalakshmi; Sanchari; Thalam Manasinte Thalam; Ayudham; 1982: Ithum Oru Jeevitham; Ithu Gnangalude Katha; Padayottam; 1983: Ahankaram; 1984: Attahasam; Oodarathuammava Alariyum; Oru Sumansalivuda Katha-. 1985: Azhiyatha Bandhangal; Ee Thalamura Inganna; 1986: Avanazhi, 1988: Mukunthetta Sumitra Vilikkunnu; Oru Muthassi Katha; Aryan; 1989: Purappad, 1990: Aye Auto, His Highness Abdullah; 1991: Advaitham.

NANDA, PRASHANTA (B. 1947)

Major Oriya actor, director and producer. Acting début in Prabhat Mukherjee’s Oriya films (Dasyu Ratnakara). Became a star with Mrinal Sen’s Matir Manisha. Studied arts and law while pursuing acting career in Orissa. Made some major films with Nitai Palit (Bandhan, Dharitri, Mana Akasba) before turning producer with Byomkesh Tripathi’s seminal hit Mamata (also contributing the story). Turned director the following year with the tragic melodrama Shesha Shrabana, since then acted only in his own films. Made three films in Hindi and the Oriya-Bengali bilingual, Jaa Devi Sarva Bhuteshu/Nyaya Chakra.

FILMOGRAPHY (* also d): 1962: Dasyu Ratnakara; Nua Bou; 1964: Jeevana Sathi; Nabajanma; 1966 Matir Manisha, 1969: Bandhan; 1970: Adina Megha, 1972: Dharitri; 1973: Ghara Sansara; 1974: Mana Akasha; 1975: Samaya; Mamata; 1976: Krishna Sudama; Sindura Bindu; Shesha Shrabana*; 1977: Naga Phasha; Paheli*; 1978: Taapoi; Balidan*; 1979: Gauri; Naiya*; 1980: Maa-o-Mamata*; 1981: Pooja*; 1982: Hisab Nikas*; 1983: Swapna Sagara*; 1984: Dora*; Jaga Balia*; Grihasthi*; 1985: Heera Lila; 1986: Bagula Baguli*; Paka Kambala Poota Chhata*; 1987: Golamgin*; 1988: Lai Pan Bibi*; 1989: Jaa Devi Sarva Bhuteshu/Nyaya Chakra*; 1990: Kandhei; Je Devi Sarba Bhutesu; 1991: Loot Taraj; 1992: Maa*; 1993: Ghar Sansar*; 1994: Lal Pan Bibi*; Emiti Bhaijagate Nahin.

NARASARAJU, DATLA VENKATA (B. 1920)

Telugu screenwriter born in Talluri village, AP. Educated in Guntur, Vijaywada and Madras. Started a drama troupe for which he wrote plays and often acted. First play was Antarvani; achieved a reputation as humorist with his hit play, Natakam (1951), based on P.G. Wodehouse’s The Play’s the Thing. Best-known plays are situated in the everyday, e.g. Yee Illu Ammabadunu, Film début scripting Pedda Manushulu (1954) based on Ibsen’s Pillars of Society. Wrote over 100 scripts, including Donga Ramudu (1955), Gundamma Katha (1962) and Nirdoshi (1967).

Narasimha Rao, Bhimavarapu see Rao, Bhimavarapu Narashimha

Narasimha Rao, Chitrapu see Rao, Chitrapu Narasimha

Narasinga Rao, Bongu see Rao, Bongu Narasinga

Narayana Rao, Adi see Rao, Adi Narayana

Sheila (left), Thikkurisi Sukumaran Nair (Centre) and Adoor Bhasi (right) in Almaram (1969)

NARAYANA KAVI, UDUMALAI (1899–1981)

Tamil lyric writer. Born in a merchant (Chettiar) family; learnt music from theatre songwriter Udumalai Sarabam Muthusami Kavi. Adopted part of his teacher’s name as a tribute. Early work for gramophone companies like Tasophone, Odeon and HMV, often writing comic songs. Employed as lyric writer by theatre groups, e.g. Arya Gana Sabha, where he also occasionally acted. Film début in Krishna Leela (1934). Worked at Angel Films, Salem (Draupadi Vastrapaharanam, 1934; Thooku Thooki, 1935). Campaigned in 1937 for the Congress Party and wrote several nationalistic songs for films like Maya Jyothi (1941), elaborating his characteristic type of humorous propaganda songs. A Dravidar Kazhagam ideologue and early follower of Periyar. Best-known work in the propaganda genre with the comedian N.S. Krishnan, adopting a rationalist atheism also found in the DMK Film. Wrote several propaganda songs for DK films, starting with Ezhanda Kadal (1941). The most famous one was Nallathambi (1949), scripted by C.N. Annadurai and starring Krishnan. Also wrote classic verse opposing the brahminical clergy in Sorgavasal (1954). Songs were often in the old popular Company Natak style, with simple rhymes. His lyrics and poetry were compiled by the Dravidar Kazhagam (1986, edited by Sanghai Velavan).

NARAYANAMURTHY, CHITRAPU (1913–85)

Telugu director born in Masulipatnam, AP. Early work on Telugu stage in National Theatres troupe which staged mythologicals, including Bhakta Markandeya, the subject of his first film. Introduced to films by Pinapala Venkatadasu, founder of Vel Pics Studio. Worked as assistant and later as film editor in brother Chitrapu Narasimha Rao’s films. First break with G. Balaramaiah’s Kubera Studio (1938), but made best-known films at Shobhanachala Studio until mid-40s as the studio’s top director of Burrakatha-inspired folklore movies. Attempted independent production with Venkatramana Pics (1944). By early 50s had moved largely into the more lucrative Tamil industry where, in addition to freelancing for smaller producers, he worked at AVM which produced his last film, a Telugu-Tamil remake of his 1942 hit Bhakta Prahlada.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1938: Markandeya; 1940: Mahiravana; 1941 Dakshayagnam, 1942: Bhakta Prahlada; 1944: Bhakta Kabir, Bhishma; Samsara Naradi; 1947: Brahma Ratham, 1948: Madalasa; 1949: Brahma Ratham; 1952: En Thangai; 1953: Naa Chellelu; 1954: Ethirparadathu, 1956: Nagula Chaviti/Adarshasati; Naga Panchami; 1957: Pathni Daivam; 1958: Manamalai; Annaiyin Aanai; Naan Valartha Thangai; 1959: Daivame Thunai; 1960: Bhakta Shabari; 1961: Krishna Kuchela; Tallichina Ajna.; 1963: Chittor Rani Padmini, 1964: Pativrata; 1967: Bhakta Prahlada

NARAYANAN, A. (1900–39)

Director, producer and exhibitor in Tamil film. Former insurance agent; worked for the distribution wing of K.D. Brothers. Manager of Queen’s Cinema, Calcutta (1922) and started Popular Cinema in Triplicane, Madras. Started Exhibition Film Services (1927), later with branches in Bombay, Delhi, Rangoon and Singapore, and made extensive efforts to find an American market for Indian films, including a USA visit with a print of Naval Gandhi’s Balidan (1927) and Imperial’s Anarkali (1928), during which he befriended Carl Laemmle and Douglas Fairbanks Sr. Started influential General Pics in Madras (1929) with film-makers such as R.S. Prakash, Y.V. Rao and C. Pullaiah. Its sound version, Srinivasa Cinetone (1934), is claimed as South India’s first sound studio. Nationalist activist, committed participant in Swadeshi agitations; influenced by the Tamil Manikodi writers group; associated with leaders of the freedom struggle in Madras such as C. Rajagopalachari, the chief minister, and S. Satyamurthy, the Congress leader. Also made several documentaries, e.g. Maternity and Child Welfare, Venereal Diseases (both for health dept, and the govt); Unfurling the National Flag; Burma Oil Company Fire, The Spirit of Agriculture (for Imperial Chemical Industries), etc.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1927: Indian National Congress at Gauhati (Doc); 1928: Kovalan; 1929: Dharmapatni; Garuda Garvabhangam; Gnana Sundari; 1930: King Bhoj; 1931: Nara Narayana (all St); 1934: Draupadi Vastrapaharanam; Srinivasa Kalyanam; 1935: Krishna Arjuna; Rajambal; 1936: Indrasabha; Mahatma Kabirdas; Mandayarkal Sandhippu; Meerabai; Tara Sasankam; Vishwamitra; 1937: Krishna Tulabharam; Rajasekharan; Virata Parvam; 1938: Mada Sambrani; Tenali

Narayana Rao, Adi see Rao, Adi Narayana

Narayana Rao, Dasari see Rao, Dasari Narayana

Narayan Kale, K. see Kale, K. Narayan

Narayan Rao, Balkrishna see Rao, Balkrishna Narayan

Nargis in Jogan (1950)

NARGIS (1929–81)

Hindi-Urdu megastar born in Allahabad as Fatima A. Rashid. Daughter of actress, singer and film-maker Jaddanbai who introduced her to films aged 5 as Baby Rani in Sangeet Films’ Talash-e-Haq. Early films with Mehboob including her first lead role in Taqdeer and as Hamida Bano in Humayun. Best known as Raj Kapoor’s romantic lead in some of Indian cinema’s most enduring melodramas: Barsaat, Andaz, Awara, Shri 420, and Anhonee in which she played a double role. Kapoor used a suggestive image from their Barsaat as the emblem for his R.K. Films. Both Kapoor and Mehboob in their later films built upon her early screen image in historicals and indigenised Shakespearean love tragedies (e.g. the Kamal Amrohi-scripted Romeo and Juliet) where she was often presented as the femme fatale doomed to destruction by her beauty, an updated version of a stereotype from Islamic literature and music. Her performances in e.g. Babul and Jogan also remained the model for that stereotype. From the beginning, Nargis’s performances were authentic to a degree unprecedented in Indian cinema, giving the Imperial and Sagar Studios’ Arabian Nights fantasies new layers of meaning. Mehboob used her as the pivotal figure in his attempts to merge the symbologies of feudal patriarchy into those of capitalism (Andaz) while Raj Kapoor injected Oedipal impulses into his encounters with ‘tradition’. The pinnacle of her career was Mother India, an epic pot-pourri of psychoanalytic, historic and technological symbols condensing the All-India Film’s post-WW2 nationalist sentiment. Turned producer with Nargis Art, producing films directed by Akhtar Hussain. Married actor Sunil Dutt (1959) who played her son in Mother India. Then virtually retired but remained an important public figure, becoming a Congress (I) MP in the early 80s, at one time using that platform for a scathing attack on Satyajit Ray’s films for exporting images of India’s poverty. She was much honoured by the Indian and Soviet governments. Died of cancer shortly after seeing her and Sunil Dutt’s son, Sanjay, in his screen début in Rocky (1981).

FILMOGRAPHY (* as Baby Rani): 1934: Naachwali*; 1935: Talash-e-Haq*; 1936: Hridaya Manthan*; Madam Fashion*; 1937: Moti Ka Haaf*; 1942: Tamanna; Pardanasheen; 1943: Taqdeer; 1944: Anban; Ismat; 1945: Biswi Sadi; Humayun; Ramayani; 1946: Nargis; 1947: Mehndi; Romeo and Juliet; 1948: Aag; Anjuman; Anokha Pyar; Mela; 1949: Andaz; Barsaat; Darogaji; Lahore; Rumal; 1950: Adhi Raat; Babul; Bhishma Pratigya; Birha Ki Raat; Chhoti Bhabhi; Jaan Pehchan; Jogan; Khel; Meena Bazaar; Pyar; 1951: Awara; Deedar; Hulchul; Pyar Ki Baatein; Sagar; 1952: Amber; Anhonee; Ashiana; Bewafa; Sheesha; 1953: Aah; Dhun; Pehli Shaadi; Paapi; 1954: Angarey; 1955: Shri 420; 1956: Chori Chori; Jagte Raho/Ek Din Raatre; 1957: Miss India; Mother India; Pardesi; 1958: Adalat; Ghar Sansar; Lajwanti; 1967: Raat Aur Din.

NATIONAL FILM DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION

The Film Finance Corporation was set up in 1960 on the recommendation of the S.K. Patil Film Enquiry Committee Report (1951). Initially controlled by the Ministry of Finance, it was transferred to the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting in 1964. Its original objective was to promote and assist the mainstream film industry by ‘providing, affording or procuring finance or other facilities for the production of films of good standard’. In its first six years, it extended production loans for c.50 films, notably Ray’s Charulata (1964), Nayak (1966) and Goopy Gyne Bagha Byne (1968). Under the direct influence of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, the FFC initiated the New Indian Cinema with Mrinal Sen’s Bhuvan Shome and Mani Kaul’s Uski Roti (both 1969). In 1971, the I & B Ministry laid down, as part of the FFC’s obligations, the directive that it ‘develop the film in India into an effective instrument for the promotion of national culture, education and healthy entertainment [b]y granting loans for modest but off-beat films of talented and promising people in the field’. The new policy yielded instant results as a whole generation of new film-makers was allowed to emerge. However, both the terms on which loans were granted (usually requiring collateral from producers) and the limited distribution outlets, exacerbated by the FFC/NFDC’s apparent inability to build its own exhibition network, gave their films a reputation for lacking ‘financial viability’. In 1968 the FFC’s remit was extended to include distribution and export. In 1973 it became the channelling agency for imported raw stock, and in 1974 (after the withdrawal of the MPEAA from the Indian market) it started importing foreign films for local distribution. These activities soon became the FFC’s major profit centres leading to an increasing marginalisation of its film production/financing responsibilities. By 1976, the FFC’s independent cinema policy came under withering attack from various quarters. The Committee on Public Undertakings issued a Report (79th Report, 1976) on the FFC arguing that ‘there is no inherent contradiction between artistic films of good standard and films successful at the box office [and] the Corporation should [s]atisfy itself in all possible ways that the films [h]ave a reasonable prospect of being commercially successful’. In 1980 the current NFDC was established by amalgamating the FFC with the partially state-owned Indian Motion Pictures Export Corporation (IMPEC), making it the sole canalising agent for the import of all foreign films, with incentives to non-resident Indians to buy, import and distribute foreign films in India. Between 1981 and 1988 the NFDC was also the parent organisation for the Directorate of Film Festivals. With the haphazard extensions of its remit and the repeated policy shifts imposed on it, the absence of a clear definition of the NFDC’s responsibilities to the Indian cinema has remained a persistent problem. In spite of its monopolistic privileges in the 80s the NFDC continued to describe itself as a victim of state policies on e.g. taxation. The 1983–4 chairman, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, stated in the 1984 report that ‘Unhealthy and underhand dealings particularly in the big cities are a part of the national distribution and exhibition system. Unless and until one becomes a part of this racket, it is practically impossible to operate in this area.’ Consequently, the NFDC sought to institutionalise a confused desire for ‘good’ cinema, measured mainly in terms of national film awards and international film festival exposure, that should be able to make a profit in a market where it could not compete with the industrial cinema’s levels of expenditure on exhibition, production and promotion. In the early 90s the NFDC changed again, its coproduction policy with Doordarshan effectively shielding it from most industrial pressures. In 1993 the NFDC took over Doordarshan’s private Metro Channel and later its ‘Movie Club’ film channel.

NAUSHAD ALI (B. 1919)

Hindi-Urdu composer born in Lucknow. One of the most spectacular products of the 40s Hindi cinema, he was one of the first to introduce sound mixing and the separate recording of voice and music tracks in playback singing. Also known for using a mammoth orchestra with over 100 musicians for Mehboob’s Aan. Since early childhood he was an avid listener to the live orchestras accompanying silent films. Studied under Ustad Ghurbat Ali, Ustad Yusuf Ali and Ustad Babban Saheb. Before moving to Bombay in 1937, he composed for amateur theatricals such as the Windsor Music Entertainers, a group he helped set up. In Bombay, he worked as a pianist in composer Mushtaq Hussain’s orchestra; later assisted Khemchand Prakash (whom he considers his teacher) at Ranjit Studio. Employed by Kardar as in-house composer at Kardar Studio after Nai Duniya; composed some of his most memorable music for Kardar and his disciple, M. Sadiq (e.g. Rattan, Naushad’s breakthrough film). Scored Mehboob’s films after Anmol Ghadi, including Anokhi Ada, Andaz and Mother India. Partner in Sunny Art Prod., producing e.g. Udan Khatola. Other classic compositions include Baiju Bawra (using the eminent Khayal singer Amir Khan along with D.V. Paluskar), Asif’s epic Mughal-e-Azam (where Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan sang), Nitin Bose’s Ganga Jumna. The music for Kamal Amrohi’s Pakeezah is credited to Ghulam Mohammed but Naushad also contributed to it.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1940. Prem Nagar, 1941: Kanchan; Darshan; Mala; 1942: Nai Duniya; Sharada; Station Master; 1943: Kanoon, Namaste, Sanjog, 1944: Geet, Jeevan; Pehle Aap; Rattan; 1945: Sanyasi; 1946: Anmol Ghadi; Keemat; Shahjehan, 1947: Dard; Elaan; Natak, 1948: Anokhi Ada, Mela; 1949: Andaz; Chandni Raat; Dillagi; Dulari; 1950: Babul; Dastaan; 1951: Deedar, Jadu; 1952: Aan; Baiju Bawra; Diwana; 1953: Char Chand, 1954: Amar; Shabab; 1955: Udan Khatola; 1957: Mother India; 1958: Sohni Mahiwal; 1960: Kohinoor, Mughal-e-Azam; 1961: Ganga Jumna; 1962: Son of India; 1963: Mere Mehboob; 1964: Leader, 1966: Dil Diya Dard Liya; Saaz Aur Awaz, 1967: Palki; Ram Aur Shyam; 1968: Admi; Saathi; Sangharsh; 1970: Ganwaar, 1971: Pakeezah; 1972: Tangewala; 1974: My Friend, Aaina; 1975: Sunehra Sansar, 1979: Chambal Ki Rani; 1982: Dharam Kanta; 1986: Love and God, 1988: Dhwani; 1989: Dhwani; 1990: Awaaz De Kahan Hai; 1993: Teri Payal Mere Geet; 1995: Guddu.

Navketan see Chetan Anand

NAVYA MOVEMENT

Influential modernist literary movement in Kannada initiated by Gopalakrishna Adiga’s two poetry collections, Nadedu Banda Dari (1952) and Bhumigita (1959). The movement is described in G.B. Joshi and Kirtinath Kurthakoti’s major rewriting of Kannada literary history in a 3-volume book with the same title as Adiga’s anthology, Nadedu Banda Dari (1959). Navya represented a departure from Navodaya’s transcendental romanticism, emphasising instead a more limited protagonist placed within contemporary mass-culture and consumerism. It acknowledged the influence of Kafka, Camus, Sartre and Freud. The movement reached its creative pinnacle in the late 60s with U.R. Ananthamurthy’s fiction (Samskara, 1966) and developed an uncompromising political opposition to the hegemonic Brahmin élite. It extended directly into the cinema with Pattabhi Rama Reddy’s film of Samskara (1970), encouraging modernist writers, playwrights and stage directors to turn to the cinema (e.g. P. Lankesh, Girish Karnad, Chandrasekhar Kambhar, B.V. Karanth, Baraguru Ramchandrappa, actor C.R. Simha et al.). The shift into cinema perpetuated the belief that film is an extension of literature, spawning many adaptations of the writings of e.g. Masti Venkatesha Iyengar, Chaduranga, Triveni, T.R. Subba Rao and S.L. Bhairappa. In retrospect, only three films - Samskara, Lankesh’s Pallavi (1976) and Girish Kasaravalli’s Ghattashraddha (1977) - have direct political and formal links with Navya. Later, many ‘kalatmaka’ (artistic) or ‘Prayogika’ (experimental) films claimed to derive e.g. from Chaduranga’s novels (the writer filmed his own novel Sarvamangala, 1968), while directors like N. Lakshminarayan, G.V. Iyer and Puttanna Kanagal went on to formulate an art-house aesthetic quickly enshrined in Karnataka film and TV policies.

NAVYUG CHITRAPAT

The first film production company to market its shares directly to the public. Started in 1940 by P.K. Atre with a ‘Managing Agency’ comprising Master Vinayak, Baburao Pendharkar and cameraman Pandurang Naik. The business was based on the assets of Huns Pics, enhanced by Rs 100 shares sold via advertisements in English and Marathi papers and journals. Atre also toured large parts of Maharashtra hawking the shares. Worries about the risks of investing in the film industry were partially offset by Huns’ previous successes and by Atre and Vinayak’s reputations. Enough finance was raised to make two of Vinayak/Khandekar’s classic films: Lagna Pahave Karun (1940) and Sarkari Pahune (1942). When Pendharkar and Naik resigned and Vinayak formed Prafulla Pics, Navyug closed down (1942).

NAXALITE

Term used to refer to members of the extreme Left CPI(ML) launched by Charu Majumdar in 1969. The word refers to the site of the party’s first major political action (1967), the village of Naxalbari in Bengal. Following the split in the CPI (1964), several members of the breakaway CPI(M) turned to a Maoist, cadre-based mass-action programme among the peasantry leading to the nationwide crackdown on the Party ordered by prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri. The schisms between Left and Right within the CPI(M), the latter insisting on the parliamentary road, were aggravated by the victory of United Fronts in Kerala and West Bengal in the 1967 State Assembly elections. Although the Naxalbari insurrection itself, in which peasant groups seized land, held people’s courts and dispensed ‘justice’ to landlords and hoarders, was rapidly quelled, it had widespread and long-term consequences. The CPI(M)’s withdrawal of support in protest against Chief Minister Ajoy Mukherjee’s use of the police against their members eventually brought down the United Front government. In August 1967, two months after Naxalbari, Girijan tribals led a similar insurrection in Srikakulam, evoking the CPI-led Telangana uprising (1946–51). The All India Co-ordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries (AICCCR) was established as the apex body for all extra-parliamentary Left activity. Organisations affiliated to it, as well as several others, launched armed movements in parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. In 1969 the AICCCR was replaced by the CPI(ML), immediately recognised by the Chinese government. In 1970, actions sympathetic to the Naxalites were initiated by student groups in Calcutta and spawned major debates about revolutionary cultural aesthetics, often emphasising an anarchist iconoclasm (e.g. Saroj Dutta’s essay ‘In Defence of Iconoclasm’, 1970: cf. Samar Sen, 1978). In November 1970 the West Bengal Prevention of Violent Activities Bill gave the central government complete control over law and order in West Bengal, and the student movements in Calcutta as well as the peasant actions in e.g. Debra and Gopiballavpur were brutally suppressed by the police and the army. This suppression, coupled with the splintering of the movement itself, effectively ended Naxalite activity as an all-India phenomenon by 1972. The CPI(ML) survived mainly in Andhra Pradesh with the activities of the Peoples’ War Group. Culturally, however, its critique of the parliamentary system as well as the ideological and moral divides it caused within the Left movement as a whole, found an echo among independent film-makers, as in Mrinal Sen’s Calcutta Trilogy (see esp. Calcutta ’71, 1972), in Satyajit Ray’s Calcutta Trilogy, Tapan Sinha’s Apanjan (1968), Ghatak’s Jukti Takko Aar Gappo (1974), Benegal’s Nishant (1975), Nihalani’s Aakrosb (1980) and Shahani’s Tarang (1984). The Naxalite movement’s emphasis on agitation around civil liberties opened up a major space for independent documentary film-making (cf. Anand Patwardhan, Tapan Bose) and for Left political and aesthetic discourses. Other film-makers influenced by these currents include John Abraham, the musical, theatre and poetic sources of B. Narasinga Rao, and Utpalendu Chakraborty’s rhetoric about acceptable and unacceptable capital resources for film-making. In Andhra Pradesh, where the movement is currently the strongest, campaign films featuring exaggerated plotlines and emphatic performances, an idiom associated in that state with Naxalite aesthetics, were financially backed by media baron and producer Ramoji Rao in the mid-80s, continuing into e.g. R. Narayanamurthy’s commercially popular Lal Salaam (1992) and Erra Sainyam (1994).

NAYAK, PRABHAKAR MANAJIRAO (1920–86)

Marathi director born in Nanded Dist. Joined Navyug in Bombay in the 30s as a projectionist. Assisted Naqvi (1942–5), Pendharkar and Raja Paranjpe, débuting as director in 1958. Made melodramas and comedies adapting the style of the ribald urban Tamasha. His best-known films include Pathrakhin, a classic Jayashree Gadkar weepie, and Thapadya, a parable about honesty in which a chronic liar reforms and claims the sexy Tamasha dancer. Often cast stars from the Loknatya tradition, e.g. Usha Chavan, Sarla Yevlekar, Nilu Phule and Ram Nagarkar. Occasionally acted, e.g. in Y. Pethkar’s Keechaka Vadha (1959) and in many of his own films. Produced his own last film. Also lyricist.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1958: Punarjanma; 1960: Sangat Jadli Tujhi An Majhi; 1965: Sudharlelya Baika; Chala Utha Lagna Kara; 1966: Hi Naar Rupasundari; 1968: Khandobachi Aan; 1970: Aai Aahe Shetat; 1971: Dam Kari Kaam; 1972: Pathrakhin; 1973: Patla Tar Vhay Mhana; Thapadya; 1974: Tevdha Sodun Bola; 1975: Pandoba Porgi Phasli; Varaat; 1977: Manasa Paris Mendhre Ban; Padarachya Savleet; 1978: Chandal Chaukadi; 1979: Baeelweda; 1981: Laath Marin Tithe Pani.

NAYYAR, OMKAR PRASAD (B. 1926)

Composer born in Patiala, Punjab. Employed by AIR, Jullundur. Début scoring the background music for Kaneez. First break as composer for Pancholi films (Aasmaan). Scored very popular music for many 50s films such as early Guru Dutt (Baaz, Aar Paar, Mr and Mrs ‘55) and Kishore Kumar films (P.L. Santoshi’s Cham Chama Cham and Kardar’s Baap Re Baap). Late 50s films include Tumsa Nahin Dekha, the film in which Shammi Kapoor changed into his Presley image, and Howrah Bridge, with the most famous song, Mera naam Chin Chin Choo. Also scored the biggest film in Kapoor’s ‘Yahoo’ image,. Kashmir Ki Kali. A characteristic scene of his b&w films is a cabaret dancer performing - often to a Rhumba rhythm - in front of the Boss in a nightclub (Twelve O’Clock, Aar Paar). Introduced several Punjabi rhythms, esp. from the Bhangra folk dances, into Hindi film as well as producing ‘light’ popular music with rock overtones for Geeta Dutt and Asha Bhosle’s early hits. Returned to score a Telugu film, Neerajanam, after a decade out of work.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1949: Kaneez; 1952: Aasmaan; Cham Chama Cham; 1953: Baaz; 1954: Aar Paar; Mangu; Mehbooba; 1955: Baap Re Baap (with C. Ramchandra); Miss Coca Cola, Mr And Mrs ‘55; Musafirkhana; Subse Bada Rupaiya; 1956: Bhagambhag; CID; Chhoo Mantar, Dhake Ki Malmal; Hum Sub Chor Hain; Mr Lambu; Naya Andaz; Shrimati 420, 1957: Bade Sarkar, Duniya Rang Rangili; Johnny Walker, Mai Baap; Naya Daur; Qaidi; Tumsa Nahin Dekha; Ustad; 1958: Farishta; Howrah Bridge; Kabhi Andhera Kabhi Ujala; Mr Qartoon MA; Mujrim; Phagun; Ragini; Sone Ki Chidiya; Twelve O’clock, 1959: Do Ustad; 1960: Basant; Jaali Note; Kalpana; Mitti Mein Sona; 1962: Ek Musafir Ek Hasina; Hong Kong; 1963: Phir Wohi Dil Laya Hoon; 1964: Kashmir Ki Kali; 1965: Mere Sanam; 1966: Akalmand; Baharen Phir Bhi Aayengi; Do Dilon Ki Dastaan; Love and Murder, Mohabbat Zindagi Hai; Sawan Ki Ghata; Yeh Raat Phir Na Aayegi; 1967: CID 909; Nasihat; 1968: Dil Aur Mohabbat; Humsaya; Kahin Din Kahin Raat; Kismet; Shrimanji; 1969: The Killers; Sambandh; 1971: Aisa Bhi Hota Hai; 1972: Ek Baar Muskurado; 1973: Taxi Driver, Pran Jaye Par Vachan Na Jaye; 1978: Khoon Ka Badla Khoon; 1979: Heera Moti; Bin Maa Ke Bachche; 1989: Neerajanam; 1992: Nishchay; 1994: Zid.

NAZIR, PREM (1928–89)

Aka Chiriyinkil Abdul Kader. Actor born in Chiriyinkil, South Kerala, and graduated from St Berchman’s College, Changanassery. Biggest star in Malayalam film history. Started in Kunchako’s Excel company. The bulk of his prodigious output was for the Udaya and Merryland Studios where he was the first of a new generation of stars manufactured to bolster specifically Malayalam film genres. Nazir, the oldest of the generation (cf. Sathyan and Madhu), resembles e.g. Gemini Ganesh. His image merged with what Ayyappa Panicker (1987) called ‘the second generation of romantics’, poets working within a tradition framed largely by Vallathol (1878–1958) and exemplified by ‘pastoral’ poets Changampuzha and G. Sankara Kurup. Most famous Malayalam film lyricists emerged from that tradition (Vyalar Rama Varma, O.N.V. Kurup, P. Bhaskaran) and Nazir’s acting is a performative counterpart to their imagery. His embodiment of the ideal male is usually seen as more accessible than e.g. Sathyan’s remoteness, and at its best it drew attention to exploitative aspects of social and religious systems (Padatha Paingili), the breakdown of the joint family (e.g. Kariat’s Maya) and the modern engagement with folk narratives (e.g. Unniyarcha). With the new generation of 60s film-makers such as Vincent (the ghost story Bhargavi Nilayam) and K.T. Mohammed (Nazir’s classic village simpleton in Thurakatha Vathil), the films tend to elaborate a strangely intermediate world between fantasy and the contemporary, culminating in his consecration as a totally selfcontained icon, a development evoked in Lenin Rajendran’s Prem Nazirine Kanmanilla with Nazir, playing himself, kidnapped by tribals and ‘forgotten’ by the outside world as he matches his unreality with that of tribals living outside his definitions of the world. Wrote a book on the film characters he played, Enne Thediyetha Kathapatrangal.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1952: Marumagal; Visappinte Vili; Achan; 1954: Avakashi; Avan Varunnu; Manasakshi; Balya Sakhi; Kidappadam; 1955: Anujathi; CID, 1956: Atmarpanam; Manthravadi; Avarunarunnu; 1957: Devasundari; Padatha Paingili; Jailpully; 1958: Lily, Mariakutty; Chadarangam; 1960: Seeta; 1961: Krishna Kuchela; Gnana Sundari; Unniyarcha; 1962: Laila Majnu; Kalpadukal; Shri Rama Pattabhishekham; 1963: Ninamaninja Kalpadukal; Snapaka Yohannan; Kattu Maina; Chilampoli; Kaleyum Kaminiyum; Satyabhama; 1964: Kuttikkuppayam; Devalayam; School Master, Oralkoodi Kalanayi; Pazhassi Raja; Ayesha; Kudumbini; Althara; Karutha Kayi; Bhargavi Nilayam; 1965: Devatha; Odeyil Ninnu; Porter Kunjali; Inapravugal; Kalivodam; Muthalaly; Kuppivala; Thankakudam; Rosy; Mayavi; Jeevitha Yatra; Rajamalli; Kathiruna Nikkah; Kochumon; Bhoomiyile Malakha; Shakuntala; Chettathi; Kavya Mela; Murappennu; 1966: Kalithozhen; Station Master; Pinchu Hridayam; Pennmakkal; Kootukar; Kalyana Rathriyil; Anarkali; Kanmanikal; Puchakanni; Kanakachilanka; Sthanarthi Saramma;Tilottama; Priyatama Kunjali Marakkar; 1967: Ramanan; Jeevikan Anuvadhikuka; Irutinte Atmavu; Agniputhri; Kottayam Kola Case; Udyogastha; Balyakalasakhi; Kudumbam; Bhagyamudra; Kannatha Veshankal; Collector Malathi; Ashwamedhant Chitramela; Nagarame Nandi; Pareeksha; Cochin Express; Pooja; NGO; Nadan Pennu; Kasavuthattam; Ollathu Mathi; Swapnabhoomi; Pathirapattu; 1968: Thirichadi; Vidyarthi; Thokkukal Katha Parayunnu; Inspector, Dial 2244; Asuravithu; Padunna Puzha; Punnapra Vyalar, Lakshaprabhu; Love In Kerala, Thulabharant; Anju Sundarigal; Kodungalluratnma; Velutha Kathrina; Agni Pareeksha; Kayalkarayil; Bharyamar Sukshikuka; 1969: Anashchadanam; Padicha Kalian, Vila Kuranja Manushyar, Almaram; Ballathapahayan; Mr Kerala; Rahasyam; Susie, Aditnagal; Kannur Deluxe; Poojapushpam; Kadalpalam; Mooladhanam; Jwala; Vilakkapetta Bandhangal; Nadhi; Danger Biscuit; Kootu Kudumbam; Virunnukari; Rest House, 1970: Aranazhikaneram; Moodalamanju; Mindapennu; Pearl View; Amma Enna Stree; Anatha; Palunku Pathram; Kalpana; Nazhikakallu; Ezhuthatha Katha; Dattuputhran; Rakta Pushpam; Nizhalattam, Vivaham Sivargathil; Thurakatha Vathil; Othenente Makan; Ningalenne Communistaki; Vivahitha; Kakathampurati; A Chitrashalabham Paranotte, Lottery Ticket; Triveni; Tara; Saraswathi; 1971: Anubhavangal Palichakal; CID Nazir, Lanka Dahanam; Muthassi; Neethi; Shiksha; Moonnupukkal; Kalithozhi; Marunattil Oru Malayali; Puthanveedu; Ernakulam Junction; Vilakku Vangiya Veena; 1972: Sambhavami Yuge Yuge, Aradi Manninte Janmi; Pushpanjali; Devi; Maya; Manthrakodi; Manushya Bandhangal; Aromalunni; Taxi Car, Mayiladum Kunnu; Omana; Oru Sundariyude Katha; Miss Maty; Punarjanmam; Maraivil Thiruvu Sukshikuha; Gandharvakshetram; Nrithyasala; Adhyathe Katha; Anveshanam; Brahmachari; Postmane Kananilla; Pani Teertha Veedu; Maram; 1973: Police Ariyaruthu; Football Champion, Agnathavasanv; Panchavati; Bhadra Deepam; Thiruvabharanam; Kalachakram; Ponnapuram Kotta; Veendum Prabhatam;Thani Niram;Ladies’ Hostel; Achani; Urvashi Bharathi; Thenaruvv; Pacha Nottukal; Pavangal Pennungal; Dharma Yuddham; Sastram Jayichu Manushyan Thottu; Interview; Azhakulla Saleena; Poyi Mukhangal; Manasu; Thottavadi; Padmavyuham (Mal); Angathattu; 1974: Chanchala; Pattabhishekham; Chandrakantham; Suprabhatam; Panchatanthram; Rahasya Rathri; Pathiravum Pakalvelichavum; Durga; Setu Bandhanam; Nellu; Poonthenaruvi; Night Duty; College Girl, Ayalathe Sundari; Chakravakam; Thacholi Marumagan Chandu; Thumbolarcha; Raja Hamsam; Honeymoon; Bhoomidevi Pushpiniyayi; Arakallan Mukkal’Kalian; Chief Guest; 1975: Abhimanam; Alibaba and Forty-One Thieves; Aranyakandam; Ashtami Rohini; Ayodhya; Babu Mon; Cheenavala; Chumadu Thangi; Dharmakshetre Kurukshetre; Hello Darling; Kottaram Vilakkanundu; Love Marriage, Manishada; Neela Ponman; Padmaragam; Palazhi Madhanam; Picnic; Pravaham; Priyamulla Sophia; Pulival; Sammanam; Sindhu; Surya Vamsam; Thamarathoni; Thiruvonam; Tourist Bungalow; 1976: Ayiram Janmangal; Ajayanum Vijayanum; Ammini Ammavan; Amritha Vahini; Aparadhi; Chennai Valarthiya Kuttv; Chirikuduka; Kamadhenu; Kanyadanam, Kayamkulam Kochunniyude Maghan; Light House; Mallanum Mathevanum; Ozhukkinethire; Panchami; Panchamrutham; Parijatham; Pickpocket; Prasadam; Pushpa Sarem; Rajayogam; Seemantha Puthran; Themmadi Velappan; Thulavarsham; Thuruppit Gulam; Vanadevatha; Vazhi Vilakku; 1977: Suryakanthi; Acharam Ammini Osaram Omana; Akshaya Pathram; Anjali; Anugraham; Aparajitha; Aval Oru Devalayam; Chaturvedam; Gandharvam; Haridhayame Sakshi; Innale Innu; Ivanente Priyaputhran; Kaduvaye Pidicha Kiduva; Kannappanunni; Lakshmi; Minimol; Mohamum Mukthiyum; Muttathe Mulla; Parivanhanam; Rathi Manmathan; Rendu Lokam; Saghakkale Munottu; Samudram; Sujatha; Tholkkan Enikku Manassilla; Varadakshina; Veedu Oru Swargam; Vishukkani; 1978: Anappachan; Amarsham; Ashtamudikayal; Bharyayum Kamukiyum; Ee Ganam Marakkumo; Jayikkanai Janichavan; Kadathanattu Maakkam; Kalpa Vruksha; Kanalkkattakal; Kudumbam Namakku Sreekovil; Liza; Mudra Mothiram; Ninakku Jnanum Enikku Neeyum; Nivedyam; Prarthana; Raju Rahim; Shathru Samharam; Snehathinte Mukhangal; Sundari Marudde Swapnangal; Thacholi Ambu; Tharu Oru Janmam Koodi; Vilakkum Velichavum; Yagaswam; 1979: Ward No. 7; Kalam Kathu Ninilla; Irumpazhigal; Vijayanum Veeranum; Mamankam; Prabhu; Pamparam; Tharangam; Thirayum Thiravum; Indradhanush; Iniyum Kanam; Kathirmandapam; Manavadharmam; Ormayil Nee Mathram; Pichathikkuttappan; Sarpam; Valaduthavan Valal; Vellayanni Paramu; 1980: Air Hostess; Kari Puranda Jeevithangal; Kshetram; Ithikkara Pakki; Theekadal; Mr Michael, Digvijayam; Chandrahasam; Palattu Kunjikannan; Lava; Pralayam; Anthappuram; Nayattu; Love in Singapore, Theeram Thedunnavar; 1981: Charam; Areyappedatha Rahasyam, Thadavara; Thalam Manasinte Thalam; Theekali; Sanchari; Choothatham; Kodumudikal; Ellam Ninakku Vendi; Kilungatha Changalakal; Pathiya Suryan; Sangharsham; Attamari; Raktham; Vida Parayum Munpe; Itihasam; Parvathi; Dhruva Sangamam; Adimachangala; Kadathu; Itha Oru Dhikkari; Kadathu; Kahalam; Kattukallan; Thakilukottampuram; Thenum Vayampum; 1982: Idiyum Minnalum; Ivan Oru Simham, Angachamayam; Mayilanji; Jambulingam; Oru Thira Pinneyum Thira; Maruppacha; Panchajanyam; Champalakadu; Padayottam; Arambham; Akrosham; Shri Ayyappanum Vavarum; Raktha Sakshi; Adarsham, Ankuram; Drohi; Irattimadhuram; Keni; Mazhanilavu; Nagamadhathu Thampuratti; Post Mortem, 1983: Bandham; Adhyathe Anuragam; Attakkalasam; Adhipathyam; Angam; Ashrayam; Bhukambam; Chakravalam Chuvannappol Deeparadhana; Ee Yugam; Ente Katha; Himam; Justice Raja; Kariyam Nisaram; Kodungattu; Mahabali; Markkailo Rikalum; Mortuary, Oru Madaupravinte Katha; Passport; Prashnam Gurutharam; Pratigna; Prem Nazirine Kanmanilla; Theeram Thedunna Thira; Yuddham; 1984: Makale Maapu Tharu; Alakadalinakkare; Amme Narayana; Ente Nandini Kutty; Inakkilli; Kadamattathachan; Krishna Guruvayoorappa; Kurisuyuddham; Madhu Vidhu Theerum Munpe; Manase Ninakku Mangalam; Manithali; Ningalil Oru Stree; Oru Thettinde Katha; Piriyilla Naam; Poomadathu Pennu; Vanitha Police; Vellom; Vikatakavi; 1985: Daivathe Orthu; Manya Mahajanangale; Mukhya Manthri; Nerariyum Nerathu;; Orikkal Oridathu; Orunal Innorunal; Ozhivukalam; Sannaham; Snehicha Kuttathinu; Uyirthezhunnelppu; Shatru; 1986: Ayalvasi Oru Dharithavasi; 1988: Dhwani; 1989: Lal Americayil.

Prem Nazir in Lottery Ticket (1970)

NEELAKANTAN, P. (B. 1916)

Tamil director associated mainly with MGR’s persona; also worked in Sinhalese (Suneetha and Sujake Rahase) and Kannada. Born in Villuppuram. Congress Party worker aged 15. Former journalist (with Jeevamani in 1935, Vijayan in 1936, Indira in 1940 and established his own journal Kalaivani in 1940) and radio playwright. Broke through with two famous plays, Mullil Roja, performed by the TKS Brothers and attacking the Devadasi system, and Nam Iruvar, staged by N.S. Krishnan’s theatre troupe (Krishnan was in jail at the time and the play was done by T.A. Mathuram and S.V. Sahasranamam). Nam Iruvar was later filmed by A.V. Meiyappan (1947) as a stridently nationalist drama with Neelakantan’s script (he was also asst. d). Its success established AVM and was followed by other scripts for Meiyappan, including the hits Vethala Ulagam (1948) and Vazhkai (1949). Directorial début: Ore Iravu, based on a noted play by the DMK’s founder, C.N. Annadurai, who also scripted the film. Shifted briefly to Kannada to direct two films produced by and starring B.R. Panthulu (Modalatedi and Shivasharane Nambekka), before returning to the DMK film idiom with Tamil hits like Ambikapathy with Sivaji Ganesan. Directed two films with Karunanidhi scripts, Poompuhar and Poomalai. Was a partner in Panthulu’s Padmini Pics before starting his own Arasu Prod. (1957). Most of his films star MGR. According to M.S.S. Pandian (1992), the hit Thirudathe inaugurated the MGR persona of a subaltern in the service of society. This trend continued in Mattukkara Velan with MGR playing the double role of the cowherd and the lawyer, and in Ninaithathai Mudippavan with MGR demonstratively consuming proletarian food and displaying an inability to eat peas with a fork.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1951: Ore Iravu; 1954: Kalyanam Panniyum Brahmachari; 1955: Gomathiyin Kathali; Modalatedi/Mudhal Thedi; Shivasharane Nambekka; 1957: Ambikapathy; Chakravarthi Thirumagal; 1958: Thedi Vantha Selvam; 1960: Advantha Daivam; 1961: Nallavan Vazhvan; Thirudathe; 1962: Ethayum Thangam Idayam; 1963: Koduthu Vaithaval; Raj Mahal; 1964: Poompuhar; 1965: Anandi; Poomalai; 1966: Avan Pithana; 1967: Kavalkaran; 1968: Kanavan; Kannan En Kathalan; 1969: Mattukkara Velan; 1970: En Annan; 1971: Neerum Neruppum; Oru Thai Makkal; Kumari Kottam; 1972 Raman Thediya Seethai; Sangey Muzhangu; 1974: Netru Indru Nalai; 1975: Ninaithathai Mudippavan; 1976: Needhikku Thalai Vanangu; 1981: Daiva Thirumanangal.

Neerja see Vijayanirmala

NENE, RAJA (1912–75)

Hindi and Marathi director, actor and producer originally called Gajanan Hari Nene. Nephew of Vishnupant Damle who got him a job at Prabhat Studio as assistant director. Assisted Shantaram on Chandrasena (1935) and Amar Jyoti (1936); he was a key figure in the making of Sant Tukaram (1936) and of the subsequent Damle-Fattelal films, receiving cod credit for Sant Sakhu. Played the part of the boorish Pandit, son of Kakasaheb, in Shantaram’s classic Kunku/Duniya Na Mane. Directed the successful Daha Wajta at Prabhat. Together with Athavale, Datta Dharmadhikari and Keshavrao Bhole, he walked out of the studio shortly afterwards, leaving the studio’s magnum opus Ramshastri (1944) incomplete. The group joined Mohan Studio to make Taramati. Started his own Raja Nene Prod. (1947) co-directing Dharmadhikari’s first film, Shadi Se Pehle. After Rajkamal Kalamandir Nene Prod. was the second major production house to emerge from the Prabhat Studio and was followed by Dharmadhikari’s Alhaad Chitra. Nene’s next production was the classic Tamasha musical Patthe Bapurao, reserving the lead part for himself. Anant Mane later claimed to have ghost-directed this hit as well as Ketakichya Banaat: Pehli Tareekh, Nene’s most successful Hindi film, was remade in Kannada and Tamil by P. Neelakantan as Modalatedi (1955).

FILMOGRAPHY (* also act/** act only): 1937: Kunku/Duniya Na Mane**; 1941: Sant Sakhu; 1942: Daha Wajta/Das Baje; 1944: Ramshastri; 1945: Taramati; 1946: Bachchon Ka Khel; Phir Bhi Apna Hai; 1947: Lalat; Shadi Se Pehle*; 1949: Sant Ramdas*; 1950: Ketakichya Banaat*; Patthe Bapurao*, 1951: Shri Vishnu Bhagwan; 1952: Indrasan; Lanka Dahan; Rajrani Damayanti; 1954: Hanuman Janma; Pehli Tareekh; Radha Krishna; 1957: Pahila Prem*; 1958: Gauri Shankar, 1959 Yala Jeevan Aise Nav, 1964: Tuka Jhalase Kalasa.

NEW INDIAN CINEMA

Promotional label for a sector of state sponsored film-making said to have originated either with Mrinal Sen’s Bhuvan Shome (1969) or Mani Kaul’s Uski Roti (1969). Associated in the late 60s/early 70s with financial support from the FFC (see NFDC), making it the first major result of governmental support for feature-film production outside the industrial mainstream. Among its beneficiaries were FTII graduates like Kumar Shahani, Mani Kaul, Saeed Mirza and Ketan Mehta. It also generated technicians who pioneered aesthetic and technological innovations which had a substantial impact on the technical standards of the film industry itself: the camerawork of K.K. Mahajan in Hindi, Venu in Malayalam and Ramchandra in Kannada cinemas, the sound recording of Kuldeep Sud and later Hitendra Ghosh and PC. Padmanabhan. Described by the popular press as a ‘new wave’ in a facile comparison with the French nouvelle vague, prompting Satyajit Ray to issue a somewhat dismissive response to the sector, ‘An Indian New Wave?’ (1971: cf. Ray, 1976). What shaped the new cinema most decisively was the cultural and political dynamic sparked by the mainstream industry’s massive opposition to it. While attacking ‘financially unviable’ films, the industry also sought to exploit its aura of cultural value for its own purposes (cf. B.R. Ishara). The films that articulated an ‘official’ agenda were Pattabhi Rama Reddy’s Samskara (1970) and Shyam Benegal’s Ankur (1973). Both, like Bhuvan Shome and M.S. Sathyu’s Garam Hawa (1973), were low-budget box-office successes. Samskara gave a new dimension to the predominantly literary movements in Kannada (see Navya Movement) and encouraged the notion of ‘regional realism’, claiming Satyajit Ray as its major progenitor (a role Ray was happy to play) although Tendulkar’s theatre work offered a more credible source. This development was extended into the Malayalam cinema by Adoor Gopalakrishnan and Aravindan. In its later, post-Benegal phase, New Indian Cinema often drew on advertising capital and aesthetics for art-house film-making, legitimating a new definition enshrined in e.g. the parliamentary committee’s instructions, during the Emergency, to the FFC to grant loans on the following criteria: ‘1. Human interest in the story; 2. Indianness in theme and approach; 3. Characters with whom the audience can identify; 4. Dramatic content and 5. Background and capability of the applicant’ (Committee On Public Undertakings Report, 1976). This ideology became official cultural policy in the 7th Five-Year Plan and had a decisive impact on Doordarshan as well as shaping the NFDC’s and the Directorate of Film Festivals’ institutional priorities.

NEW THEATRES

Main Bengali studio and one of the élite banners in pre-Independence Indian cinema. Set up by Birendra Nath Sircar (1901–80) in 1931 as a sound studio in Tolly gunge, Calcutta, following on from Sircar’s silent International Filmcraft (Est: 1930 in association with Charu Roy and Prafulla Roy). New Theatres acquired Tanar equipment and the services of Wilford Deming, a Hollywood sound technician imported by Ardeshir Irani. The studio attracted major technical and creative talent from several smaller silent studios then on the verge of collapse: Indian Kinema provided Nitin Bose, the writer, scenarist and film-maker Premankur Atorthy, the stars Durgadas Bannerjee, Amar Mullick, Jiban Ganguly, etc.; from Barua Pics came P.C. Barua himself and Sushil Majjumdar; British Dominion Films supplied Dhiren Ganguly. Sircar aimed for a cinematic equivalent of literature: ‘Immediately after the establishment of New Theatres, the first film I made was Saratchandra [Chatterjee]’s Dena Paona (1931). The first director of New Theatres was Premankur Atorthy, the famed litterateur. The film was not a success. Yet, I could perceive that following the path of literature would lead to the discovery of the right path. Seven subsequent films met with the same fate but each film pointed to the ultimate way’ (1961, in Jha, 1990). This formula had been launched at Madan Theatres when they purchased exclusive film rights to all of Bankimchandra Chatterjee’s prose and was followed by New Theatres, leading to such cinematic oddities as the big-budget Natir Puja (1932), credited with Rabindranath Tagore’s direction. New Theatres then opted for a more melodramatic mode with Debaki Bose’s Chandidas (1932). The most famous New Theatres productions were the P.C. Barua and Nitin Bose films and its major star was K.L. Saigal. The studio had many directors on its payroll (most studios managed with one in-house director, using B-films made by assistants or other employees to keep the production flow going) and invested massively in technological innovation (e.g. the work of sound recordist Mukul Bose). The decline of the studio is usually linked to the resignation in 1941 of Nitin Bose, one of their top directors and head of the technical units. Its fall is also connected with the rise of the Western and Southern Indian markets during and immediately after WW2, as the studio had never established its own outlets and was increasingly at the mercy of professional distributors charging crippling commissions. There are several accounts of the studio’s outright sale of film rights to groups like the Kapurchands, often at a loss. In 1944 Bimal Roy made an influential debut (Udayer Pathey) initiating a trend mainly realised in Bombay (e.g. Hrishikesh Mukherjee). The studio finally closed in 1955, although Sircar remained closely involved with film industry organisations, being on the board of the FFC for some years.

NIHALANI, GOVIND (B. 1940)

Hindi director born in Karachi (now Pakistan) into a merchant family. During Partition, his family fled to Udaipur (1947) and then to Delhi. Studied cinematography at S.J. Polytechnic, Bangalore (1959–62). Assisted cameraman V.K. Murthy in Bombay (1962–71). An early and influential colleague was Bombay-based playwright and theatre director Satyadev Dubey, whose Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe (1971) was Nihalani’s first feature as cameraman. Shot over 200 advertising films and documentaries, directing 100 more for Krishna Movies in Bombay. Also shot Benegal’s early films. Turned director in 1980. Made Tendulkar-scripted political films dealing with urban crime and official corruption. Did 2nd unit work for Attenborough’s Gandhi (1982). His box-office hit Ardh Satya, used a Dirty Harry plot which was familiar in Hindi and regional commercial cinemas (e.g. Prakash Mehra’s Zanjeer, 1973, in Hindi, and S.V. Rajendra Singh’s Antha, 1981, in Kannada). Ardh Satya itself was adapted into Tamil by K. Vijayan (Kaval, 1985). Takes politically sensational topics and turns them into individual moral dilemmas, usually enacted by Om Puri. His TV serial Tamas, set during Partition, proved controversial and resulted in a court ruling asserting the right to freedom of expression on TV. Recent work mainly adaptations of stage plays to TV (Ibsen, Strindberg and Lorca). A book-length interview with Nihalani was published in 1992 (ed. Samik Bandyopadhyay).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1980 Aakrosh; 1982: Vijeta; 1983: Ardh Satya; 1984: Party; 1985: Aaghat; 1986: Tamas (TV); 1989: Jazeerey (TV); 1990: Drishti; 1991: Pita; Rukmavati Ki Haveli.

NURJEHAN (B. 1929)

Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi actress and singer born in Kasur village, Punjab. Studied music under Ghulam Mohammed Khan. Stage actress in Calcutta as a child, and introduced to films apparently by Sukhlal Karnani of Indra Movietone. Joined films when still a child in Punjabi productions of K.D. Mehra and featured prominently in Pancholi’s hit musical Gul-e-Bakavali. Married film-maker Shaukat Hussain and acted in many of his films, including Khandaan, Naukar and Jugnu, the latter co-starring Dilip Kumar and produced by their own Shaukat Art Prod. V.M. Vyas brought her to Bombay (1942) to act in Duhai. She returned to Lahore after Partition, acting in e.g. Imtiaz Ali Taj’s Gulenar and Shaukat Hussain’s Laila, both scored by Ghulam Haider; she also produced Chanway. Known as the Melody Queen, almost all her Bombay films were hits with extremely popular music, and she remained a leading playback singer in Pakistan, notably in Punjabi productions. Best remembered for her songs Awaaz de and Jawan hai mohabbat in Mehboob’s Anmol Ghadi and for Yahan badala wafa ka in Jugnu. As a singer, she is often considered Lata Mangeshkar’s predecessor. Recorded two parts of the musical series ‘Taranum’ in the 1980s/90s in Pakistan.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1935: Gaibi Gola; Misar Ka Sitara; Azadi; Sheila; 1936: Nariraj; 1937: Mr 420; Taranhar; Fakhr-e-Islam; Kiski Pyari; 1938: Heer Syal; 1939: Gul-e-Bakavali; Sassi Punnu; 1940: Yamla Jat; 1941: Choudhury; 1942: Khandaan; 1943: Naukar; Duhai; Nadaan; 1944: Dost; Lal Haveli; 1945: Badi Maa; Bhaijan; Village Girl; Zeenat; 1946: Anmol Ghadi; Dii; Humjoli; 1947: Jugnu; Mirza Sahiban; 1951: Chanway 1952: Dupatta; 1953: Gulenar; 1955: Patey Khan; 1956: Lakht-e-Jigar; Intezaar; 1957: Nooran; 1958: Chhoo Mantar; Anarkali; 1959: Pardesan; Neend; Koel; 1961: Ghalib; 1963: Baji.

NUTAN SAMARTH (1936–91)

Top Hindi 60s star, introduced to films by her mother, Shobhana Samarth, in Hamari Beti. Her screen image was moulded by Bimal Roy (Sujata, Bandini) and by those who continued in the Roy tradition: Hrishikesh Mukherjee (Anari), Bimal Dutt (Kasturi) and Sudhendu Roy (Saudagar). Her persona, confirmed in e.g. Saraiya’s Saraswatichandra and in Raj Khosla’s melodramas (Teri Maang Sitaron Se Bhar Doon), developed a naturalism borrowed from reformist Bengali and Gujarati novels, constituting an indigenised variant of neorealism. This aspect of her acting, anticipating Smita Patil’s image, became crucial to e.g. the iconography of the New Indian Cinema’s notion of ‘Indianness’. In her best-known films she performed with a frothy uninhibitedness comparable to Madhubala: the Filmistan musical Paying Guest and Navketan’s Vijay Anand hit Tere Ghar Ke Saamne are fine examples of the romantic duo she formed with Dev Anand. In later years she acted mother roles.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1945: Nala Damayanti; 1950: Hamari Beti; 1951: Humlog; Nagina; 1952: Hangama; Nirmohi; Parbat; Shisham; 1953: Aaghosh; Laila Majnu; Malkin; 1954: Shabab, 1955: Seema; 1956: Heer, 1957: Baarish; Paying Guest; 1958: Aakhri Dao; Chandan; Delhi Ka Thug; Kabhi Andhera Kabhi líjala; Sone; Ki Chidiya; Zindagi Ya Toofan; 1959 Anari; Kanhaiya; Sujata; 1960: Basant; Chhabili; Chhalia; Manzil; 1963: Soorat Aur Seerat; Bandini; Dil Hi To Hai; Tere Ghar Ke Saamne; 1964: Chandi Ki Deewar, 1965: Khandaan; Rishte Naate, 1966: Chhota Bhai; Dil Ne Phir Yaad Kiya, Dulhan Ek Raat Ki; 1967: Laat Saheb, Meharbaan; Mera Munna; Milan; 1968: Gauri; Saraswatichandra; 1969: Bhai Bahen; 1970: Devi; Maa Aur Mamta; Maharaja; Yaadgaar, 1971: Lagan; 1972: Anuraag; Mangetar, Graban; 1973: Saudagar, 1976: Zid; Ginny Aur Johnny, 1977: Duniyadari; Jagriti; Mandir Masjid; Paradh; 1978: Anjaam; Ek Baap Chhe Bete, Hamara Sansar, Main Tulsi Tere Aangan Ki; Saajan Bina Suhagan; Kasturi; 1980: Saajan Ki Saheli; Sanjh Ki Bela; 1982: Jiyo Aur Jeene Do, Ten Maang Sitaron Se Bhar Doon; 1983: Rishta Kaagaz Ka; 1984: Yeh Kaisa Farz; 1985: Aar Paar/Anyay Abichar, Merl Jung; Paisa Yeh Paisa; Yudh; Mayuri (H); Mujrim Hazir(TV); Pyari Bhabhi; Ricky, 1986: Karma; Naam; 1987: Hifazat; 1988: Soné Pe Suhaaga; 1989: Guru (H); Mujrim; Kanoon Apna Apna; Aulad Ki Khatir, 1992: Naseebwala; 1994: Insaniyat.

Nutan (centre) in Bandini (1963)

OSTEN, FRANZ (1876–1956)

Hindi director born in Munich as Franz Ostermayer, the elder brother of successful producer Peter Ostermayer. They set up a travelling cinema, Original Physograph (1907) and founded Munchner Kunstfilm (1909) after Osten had been making shorts for Pathé, Gaumont and Eclair. Their first feature: Die Wahrheit (1910). Osten’s début as director: Erna Valeska (1911). War correspondent in 1915. Joined Peter’s company Emelka (later Bavaria Film) in 1918. Made Der Ochsenkrieg (1920) with young cameraman Frank Planer of later Hollywood fame, one of Osten’s several contributions to a budding genre that after WW2 became known as the Heimatfilm. In fact, the Ostermayr/Osten brothers claimed to be the originators of the genre. When Himansu Rai and Emelka made a deal to produce Prem Sanyas aka Light of Asia, Osten was assigned to direct. Continued directing Rai’s productions, often shooting in India as well as in Europe, in addition to directing for numerous companies in Berlin. Moved with cameraman Josef Wirsching and set designer Karl von Spreti to India to work at Himansu Rai’s Bombay Talkies (1934). While in Bombay, became a member of the Nazi Party (1936). Interned by the British at the outbreak of WW2 while shooting his last film there, Kangan. Released and allowed to return to Germany (1940). Employed by Bavaria Film until 1945, for casting and setting up its film archive. In addition to Indian films, directed 33 silent features and 10 sound films. After WW2 became manager of a Bavarian spa. His Indian films, following UFA tradition, were huge Orientalist spectacles with elephants, camels and expansive vistas often shot in deep focus. Effective authorship shared by producer Rai and scenarist Niranjan Pal. Adopted European conventions to introduce main actors, e.g. backlit mid-shots in soft focus gradually becoming more contrasted; also used mobile outdoor shots as in the railway-crossing sequence of Achhut Kanya. Strongly influenced younger Bombay Talkies film-makers Amiya Chakravarty and Gyan Mukherjee, though they used his techniques for very different purposes.

FILMOGRAPHY (Indian films): 1925: Prem Sanyas; 1928: Shiraz; 1929: Prapancha Pash (all St); 1935: Jawani Ki Hawa; 1936: Achhut Kanya, Janmabhoomi;Jeevan Naiya; Mamata; Miya Bibi; 1937: Izzat; Jeevan Prabhat; Prem Kahani; Savitri; 1938: Bhabhi; Nirmala; Vachan; 1939: Navjeevan; Durga; Kangan.

Pachajanya see Mahapatra, Nirad

PADMANABHAN, R. (B. 1896)

One of the pioneer Tamil producer-directors. Son of a Sivagangai-based lawyer, entered films as distributor (1926) of Indian and imported films and retailer of cinema equipment. Set up the Madras-based Associated Films Studio (1928) with financial support from K.S. Venkatramani Iyer (father-in-law of K. Subramanyam). The studio’s early work includes Raja Sandow’s first films. In the silent era, run by technicians imported from Bombay, it was the biggest South Indian production centre after General Pics. With the coming of sound, Padmanabhan first returned to distribution; then director for Oriental Films, a partnership involving Ramalinga Mudaliar.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1935: Maya Bazaar, Dhruva; Nalla Thangal; Subhadra Haran; 1936: Nalayini; Garuda Garvabhangam; 1937: Setu Bandhanam; Asai; 1940: Meenakshi Kalyanam; 1941: Maya Jyolhi; Appothi Adigal; 1943: Devakanya; 1945: Bhakta Kalathi; 1946: Setu Bandhanam; Sakata Yogam; 1949: Rahsharekha; 1952: Kumari; Rajeshwari; 1955: Ellam Inbamayam; 1962: Indra En Selvam.

PADMARAJAN, P. (1936–91)

Malayalam writer, scenarist and director. Studied chemistry in Trivandrum, where he also worked as an AIR announcer. Author of 15 novels and scenarist before becoming a director. Considered a leading member of a second generation of modernist writers, following M.T. Vasudevan Nair and O.V. Vijayan. Several of his anarchist novels, often about people on the margins, crime and sexual jealousy, have been the sources for e.g. Bharathan’s and I.V. Sasi’s films. His own films have however seldom adapted his own published fiction, although based on his own screenplays. Best-known film is Koodevide?, a psychological drama about the violence simmering underneath polite discourse. His folk parable Oridathoru Phayalwan is about the rise and fall of a childishly simple wrestler who makes a success of his sport, marries the prettiest woman in the village but finds himself a loser in life. Script credits include: Bharathan’s Prayanam (1975), Rathi Nirvedham (1978), Thakara (1979), Lorry (1980) and Eenum (1983); I.V. Sasi’s Itha Ivide Vare (1977), Vadagaikku Oru Hridayam (1978), Kaikeyi (1983) and Kaanamarayathu (1984); K.S. Sethumadhavan’s Nakshatrangale Kaval (1978); K.G. George’s Rappadigalude Gatha (1978); Mohan’s Salini Ente Kuttukari (1980).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1979:

Peruvazhiyampalam; 1981: Oridathoru Phayalwan; Kalian Pavithran; 1982: Novemberinte Nashtam; 1983: Koodevide?; 1984: Parannu Parannu Parannu; 1985: Thinkalazhcha Nalla Divasam; Arappatta Kettiya Gramathil; 1986: Desadanakkili Karayilla; Namukku Parkkan Munthiri Thoppukal; Kariyila Kattu Pole, 1987: Nombarathi Poovu; Thoovana Thumbigal; 1988: Aparan; Moonnam Pakkam, 1989: Innate; 1991: Jnan Gandharvan.

PADMINI, S. (B. 1934)

Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi and Telugu star and classical dancer born in Trivandrum. Second, and best-known, of the 3 famed Travancore sisters (Ragini and Lalitha). Dance training under Guru Gopinath. Début in Uday Shankar’s dance spectacular Kalpana, followed by roles in S.M. Sreeramulu Naidu and Sundarrao Nadkarni’s productions. Then acted in several Tamil films, with both MGR (Madurai Veeran) and Sivaji Ganesan (Verapandiya Kattaboman, Thillana Mohanambal, Vietnam Veedu). First major Hindi role in Gemini’s Mr Sampat but mainly associated with Raj Kapoor (Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai, Mera Naam Joker). Known mainly as a Bharat Natyam dancer (cf. Thillana Mohanambal) and actress in sentimental melodramas (typically Adhyapika). Left films briefly in the late 70s when she moved to the USA, making her comeback in 1984. Thereafter known for her Fazil films. Probably made more Tamil films than are listed in her filmography.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1948: Kalpana; Bhakta Jana; Gnanasoundari; Mahabali; 1949: Velaikkari; Devamanohari; Geetha Gandhi; Krishna Vijayam; Vinodini; Mayavathi; Natya Rani; Pavalakkodi; Ponmudi, Laila Majnu; 1950: Ezhai Padum Padu/Beedala Patlu; Laila Majnu; Manthiri Kumari; Maruthanattu Ilavarasi; Parijatham; Prasanna; 1951: Jeevan Tara; Navvitte Navarathrulu; Singari; 1952: Krishna Kanhaiya; Mr Sampat; Kanchana; Velaikkaran; 1953; Asha Deepam; Ammalakalu/Marumagal; Oka Talli Pillalu; 1954: Ethirparadathu, Snehaseema; Mara Jyothi; Thooku Thooki; Sorgavasal: 1955: Rajkumari; Shiv Bhakta; Mangayar Thilakam; Vijayagauri; Kathanayaki; Kaveri; Koteshwaran; 1956: Madurai Veeran; Amara Deepam; Raja Rani; Kannin Manigal; Verum Pechalla; 1957: Payai; Pardesi; Qaidi; 1958: Amar Deep; Ragini; Raj Tilak; Uthama Puthranl Sitamgarh; Chadarangam; Sampoorna Ramayanam; 1959: Veerapandiya Kattaboman/Amar Shaheed; Thangapathumai; Maragatham; Daivame Thunai; Ponnu Vilayum Bboomi; Minna! Padayali; 1960: Bindiya jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai; Kalpana; Maya Machhindra; Ramayan; Singapore, Daiva Piravi; Meenda Sorgam; Raja Desingu; Mannathi Mannan; 1961: Utnminithanka; Apsara; Shri Sabarimalai Shri Ayyappan; 1962: Aashiq; Meri Bahen; Rani Samyuktha; Senthamarai; Vikramadithan; 1963: Kattu Roja; Naan Vanangum Daivam; Veera Dalapathi Veluthambi; 1964: Shri Guruvayoorappan; 1965: Kalyanaphoto; Kajal; Mahabharat; 1966: Afsana; Kanakachilanka; Chitthi; Thaye Unakkaga; 1967: Aurat, Irutinte Atmavu, Pareeksha; Pooja; Pesum Daivam; Engalukam Kalamvaryam; Kan Kanda Daivam; Iru Malargal; 1968: Love in Kerala; Adhyapika; Aparadhini; Vaasna; Thillana Mohanambal; Thintmal Perumai; Kuzhandaikaka; 1969: Kumara Sambhavam; Chanda Aur Bijli; Madhavi; Nannha Farishta; Bhai Bahen; Gurudakshinai; Mr Kerala(?); Adimagal; 1970: Penn Daivam; Vietnam Veedu; Aansoo Aur Muskaan; Mastana; Mera Naam Joker; Vivahitha; Vilayattu Pillai; Ethirkalam; 1972: Appa Tata; Vasantha Maligai; Maa Inti Jyothi; 1973: Veetu Mappillai; Pillai Selvani; 1974: Kadavul Mama; Thayi; Thinidi; Rosbakkari; Devi Shri Karumariamman; 1975: Engalukkum Kathal Varum; Oru Kudumbathin Kathai; 1976: Ungalil Oruthi; Uzhaikum Karangal; 1977: Navarathnam; 1978: Padakkudhira; 1979: Ezham Kadalinakkare, 1982: Chilanthivala; 1984: Nokketha Dhoorathu Kannum Nattu; 1985: Poove Poo Chooda Va; 1986: Thaikku Oru Thalattu; 1990: Vasthuhara.

PAG see Progressive Artists Group

PAGNIS, VISHNUPANT (1892–1943)

Professional actor on the Marathi Sangeet Natak from the age of 10; part of Kolhapur’s Swadeshi Hitchantak Natak Mandali where he played the female roles of Sharada and Shakuntala in command performances for the Shahu Maharaj. Appeared in some silent Maharashtra Film movies but became known for his female roles in Mama Warerkar’s first play, Kunjvihari (1908), and in Tembe’s Shivraj Natak where he played the heroine in the Hindi version of Siddhasansar. His style is said to have been strongly influenced by the Gujarati actor of female roles, Jaishankar Sundari. He became a music teacher in a municipal school when his stage career flagged and was a last-minute casting decision in the lead of Sant Tukaram (1936). Apparently remained under the spell of the great saint-poet whom he played. Was thereafter in some demand as a keertan singer. He did four more films, all in the Saint films genre, with Jayant Desai and Vjay Bhatt. Functioned as music director for Sant Janabai (1938). His performance as Tukaram has become a major reference-point in debates about Indian performance idioms: e.g. Kumar Shahani’s essay The Saint Poets of Prabhat, 1981; Geeta Kapur’s Mythic Material in Indian Cinema, 1987.

FILMOGRAPHY (* also music d): 1921: Surekha Haran; 1924: Poona Raided; 1936: Sant Tukaram; 1938: Sant Janabai (music d only); 1939: Sant Tulsidas*; 1940: Narsi Bhagat; 1943: Mahatma Vidur; Bhakta Raaj.

Vishnupant Pagnis in Sant Tukaram

PAINTER, BABURAO (1890–1954)

Marathi-Hindi director born Baburao Krishnarao Mestri in Kolhapur, into family of traditional craftsmen. Taught himself to paint (hence his name) and sculpt in academic art-school style. He and his artist cousin Anandrao Painter were, between 1910 and 1916, the leading painters of stage backdrops in Western India, doing several famous curtains for Sangeet Natak troupes (esp. Bal Gandharva and Tembe’s companies) but also for Gujarati Parsee theatre. Became avid filmgoers after seeing Raja Harishchandra (1913). Perceiving its theatrical limitations, they turned to cinema, first as exhibitors (Shivaji theatre, Kolhapur) while trying to assemble their own camera. Anandrao died in 1916. Baburao and his main disciple, Damle, eventually put together a working camera in 1918. With financial support from local nobility, started Maharashtra Film with Seeta Swayamvar, although that film was later abandoned. Remained head of studio until 1932, launching many talented cineastes, including the group that later left to set up Prabhat: Damle, Fattelal and Shantaram. Resigned following Lanka, producing Prem Sangam for Anand Pics. Later ran Shalini Cinetone (1932–8). Then occasional freelance director (e.g. Lokshahir Ramjoshi on Shantaram’s invitation, although Shantaram finished the film himself). Added a Marathi soundtrack to his Prem Sangam and re-released it in 1934 as his first sound film. Practised cinema as a continuation of earlier craft traditions, seen as a contribution to Swadeshi, legitimated by nationalist leader B.G. Tilak’s public commendation of his achievements (1918). Developed sophisticated art direction and shooting techniques, e.g. the use of backdrops in red and yellow to register the right shades of grey on film, the manufacture of primitive filters with tinted glass, the first use of indoor electric lighting with generators, use of fades, etc. Also used costume design and art direction to relate to characters’ spaces, reserving elaborate sets and design for fantasy films. Helped codify the mythological and founded the social (Savkari Pash) and the historical (Sinhagad, Baji Prabhu Deshpande) as film genres.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1919: Congress Session in Bombay (Doc); 1920: Sairandhri; 1921: Surekha Haran; 1922: Bhagwata Bhakta Damaji; 1923: Sinhagad; Shri Krishna Aavtar, 1924: Sati Padmini; Kalyan Khajina; 1925: Shahala Shah; Rana Hamir, Maya Bazaar, Savkari Pash; 1926: Gaja Gauri; Bhakta Prahlad; 1927: Muraliwala; Sati Savitri; 1929: Baji Prabhu Deshpande, 1930: Lanka; 1932: Prem Sangam (all St); 1935: Usha; 1936: Savkari Pash; 1937: Pratibha; Sadhvi Meerabai; 1946: Rukmini Swayamvar, 1947: Lokshahir Ramjoshi/Matwala Shayar Ramjoshi; 1952: Vishwamitra; 1953: Mahajan.

PAL, NIRANJAN (1889–1959)

Director and scenarist born in Calcutta. Son of nationalist leader Bipin Chandra Pal. Participated marginally in early youth in terrorist action around Calcutta (1908). Sent to Marseilles and to London where he lived until 1929. Met Veer Savarkar, leader of the extreme right-wing Hindu Mahasabha, and was linked with the assassination of William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (achieved at the Imperial Institute in London on 1 July 1909). In London, worked with the Natural Color Kinematograph Co. (1913); wrote short stories, plays and sold several scripts such as Faith of a Child (F. Martin Thornton, 1915) and A Gentleman of Paris (Sinclair Hill, 1931), based on his own novel His Honour the Juadge. Started Indian Players group and staged plays like Bluebottle and The Goddess. Met Himansu Rai, an actor in The Goddess, and discussed making Prem Sanyas (1925). Pal claims in his unpublished memoirs, Such is Life, that the film was his idea as well as his script. Collaborated as scenarist on all Himansu Rai’s silent productions (Shiraz; 1928; Prapancha Pash; 1929). Revived Indian Players and The Goddess on stage in Calcutta with participation of Premankur Atorthy, Modhu Bose and Charu Roy. His play Zarina, staged by Bose’s Calcutta Amateur Players, was later filmed by Ezra Mir (1932). Made promotional films for a French motor car company and Imperial Tobacco, exhibited with Chaplin films in tent shows around Calcutta (1930–3). Made newsreels for Aurora called Aurora Screen News (1938–42) and occasional features for Aurora, including the children’s film Hatekhari. Rejoined Rai at Bombay Talkies (1934–7) as chief scenarist and wrote some of the studio’s biggest hits (Jeevan Naiya and Achhut Kanya; both 1936; Lzzat and Savitri, both 1937). Made documentaries for Punjab government and worked in the Film Advisory Board as chief scriptwriter (1942). Also wrote the story of Modhu Bose’s Khyber Falcon (1932) and Jayant Desai’s Qatil Katari (1931).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1930: Naseeb Ni Balihari; 1931: Sui Ka Naka; Pardesia; Pujari; 1932: Dardi (all St); 1939: Hatekhari; Amma; 1940: Suktara; Ditiya Path; 1941: Rashpurnima; Chitthi; Brahman Kanya; 1951: Bodhodaya.

PALEKAR, AMOL (B. 1944)

Actor and director born in Bombay, where he attended the J.J. School of Arts (1965). Noted director on Marathi experimental stage with Satyadev Dubey (1968–72) and with his own Aniket group set up in 1972, e.g. Sadanand Rege’s Gochee (1972) and Badal Sircar’s Juloos (1975). Introduced theatre of the absurd in Maharashtra and a street theatre-inspired practice of performing plays in the round. Employed as bank clerk in Bombay when he was cast as actor by Basu Chatterjee in Rajanigandha (1974), which led to many parts in middle-class comedies, usually as the blundering lover. Also known for his remarkable performance as the scheming Rahul in Kumar Shahani’s epic melodrama Tarang. Was a well-known Bengali star after he did Narayan Chakraborty’s Mother, followed by Dinen Gupta’s Kalankini and Abasheshe and Pinaki Choudhury’s Chena Achena. Also starred in one Malayalam film, Balu Mahendra’s Azhiyada Kolangal. Became director with Marathi film Aakriet; casting himself as a psychotic serial killer. Directed two more films, Ankahee and Thodasa Rumani Ho Jaye; and several TV serials.

FILMOGRAPHY (* also d/** only d): 1971: Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe; Bajiravacha Beta; 1974: Rajanigandha; 1975: Chhotisi Baat; 1976: Chit Chor; Tuch Majhi Rani; Bhumika; 1977: Kanneshwara Rama; Agar; Taxi Taxi; Safed Jhooth; Gharonda; 1978: Damaad; Do Ladke Dono Kadke; Solva Sawan; 1979: 22June 1897; Baaton Baaton Mein; Golmaal; Meri Biwi Ki Shaadi; Mother; Azhiyada Kolangal; 1980: Apne Paraye; Chehre Pe Chehra; Aanchal; 1981: Aakriet*; Naram Garam; Plot No. 5; Sameera; Kalankini; Agni Pareeksha; 1982: Jeevan Dhara; Ramnagari; Shriman Shrimati; Olangal; Sringara Masa; 1983: Rang Birangi; Chena Achena; Pyaasi Aankhen; Nirvana; 1984: Prarthana; Ankahee*; Ashray; Tarang; Admi Aur Aurat; Mr X; Saleysaab (TV); 1985: Abashashe; Khamosh; 1986: Baat Ban Jaye; Jhoothi; 1987: Kachhi Dhoop** (TV); 1988: Naqab** (TV); 1989: Fitness for Fun; Fitness for Everyone** (Doc); 1990: Thodasa Rumani Ho Jaye**; 1991: Mrignayant** (TV); 1993: Paoolkhuna** (TV); 1995 Bangarwadi**; 1996: Daera**.

PALIT, NITAI (B. 1923)

Best-known Oriya director, born in Cuttack. Playwright and theatrical producer; vice-president of the IPTA’s Utkal branch. Started in film as actor (Vinay Bannerjee’s Amari Gaan Jhua, 1953), then directed Kedar Gouri, a tragic love story. Broke through with Malajanha; based on Upendra Das’s novel, featuring the Oriya star Jharana Das. Admires the Bengali masters Ray, Ghatak and Sen.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1954: Kedar Gouri (also act); 1956: Bhai Bhai; 1959: Maa; 1965: Malajanha; 1968: Kie Kahara; 1969: Bandhan (O); 1972: Dharitri; 1974: Mana Akasha; 1976: Krishna Sudama; 1977: Bandhu Mohanty, 1980: Anuraag; 1981: Kiye Jite Kiye Hare.

PANCHOLI, DALSUKH M. (1906–59)

Hindi director. Exhibitor and Punjabi-Hindi producer born in Karachi. Studied scriptwriting and cinematography in New York. Inherited cinema network built by Rewashankar Pancholi during WW1. Expanded Empire Film Distributors (1922) into Empire Talkie Distributors (1931), established in Lahore and the largest importer of American films in Northern and Western India (approx 24 films annually). Exclusive contract with RKO gave them access to Photophone sound equipment. Made some documentaries, including footage on the Karachi Congress session (1931). Entered film production relatively late, but early productions in Punjabi (Gul-e-Bakavali, 1939, Yamla Jat, 1940) and Hindi (Khazanchi, 1941) were instrumental in bringing Lahore’s film industry into the national mainstream. Built his studio Pancholi Art Pics in Lahore with five floors but abandoned everything to migrate to Bombay following Partition (1946), apparently taking only the negative of his unfinished film, Patjhad (1948). For some years his team of film-makers (e.g. Gidwani and Ravindra Dave), actors (Ramola, Nurjehan, Smriti Biswas, Om Prakash, etc.) and composers (Ghulam Haider, O.P. Nayyar) were very influential in shaping a hybrid mass cultural film formula for a growing migrant working class in North India. Usually credited himself for his productions’ stories and scripts.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1952: Aasmaan.

PANDE, VINOD

Hindi director. Worked in London where he had an advertising agency, Image Enterprises, for which he made two documentaries, several commercials and the first Hindi film made entirely in the UK, Ek Baar Phir. Also worked for AIR and as newsreader for the BBC. Made Star, an attempt to work in the Barbra Streisand-style musical.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1979: Ek Baar Phir, 1982: Yeh Nazdeekiyan; Star, 1988: Ek Naya Rishta; 1989: Sach; 1994: Reporter (TV).

PANDHARIBAI (B. 1930)

Kannada cinema’s first film heroine. Her early work was mainly in Company Natak-derived mythologicals by Simha and Kemparaj Urs. Also on the Tamil stage with S.V. Sahasranamam (e.g. Seva Samaj). Became a front-line star when she featured opposite Rajkumar in Bedara Kannappa, one of Kannada cinema’s earliest successes. Sant Sakhu, the first film of her own Shri Panduranga Prod., emphasised her ‘progressive’ image as a woman assuming the burdens of a feudal patriarchy, an image continued by e.g. Rayara Sose and by her films with G.V. Iyer and T.V. Singh Thakore. It is exemplified by the seminal DMK Film Parasakthi, where she became the voice of C.N. Annadurai’s political philosophy. Bellimoda was a key moment for her later mother image: most unusually for the stereotype, she gives birth to a male heir in the story, triggering an inheritance crisis for the heroine. Her later films establish her as South Indian cinema’s counterpart to Nirupa Roy’s many mother roles (e.g. Ramrajyadalli Rakshasaru), although after 1985 her roles began diminishing.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1943: Vani; 1947: Bhakta Gora Kumbhara; 1951: Raja Vikrama; Marmayogi/Ek Tha Raja; Bahar; 1952: Parasakthi; 1953: Gunasagari; Gumasta; Poongothai/Paradesi; 1954: Bedara Kannappa; Manohara; 1955: Bhakta Mallikarjuna; Sant Sakhu; Sodari; Vadina; 1956: Bhakta Vijaya; Hari Bhakta; Renuka Mahatme; Kuladaivam; 1957: Rayara Sose; Sati Nalayini; Bhabhi; 1958: Panchayat; Anbu Engay; 1959: Chand; Pathirai Matru Thangam; Nattukoru Nallavan; Alii Petra Pillai; Naalu Veli Neelam; Aval Yar; Engal Kula Daivi; Abba! A Hudgi; Grihalakshmi; Paigham; 1960: Bhakta Shabari; Thanthaikupin Thamayan; Anbukkor Anni; Kurvanji; Ivan Avanethan; Raja Bhakti; Pavai Vilakku; 1962: Tejaswini; Indra En Selvam; Punithavathi(?); 1963: Shri Ramanjaneya Yuddha; 1964: Navajeevana; Annapurna; Muriyada Mane; Pratigne; Pathiye Daiva; Shri Guruvayoorappan; 1965: Satya Harishchandra; Mahasati Ansuya; Bettada Huli; Chandrahasa; CID; 1966: Shri Kannika Parameshwari Kathe; Sandhya Raga; Laadla; Motor Sundaram Pillai; 1967: Anuradha; Bellimoda; Shri Purandaradasaru; Premalopramadam; Punyavati; 1968: Amma; Paala Manasulu; Pudhiya Bhoomi; 1969: Suvarnabhoomi; Odahuttidavaru; Madhura Milana; Namma Makkalu; Bhagirathi; Manashanti; Chowkada Deepa; Nannha Farishta; Nam Naadu; 1970: Aparajithe; Mooru Muttugalu; Bhale Jodi; Namma Mane; Gejje Pooje; 1971: Anugraha; Namma Baduku; Pratidhwani; Mahadimane; Rakhwala; Ganga Tera Pani Amrit; Bhale Rani; Bandhavya; 1972. Janma Rahasya; Hridayasangama; Bandagi; Rivaaj; Shehzada; Sampoorna Ramayanam; Ranganna Sabatham; Nijam Nirupistha; Kodalu Pilla; Pandanti Kapuram; Mathru Murthi; Marapurani Talli; Daiva Sankalpam; Thavaputhalvan; Aval; Annamitta Kai; Vasantha Maligai; Dhakam; 1973: Nee Vila Varai; Gauravam; Neramu Siksha; Vaade Veedu; Stree Gauravam; Palletoori Cbinnodu; Hemareddy Mallamma; 1974: Peddalu Marali; Ramaiah Thandri; Devadasu; Krishnaveni; Thirumangalyam; Gumastavin Magai; Onne Onnu Kanne Kannu; Netru Indru Nalai; Patha Poojai; Thayi Pirandhal; Avalum Penn Thaane; Alluri Seetaramaraju; 1975: Doctor Siva; Idhayakkani; Pallandhu Vazhga; Pattikatu Raja; Padmaragam; Asthi Kosam; Anna Dammula Katha; Katha Nayakuni Katha; Moguda Pellamma; Puttinti Gauravam; Raktha Sambandhalu; Ramuni Minchina Ramudu; Santhanam Saubhagyam; Thota Ramudu; 1976: America Ammayi; Bangaru Manishi; Maa Daivam; Manavadi Kosam; Muthyala Pallaki; Neram Nadhikadu Akalidi; Raju Vedale; Seetamma Santhanam; Swami Drohulu; Mugiyada Kathe; Colonel and Collector; Athirishtam Azhaikkirathu; Avan Oru Charitram; Etharkum Thuninthavan; Lalitha; Muthana Muthallava; Perum Pukazhum; Uthaman; Uzhaikum Karangal; Bhadrakali; 1977: Aaru Pushpangal; Indru Pol Endrum Vazhga; Palabhisekham; Punitha Anthoniar; Punniyam Seithaval; Thaliya Salangaiya; Thani Kudithanam; Uyarnthavargal; Dongalaku Donga; Eenati Bandham Yenatido; Geetha Sangeetha; Janma Janmala Bandham; Maa Iddari Katha; Oke Raktham; Seeta Rama Vanavasam; 1978: Devadasi; Bandhipotu Mutha; Dongala Veta; Dudubasavanna; Kalanthakulu; Lambadolla Ramadasu; Lawyer Vishwanath; Moodu Puvvulu Aaru Kayalu; Nindu Manishi; Prema Chesina Pelli; Sahasavanthudu; Sommokadidhi Sokokadidhi; Swargaseema; Kamatchiyin Karunai; Kumkumam Kadhai Solgiradhu; Makkal Kural; Oru Veedu Oru Ulagam; Chadarangam; Taxi Driver; Unakkum Vazhvu Varum; Vazhthungal; 1979: Vetagadu; Kadamai Nenjam; Naan Vazhavippen; Buripalem Bullodu; Dongalaku Saval; Hema Hemeelu; Priya Bandhavi; Sankhu Teertham; Shringara Ramudu; 1980: Jyoti Bane Jwala; Mother, Guru; Naan Potta Saval; Oru Iravu Oru Paravai; Pennukku Yar Kaval; Raman Parashuraman; Triloka Sundari; Yamanukku Yaman; Bangaru Lakshmi; Dharma Chakram; Kiladi Krishnudu; Kothapeda Rowdy, Mr Rajanikant; Sardar Paparayudu; Superman; Gajadonga; 1981: Chhaya; Keralida Simha; Antha; Main Aur Mera Hathi; Kanneer Pookal; Rama Lakshman; Sathyam Sundaram; Chattaniki Kallulevu; Daari Thappinte Manishi; Ramakrishnamanulu; Taxi Driver, 1982: Ajit; Chelisuva Modagalu; Thyagi; Kalavari Samsaram; Radha My Darling; Vayyari Bhamulu Vagalamari Bharthulu; 1983: Adadani Saval; Amarajeevi; Amayakudu Kadhu Asadhyudu; Dharma Poratam; Kaliyuga Daivam; Koteeshwarudu; Lalitha; Mayagadu; Palletoori Pidugu; Pralaya Garjanai; Raghu Ramudu; Shri Ranganeethulu; Ennaipar En Azhagai Paar, Malargalile Aval Malligal; Ragangal Maruvathillai; Saatchi; Sasthi Viratam; Vellai Roja; 1984: Vetri; Amayakudu Kadu Aggi Bharothalu; Ithe Naa Saval; Naga Bhairava; Vasantha Geetam; 1985: Ragile Gundelu; Andha Oru Nimidam; Arthamulla Asaigal; Jhansi Rani; Ketti Malam; Mel Maruvathur Adi Parasakthi; Pudhu Yugam; Shri Raghavendrar, Hosa Neeru; Nyayada Kannu; 1986: Henne Ninagenu Bandhana; Anuragha Aralitu; 1987: Beralge Koral; Karunamayi; Aaseya Bale, Shruti Seridaga; 1988: Vijaya Khadga; Shri Venkateshwara Mahime, 1989: Ondagi Baalu; Avatara Purusha; Indrajit; Samsara Nauka; Yaru Hone, 1990: Ramrajyadalli Rakshasaru; 1993: Vasantha Purnima; Manikanta Mahime, 1994: Kuntiputra; Halunda Tloavaru; Mahashakti Maye.

PANTHULU, BUDUGUR RAMAKRISHNAIAH (1911–74)

Kannada director and actor also associated with Tamil and Telugu theatre. Born in Budugur, AP. Studied in Madras. Worked as schoolteacher, apparently using this experience to make his best-known film, the social School Master. Simultaneously acted in several plays, eventually turning professional actor with the Chandrakala Nataka Sabha (1932) in productions including Samsara Nauka, Sadarame, Gul-e-Bakavali, etc. Worked with Veeranna in plays Ash a Pasha and Shri Krishna Garudi. Then started his own stage company, Kala Seva Mandali, in partnership with stage (later film) actor Dikki Madhava Rao. Joined films when Devi Films, Madras, commissioned H.L.N. Simha to adapt Chandrakala’s stage hit Samsara Nauka. Partnered music maestro T.R. Mahalingam in a stage company that later became Sukumar Prod, with P. Pullaiah’s Macharekhai. Started Padmini Pics with writer-publisher P. Neelakantan (first film: Kalyanam Panniyum Brahmchari); later became the company’s sole proprietor. First film as director, Ratnagiri Rahasya, was a hit. Films usually continued the Chandrakala Sabha’s anti-mythological emphasis on social relevance. Made some spectacular period films with Sivaji Ganesan, e.g. Veerapandiya Kattaboman, Kappalotiya Thamizhan, Karnan. The Kurukshetra battle scenes of Karnan were shot at Jaipur with troops of the 61st Cavalry regiment, using 80 elephants, 400 horses and three camera units. Made 12 Tamil films, some featuring MGR (e.g. the hit Nadodi and the spectacular Ayirathil Oruvan; in which MGR plays a pirate who leads galley slaves to an anti-British insurrection). Best-known films are lower-budget socials claiming realist values inspired by B.N. Reddi. Panthulu remade School Master in Tamil; Puttanna Kanagal then remade it again in Malayalam. Kanagal, who was his assistant, developed this genre into a brand of psychological melodrama. Panthulu’s films often starred M.V. Rajamma.

FILMOGRAPHY (** also act/* act only): 1936: Samsara Nauka*; Raja Bhakti*; 1940: Daana Shura Karna*; Tilottama*; 1941: Bhaktimala*; 1943: Radha Ramana*; 1944: Tehsildar*; 1946: Vijayalakshmt*; Lavangi*; 1947: Nam Iruvar*; 1948: Bhakta Jana*; Samsara Nauka*; 1950: Macharekhai*; 1953: Ammalakalu/Marumagal*; 1954: Kalyanam Panniyum Brahmachari*; 1955: Modalatedi/Mudhal Thedi*; Shivasharane Nambekka*; Vadina*; 1957: Ratnagiri Rahasya/Tangamalai Rahasyam**; 1958: School Master Badi Pantalu **; Engal Kudumbam Parisu; Shabash Meena; 1959: Veerapandiya Kattaboman/Amar Sbabeed; Abba! A Hudgi*; Shabash Pilla; 1960: Sangalli Thevan; Makkala Rajya/Pillalu Techina Challani Rajyam/Kuzhadaigal Kanda Kudiyarasu; 1961: Kappalotiya Thamizhan, Kittur Chanamma/Rani Chanamma; 1962: Galigopura/Gali Medalu**; Dil Tera Diwana; Bhale Pandian; 1963: Saaku Magalu/Pempudu Koothuru; 1964: Chinnada Gombe/Muradhan Muthu**; Karnan/Karna/Daanveer Karna; 1965: Ayirathil Oruvan; Katha Nayakudu Katha; 1966: Enga Papa; Nadodi; Nammaveeti Lakshmi; Dudde Doddappa**; Emme Thammanna; 1967: Gange Gauri; Beedhi Basavanna; 1968: Chinnari Puttana**; Amma**; Rahasiya Police 115; 1969: Gandondu Hennaru**; 1970: Shri Krishnadevaraya**; Thedi Vantha Mappillai; 1971: Aliya Geleya; Malathi Madhava**; 1972: Ondu Hennina Kathe; 1973: Ganga Gauri; School Master.

PARANJPE, RAJA (1910–79)

Prolific Marathi actor and genre director born in Miraj, Maharashtra. Started as organ player and bit actor in Natyamanwantar productions Andhalyanchi Shala (1933) and Lapandav. A protégé of Keshavrao Date, obtained an acting role in Painter’s remake of Savkari Pash. Became known as comedy actor. Assisted and acted in films by Bhalji Pendharkar (Kanbopatra; Gorakhnath, Sunbai) and Master Vinayak productions. Directorial début in 1948. Strongly influenced by Vinayak’s screenplay-dominated prose melodrama and socials. Regular collaborators on his films were scenarist-lyricist Madgulkar and music director Sudhir Phadke. Claimed that the bulk of his work was vinodi, not vidushaki (based on literate humour rather than folk clowning), a claim exemplified by the comedy Lakhachi Goshta. The rest were kautumbik, i.e. morality tales of everyday life: demonstrated by films like Oon Paoos and Pedgaonche Shahane. Unlike Datta Dharmadhikari cathartic weepies, Paranjpe shared Khandekar’s strong commitment to a social morality and to the use of cinematic plotting as a means of creating exemplary characters. By the mid-60s, the Tamasha-derived musical comedies of e.g. Anant Mane and Kondke had displaced both idioms by addressing larger audiences than the urban middle class to which Paranjpe restricted himself. Though he resisted pressures to blur the distinctions, his disciple Rajdutt managed to do so successfully. Autobiography excerpted in Rudravani (1975).

FILMOGRAPHY (* also d/** only d): 1936: Savkari Pash; 1937: Kanbopatra; Pratibba; 1938: Dhruva Kumar, 1940: Gorakhnath/Alakh Niranjan; 1942: Sunbai; Tuzhach; 1943: Ladaai Ke Baad; Naya Tarana; 1944: Swarna Bhoomi; Panna; Pundalik, 1945: Din Raat; 1946: Room Number Nine, Sasurvas; 1947: Karasthan; 1948: Balidan/Do Kaliyan**; Jivacha Sakha*; 1949: Jaga Bhadyane Dene Aahe, Main Abla Nahin Hoon; 1950: Jara Japoon*; Pudhcha Paool*; Var Pahije; 1951: Jashaas Tase, Parijatak/Shri Krishna Satyabhama**; 1952: Lakhachi Goshta**; Pedgaonche Shahane*; Akher Jamla; Stree Janma Hi Tujhi Kahani; 1953: Bolavita Dhani; Chacha Choudhury*; 1954: Oon Paoos*; Een Meen Sadeteen; Ovalani; Purshachijaat; 1955: Ratnaghar, Ganget Ghoda Nhala**; 1956: Andhala Magto Ek Dola**; Deoghar**; Gaath Padli Thaka Thaka**; Pasant Aahe Mulgi**; 1958: Punarjanma; 1959: Baap Bete**; 1960: Jagachya Pathivar*; 1961: Adhi Kalas Mag Paya*; Suvasini*; 1962: Sonyachi Paoole**; Baikocha Bhau; Kshan Aala Bhagyacha; 1963: Bandini; Te Mazhe Ghar; Baiko Maheri Jaate*; Ha Mazha Marg Ekala*; 1964: Pathlaag**; 1965 Padchaya**; 1966: Gurukilli*; Love And Murder**; 1967: Kaka Mala Vachva*, Madhuchandra, Santha Vahate Krishnamai; 1968: Yethe Shahane Rahataat; Preet Shikva Mala; 1969: Adhaar*; Aparadh; 1971: Jal Bin Machhli Nritya Bin Bijli; Tithe Nandate Lakshmi; 1972: Piya Ka Ghar, 1973: Nasti Uthathev; Varhadi Ani Vajantri; 1974: Us Paar; 1975: Preet Tujhi Majhi; Shantata! Khoon Jhala Aahe; Ya Sukhano Ya; 1979: The Gold Medal.

PARANJPYE, SAI (B. 1936)

Hindi director born to Russian/Marathi parents in Lucknow into an illustrious family associated with social reform movements (cf. Shakuntala Paranjpye’s role in Shantaram’s Kunku/Duniya Na Mane, 1937). Educated in Australia where her grandfather was High Commissioner. Published collection of fairy tales in Marathi when 8 years old. Well-known Marathi playwright and stage director, famous for spoofs on middle-class Maharashtrian conservatism, and for her children’s plays. Introduced the stage revue form (e.g. Nanda Saukhya Bhare, Sakkhe Shejari) into Marathi theatre. Started directing for TV (1965), then in charge of CFS productions (1974–5). Producer for Doordarshan in early 70s. Films offer moral tales (Katha; situated in Bombay’s middle class, is based on the story of the hare and the tortoise) spiced with comedy routines. Translated the TV script of Sparsh into a film released in 1984. With the commercialisation of Doordarshan in the mid-80s, has concentrated mainly on independent TV serials, e.g. Ados Pados.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1972: The Little Tea Shop (TV); 1973: Jadu Ka Shankh; 1975: Begaar (Sh); 1976: Sikandar, Dabcherry Milk Project (Doc); 1977: Captain Laxmi (Sh); 1978: Freedom from Fear (Doc); 1979: Sparsh; 1981: Chashme Buddoor; Books that Talk (Doc); 1982 Katha; 1985: Ados Pados (TV serial); Chbote Bade (TV); 1988: Angootha Chhaap (Sh); 1990: Disha; 1993: Chudiyan; Papeeha.

PARSEE THEATRE

Commercial theatre movement sponsored by the Parsees, Zoroastrian traders of Persian origin who settled largely on India’s Western coast. Traditionally involved in shipbuilding and shipping, by the early 19th C. they were the dominant mercantile community (mainly as traders and brokers) in the Bombay Presidency in collaboration with the British Free Traders (cf. A. Guha, 1970). By the mid-19th C. they had become India’s first commercial bourgeoisie, going into banking and setting up the Bombay Chamber of Commerce (1836). The Bombay Theatre, built in 1776 as a copy of London’s Drury Lane and performing English plays mainly for British soldiers and East India Co. bureaucrats, was bought in 1835 by Sir Jamshedjee Jeejeebhoy who also set up the Sir J. J. School of Arts in 1857. In 1846, the Grant Road Theatre came to prominence under the businessman Jagannath Shankarshet, staging plays in English, then in Marathi, Gujarati and Hindi, performed mainly by Parsee amateur troupes (the first professional company was Kaikushroo Kabraji’s Victoria, Est: 1868). Recent work emphasises Kabraji’s seminal role in this period, when he staged Ranchhodbhai Udayram’s Raja Harishchandra. The play subsequently yielded landmark adaptations into Urdu (Vinayak Prasad ‘Talib’, 1884; cf. Raja Harishchandra, 1917) and Hindi (Bhartendu, 1885). Other important figures incl. playwrights Eduljee Khori, who popularised the Urdu language among the Parsee repertories, Nusserwanji Khansaheb ‘Arman’ and Dhanjibhai Naoroji Patel, who wrote the opera Rustom Sohrab. Many of the plays merged diverse influences from Persian lyric poetry (Firdausi’s Shahnama), deploying themes of heroism and love legends (Shirin Farhad), with local folk forms. Its dominant language combined a rhetorical prose with musical forms such as Thumri, Dadra and Jhinjhoti sung in Brijbhasha, a hybrid form with roots in the play Indrasabha by Syed Aga Hasan ‘Amanat’ (1852) at Wajid Ali Shah’s court in Lucknow (see lndrasabha, 1932). Another big influence which migrated via the Parsee theatre into regional stage traditions like the Sangeet Natak, the Kannada/Tamil Company Natak and the Bengali Calcutta Theatres was the European opera. By the 1890s the troupes employed full-time writers; copyright legalities began to be established and groups started publishing plays as well as building their own theatres, almost all of which later switched to film. Parsee mercantile capital underpinned India’s entertainment industry until the 1930s and substantially founded the early film distribution infrastructure (see Madan Theatres) together with at least three major silent and sound studios: Imperial Film, Minerva Movietone and Wadia Movietone. Major theatre groups included the Parsee Stage Players (Est: 1853) with Dadabhai Naoroji as chief patron; the Victoria Co. (Est: 1867, which built the Victoria Theatre in 1868 later bought by Madan); the Elphinstone Dramatic Club (Est: 1863); the Zoroastrian Theatrical Club (Est: 1866); the Empress Victoria Natak Mandali (1876) with major shareholding by Lalsingh Dulhasingh of Delhi; the Alfred Co. (1871) which split into the Parsee Alfred and New Alfred companies and built the Tivoli Theatre in Bombay. Calcutta was dominated by Madan Theatres with the Corinthian Theatre as the showpiece and the Parsee Imperial and Elphinstone companies. By the turn of the century, there were groups in Karachi (e.g. New Shining Star), Jodhpur, Agra, Aligarh, Hyderabad, Meerut, Lucknow and Lahore. Major playwrights include Aga Hashr Kashmiri, Narayan Prasad Betaab, Radheshyam Kathavachak and Ahsan Lucknowi. The dominant genres of the Parsee theatre were the historical, the romantic melodrama and the mythological, with a major influence being the 17th C. Elizabethan theatre, esp. via translations and adaptations of Shakespeare, a tradition that fed into film through Kashmiri’s scripts and Sohrab Modi and Prithviraj Kapoor’s films. The Anglophile Parsee repertoire’s ‘classicism’, comparable to ‘academic’ naturalism in the visual arts, substantially determined the transformation of classical and popular music into urban stage (and later recording) modes, a transition assimilated into the early sound cinema.

PATANKAR, SHRI NATH (?–1941)

Pioneer producer-director-cameraman with an impact on early Indian film equivalent to Phalke’s. Fragments of biographical information suggest that he was born in the early 1880s and became a still photographer who bought a film camera from Bhatavdekar and filmed the great Delhi Durbar (1911) also shot by Hiralal Sen, Madan Theatres and others. Started Patankar Union in partnership with V.P. Divekar and A.P. Karandikar (1913) and made some films mainly to raise funds. They were helped by nationalist leader Lokmanya Tilak, who persuaded financiers Bhagwandas Chaturbhuj and Dharamdas Narayandas to invest in the company. His second feature, Narayanrao Peshwa, is almost certainly India’s first historical. The company only took off in 1917 with the entry of Dwarkadas Sampat into Patankar-Friends & Co. Films made 1918–20, usually scripted by Mohanlal Dave, prepared the emergence of the Kohinoor Studio. Following Sampat’s exit (1920), Patankar started a third studio, National Film (1922), financed by Thakurdas Vakil and Harilal, and then a fourth, Pioneer Film financed by Vazir Haji, which was also the parent company of the Excelsior Studio. His historicals and mythologicals were among the most professionally made films before the studio era (pre-1925). With the transformation of Pioneer into the Excelsior Studio, freelanced for a while as cameraman and art director in Bombay. Shot all the films he directed.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1912: Savitri; 1913: Jaimini and Vyas; 1915: The Death of Narayanrao Peshwa; 1916: Prahlad Charitra; 1918: Raja Shriyal; Ram Vanvas; 1919; Kacha Devayani; Kabir Kamal; Narasinh Avatar, 1920: Sati Madalasa; Shakuntala; Seeta Swayamvar, Vichitra Gutika; Katorahhar Khoon; 1922: Bhakta Bodana, Jadunath; Kama; King Bhartrahari; Mahashiveta Kadambari; Kalidas; Sati Anjani; Shri Markandeya Avatar, 1923: Durvas Shaap; Guru Machhindranath; Krishna Satyabhama; Ranakdevi; Sati Veermati; Shri Dnyaneshwar, Shri Krishna Bhakta Peepaji; Vanraj Chavdo; Videhi Janak; Vaman Avatar, 1924: Karan Ghelo; 1926: Abola Rani (?); Chatra Bakavali; Dorangi Duniya; Kacha Devayani; Manovijaya; Paanch Mahabhoot; Satyavijaya (all St).

Nana Patekar in Krantiveer (1994)

PATEKAR, NANA(B. 1951)

Hindi/Marathi actor, originally Vishwanath Patekar, born in Murud-Janjira, Maharashtra. Studied at the J. J. School of Arts and performed menial jobs while acting in amateur theatre with the Avishkar group in Vijay Tendulkar’s Pahije Jatiche (1976) and other plays, such as Jaywant Dalvi’s controversial political drama Purush. Became the model 90s ‘anti-hero’, emphasising his background as a cynical, streetwise member of the underclass (e.g. in Mehul Kumar’s films) attacking political and cultural hypocrisy. Following the success of N. Chandra’s Ankush. often played the local working-class misfit, extending the localised realism of 70s New Indian Cinema into dangerously simplified and polarised representations of conflicts with ‘outsiders’ (e.g. his own Prahaar and Kumar’s Krantiveer).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1978: Gaman; 1979: Sinhasan; 1980: Bhalu; 1981: Nagin; 1982: Avhaan; 1983: Raghumaina; Savitri; 1984: Aaj Ki Awaaz; Giddh; 1985: Ankush; Gad Jejuri Jejuri; 1986: Nasamajh; Sutradhar, Maphicha Sakshidar, Phaansi Ka Phanda; 1987: Aaj Ka Robin Hood; Awaam; Pratighaat; Sheela; Mohre, 1988: Andha Yudh; Sagar Sangam; Salaam Bombay; Trishagni; 1989: Karam Kasauti; Parinda; Suryodaya; 1990: Thodasa Rumani Ho Jaye; Disha; 1991: Prahaar (also d.); Deeksha; 1992: Angar, Tiranga; Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman; 1994: Krantiveer; Abhay; 1995: Hum Dono.

PATEL, JABBAR (B. 1942)

Marathi film director and paediatrician. Born in Pandharpur, Maharashtra. Together with his wife, a gynaecologist, runs a clinic in Daund near Pune. Founded the best-known Marathi experimental theatre group, Theatre Academy. Landmark stage production of Vijay Tendulkar’s play Ghashiram Kotwal (1972). Also adapted Brecht’s Threepenny Opera (Teen Paishacha Tamasha, 1974) to the stage in Marathi, using rock music and conventions from Hindi commercial cinema. His films, often scripted by Tendulkar (e.g. Saamna, Sinhasan), rely on topical political references and theatrical acting styles. Best-known feature is Umbartha; representing Smita Patii’s most renowned screen performance.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1975: Saamna; 1977: Jait Re Jait; 1979: Sinhasan; 1981: Umbartha/Subah; 1986: Musafir, Maharashtra (Doc); 1987: Mi SM (Doc); 1988: Indian Theatre (Doc); Pathik (Doc); 1989: Lakshman Joshi (Doc); 1990: Sea Forts (Doc); 1991: Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar (Doc); 1992: Ek Hota Vidushak, 1994 Mukta.

PATHY, P. V. (1906–61)

Born in Madras as Pithamandalam Venkatachalapathy. Major documentarist; originator of ethnographic film-making which developed into a politically relevant mode of pseudo-historical films associated with Films Division. Wrote thesis on The Contemporary Theatre of the Andhras (1927). Studied at the Sorbonne (1933) where he met Indologists Sylvain Levy and Louis Renou. Later, at the école Technique de Photographie et Cinématographie (FTPC) in Paris, he made some shorts apparently influenced by Cavalcanti. Travelled in North Africa with American explorer Horace Ashton. Indian correspondent for Universal News and British Paramount News, filming e.g. the Quetta Earthquake (1935). Collaborated with Wadia Movietone on India’s first newsreel series sponsored by the Film Advisory Board, the Indian Screen Gazette (1938), including a 3-reeler on the historic Haripura Congress. Cameraman for A.K. Chettiar’s seminal documentary on Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi Vazhkai, 1940), reissued in 1948 and sometimes credited to Pathy. Set up Motion Picture Society of India with K.S. Hirlekar and D.G. Tendulkar. War effort films for Information Films of India and Naval Gandhi’s Directorate of Services Kinematography. Assisted and did camerawork for Paul Zils in several documentaries. He was one of the two film-makers who filmed the transfer of power to the Indian government at midnight, 15 August 1947; later worked with his own production unit. All his films are shorts and/or documentaries. Biography by Jag Mohan (1972).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1934: Paris by Night; Colonial Exposition: Paris; 1938: Indian Screen Gazette, 1940: He’s in the Navy Now, The Planes of Hindustan; 1941: In Self Defence, 1942: The Golden Grain of Bharatkhand; 1943: Home Front; 1946: Along the Jumna; 1954: The Golden River, 1956: The Etawah Story, Earth and Water, 1957: Shipyards to Seaways; Look to the Sky, 1958: Bases of Progress; 1960: Pen to People.

PATIL, DINKAR DATTAJIRAO (B. 1915)

Successful Marathi director-producer born in Belgaum near Kolhapur, Maharashtra. Assistant to Master Vinayak (1941–8). Started as director by completing Mandir following Vinayak’s death. Set up Surel Chitra (1952) with Lata Mangeshkar and Shinde; then founded his own Dinkar Chitra (1953). Famous for work in the gramin chitrapat genre, rural blood and gore dramas with vendetta motifs, evil moneylenders or zamindars, poor peasant heroes, demure housewives, Tamasha dancing-girls, etc. Written usually by himself or with scenarist-lyricist G.D. Madgulkar, the films mark both an economic and a cultural shift in addressing a specifically Marathi audience, and in constructing an imaginary Marathi countryside which appears to resemble the Vidarbha region in the state. Prolific writer for other film-makers (e.g. Madhav Shinde, Datta Keshav). Wrote several plays, a biography of Master Vinayak (1971) and an autobiography, Patlacha Por (1986). Script credits include, in addition to most of his own films: Jai Malhar (1947); Mayecha Pazhar (1952); Vadal (1953); Shikleli Baiko (1959); Pancharati (1960); Bhintila Kan Astaat (1962); Sudharlelya Baika (1965); Patlachi Soon (1966); Pathcha Bhau (1967); Janaki (1969); Murali Malhari Rayachi (1969); Pathrakhin (1972); Soon Ladki Hya Gharchi (1972); Kartiki (1974); Jyotibacha Navas (1975); Netaji Palkar (1978); Darodekhor (1980); Patleen (1981); Mosambi Narangi (1981); Chorachya Manaat Chandana (1984).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1948: Mandir, 1950: Ram Ram Pahuna; 1951: Sharada; Patlacha Por, 1952: May Bahini; 1953: Gharbar, 1954: Taraka; 1955: Muthbhar Chane, Kuladaivat; 1956: Dista Tasa Nasta; 1957: Dev Jaga Aahe, Navara Mhanu Naye Aapla; 1960: Bhairavi; Umaj Padel Tar, 1961: Majhi Aai; 1962: Varadakshina; Baap Mazha Brahmachari; Prem Andhala Asta; 1965: Kama Purta Mama; Malhari Martand; 1967: Suranga Mhantyat Mala; 1968: Dhanya Te Santaji Dhanaji; 1970: Kali Baiko; Kortachi Pairi; 1971: Adhikar, Mihi Manoosach Aahe, 1972: Kunku Mazha Bhagyacha!; 1979: Sunbai Oti Bharun Ja; 1980: Mantryanchi Soon; Savat; Sulavarchi Poli; 1981: Kunkvacha Tila; 1982: Bhamta; 1985: Sulakshana; 1987: Bhatak Bhawani; 1992: Sona Ani Mona; 1993: Shivarayachi Soon Tararani.

smita Patn in larang (1984)

PATIL, SMITA (1955–86)

Powerful yet subtle actress in many languages as well as on the stage. Born in Pune, the daughter of a government minister of Maharashtra. Studied literature at Bombay University. Worked briefly as a TV announcer. First role in Arun Khopkar’s student film at the FTII; then in Benegal’s children’s film, Charandas Chor. First major role in Manthan as the Harijan woman who leads the revolt of the milk co-operative, earning her an international reputation. Major performances in Bhumika (the fictionalised life story of actress Hansa Wadkar) and as the uninhibited tribal in Ketan Mehta’s Bhavni Bhavai. Acquired a unique status as an actress equally at home in the ‘realistic’ New Indian Cinema (Chakra, Sadgati) and in cinephile fantasies (Mandi, Mehta’s Gujarati fables and many B-films, e.g. Dance Dance, Badle Ki Aag). Trained largely in Pune’s experimental theatre (the source of Jabbar Patel’s early cinema, in which she also acted, e.g. Saamna). Her amazingly versatile performances developed alongside and in rivalry with those of Shabana Azmi, the only other Hindi actress of her generation with a similar range. Notable performances in Kumar Shahani’s Tarang; as the social worker Sulabha in Patel’s Umbartha/Subah and the legendary Sonbai who single-handedly defies the authoritarian subedar in Mirch Masala. Also acted in Bengali (Mrinal Sen’s Akaler Sandhaney); Malayalam (Aravindan’s Chidambaram); and Kannada (T.S. Nagabharana’s Anveshane). Her work has been celebrated at the festival of La Rochelle and by the French cinémathèque (1984). An activist on behalf of women and a member of the feminist Women’s Centre in Bombay. She died shortly after giving birth to a son. Developed a posthumous reputation as a photographer (cf. the 1992 exhibition of her photographic portraits, Through the Eyes of Smita, at the National Centre For Performing Arts, Bombay).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1974: Teevra Madhyam (Sh); Raja Shivachhatrapati; 1975: Saamna; Charandas Chor; Nishant; 1976: Manthan; Bhumika; 1977: Kondura/Anugraham, Jait Re Jait; 1978: Sarvasakshi; Gaman; 1979: The Nax alites; 1980: Bhavni Bhavai/Andher Nagari; Ashwamedher Ghora; Akaler Sandhaney; Aakrosh; Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyon Aata Hai; Chakra; Anveshane, 1981: Sadgati (TV); Tajurba; Umbartha/Subah; Dil-e-Nadaan; 1982: Badle Ki Aag; Bazaar, Bheegi Palkein; Namak Halal; Shakti; Sitam; Arth; Chatpatee, Dard Ka Risha; Naseeb Ni Balihari; 1983: Ardh Satya; Ghunghroo; Qayamat; Haadsa; Mandi; Farishta; 1984: Aaj Ki Awaaz; Anand Aur Anand; Giddh; Kanoon Meri Mutthi Mein; Kasam Paida Karne Wale Ki; Mera Dost Mera Dushman; Pet Pyar Aur Paap; Ravan; Shapath; Tarang; Hum Do Hamare Do; 1985: Aakhir Kyon; Ghulami; Jawab; Kabhi Ajnabi The, Mera Ghar Mere Bachche, Chidambaram; Mirch Masala; Debshishu; Abhinetri (TV); Tere Shaher Mein; 1986: Dehleez; Oont; Rahi; Aap Ke Saath; Amrit; Angarey; Anokha Rishta; Dilwala; Kaanch Ki Deewar, Teesra Kinara; Insaniyat Ke Dushman; Sutradhar, 1987: Awaam; Dance Dance, Nazrana; Sher Shivaji; Thikana; Aaj; 1988: Akarshan; Hum Farishte Nahin; Waris; 1989: Oonch Neech Beech; Galiyon Ka Badshah.

PAT PAINTING

’Chitra-pat’, the Hindi term for ‘cinema’, actually means ‘mural’ and refers to several traditions of folk painting practised in Bengal, Orissa, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The Pat is the surface as well as the material support of a painting, e.g. a cloth or paper scroll depicting a fable or myth, unrolled while a singer shaman pointed out the images accompanying his narration (e.g. the bhopa in the Rajasthani Pabuji-no-pad or the badvo in the Chhota Udaipur Pithoro form). This combination of performance and narrative imagery had been preceded by a variety of mural traditions. Towards the end of the 19th C, many painters moved to the cities and invented variants of the Pat styles adapted to mass-production, such as catchpenny prints to compete with lithography, photography and the printed news-sheet in the urban bazaar. The most famous manifestation of this practice was around the Kalighat temple in Calcutta. Though now contested, it was maintained for a long time that the bazaar pictures of Kalighat were the result of British influence: ‘In place of tempera, the British medium of water-colour was adopted as more suitable to flowing brush strokes. The use of blank background, as in British natural history paintings, economised time. Folio-sized sheets [w]ere convenient for a popular market. Shading, as used by the British, emphasised volume’ (W.G. Archer, 1962). It has been pointed out that visual techniques to produce volume and rhythm for voluptuous figuration had long been part of the interaction between classical and folk traditions in India. However, a narrative shift did occur as the voice and the performance of the narrator/storyteller was inscribed into a serial production process, prefiguring the practices of mechanical reproduction (photography, silent cinema).

PATTANAYAK, KABICHANDRA KALICHARAN (B. 1900)

Noted Oriya poet, composer and writer, born in the former Baramba State of Orissa. Major stage personality associated with the Utkal Natya Sangh and the Orissa wing of the Bhartiya Natya Sangh; pioneering scenarist and producer of early Oriya cinema. Proprietor of Suralekha Record Prod, for which he made several short films. Made notable contributions to Kalyan Gupta’s early films as the scenarist of Lalita (1949), the Oriya cinema’s second film, and writing the story of Rolls-28 (1951). Also wrote the lyrics for Nitai Palit’s Kedar Gouri (1954), the script of Shiba Bhattacharya’s Jayadeb (1963) and provided the music for Trilochan’s Nari (1963). Also associated with AIR, Cuttack.

PATWARDHAN, ANAND (B. 1950)

Documentarist born in Bombay. Worked on a voluntary rural education and development project in MP (1972–3) where he made a tape-slide show on tuberculosis treatment. Graduate of Brandeis University, Boston, where he made his first film Business as Usual. Worked for JP Movement in Bihar (1974) and made Super-8 film about the period. Postgraduate sociology thesis at McGill University, Montreal, on Guerilla Cinema: Underground and in Exile (1982). Made clandestine documentary during Emergency, Prisoners of Conscience, shown 3 years later. Co-d a film about Indian farm workers’ strike in Canada. Returned to Bombay (1982) and continued making courageous, cinematically challenging films about key social-political issues. Set up a mobile cinema group, Samvad (Dialogue) taking films into squares and villages in context of political action. Recent work displays great mastery of documentary form, without sloganising, allowing the complexities of social situations, people’s behaviour, film-making and political action to inform the filming as well as the presentation of issues. Currently addressing communal questions in different parts of India. The respect for the people he films extends to his heterogeneous soundtracks: Una Mitterandi Yaad Pyari has a soundtrack spoken in English, Punjabi and Hindi; Hamara Shaher uses Hindi, Marathi, Tamil and English.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1972: Business as Usual; 1975: Waves of Revolution, 1978: Prisoners of Conscience, 1981: A Time to Rise, 1985: Hamara Shaher, 1989: Una Mitterandi Yaad Pyari; 1992: Ram Ke Naam, 1993: The Other Side (Sh); Nahi Amhi Vanar Bannar (Sh); 1994: Pitru Putra aur Dharamyudh; 1995: Narmada Diary.

PATWARDHAN, NACHIKET (B. 1948)/PATWARDHAN, JAYOO (B. 1949)

Husband and wife team of directors, architects and art directors. Graduated together from M.S. University, Baroda, in architecture. Started with art direction and costumes for Ghashiram Kotwal (1976). Have worked with Saeed Mirza, Girish Karnad (e.g. art direction for Utsav, 1984, Cheluvi, 1992).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1979: 22 June 1897; 1985. Anantyatra; 1995: Limited Manuski.

PAVITHRAN, VATTAPARAMBIL KRISHNAN (B. 1950)

Malayalam director. Born in Kandanassery, Trichur Dist., Kerala. Studied at Christ College, Iranjalakuda, and at Maharaja’s College, Cochin. Was a well-known Marxist activist while a student. Tried to enter the FTII but failed, enrolled in nearby Law College, Pune, instead, spending his time at the FTII. During Emergency produced P.A. Backer’s acclaimed film Kabani Nadi Chuvannappol (1975); Indira Gandhi’s followers tried to destroy it. Made the experimental Yaro Oral with music by Aravindan. Scored T.V. Chandran’s Malayalam film Krishnankutty (1980). With Chandran, represents a continuation of Backer’s style of independent film.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1978: Yaro Oral, 1986: Uppu, 1989: Uttaram; 1990: Kallinde Katha (Doc); 1991: Bali.

PAWAR, LALITA (1916–98)

Hindi and Marathi actress born in Indore as Lalitabai Hanuman Prasad. Early career as child star at Sarpotdar’s Aryan Film. Used stage name Ambu. Married stunt film-maker G.P. Pawar who directed most of her later silents and early sound films. One of those silents, Diler Jigar, still exists. Pawar’s partner Chandrarao Kadam usually played the hero (e.g. Daivi Khajina, Jalta Jigar, Nek Dost, Pyari Katar, Himmat-e-Mard), producing through his Chandra Arts Co. She briefly turned producer (Duniya Kya Hai). Played lead roles in early 40s films opposite Nazir (Rajkumari, Captain Kishori), E. Bilimoria (Nirali Duniya), Trilok Kapoor (Nari). Developed her best-known persona of the vamp-like, scheming mother in Ramshastri; turning her slightly defective left eye into a trademark (e.g. as Madhubala’s guardian in Mr and Mrs ‘55). She apparently developed her slight squint in an accident on the set of an early stunt movie. Remembered also as a compassionate foster-mother in several Raj Kapoor films, e.g. the banana seller in Shri 420 and the landlady Mrs D’Sa in Anari.

Lalita Pawar in Mahatma Kabir (1954)

FILMOGRAPHY: 1928: Patitoddhar, Ganimi Kava; Raja Harishchandra; Arya Mahila; 1929: Dasharathi Ram; Parijatak, Prem Pash; Prince Thaksen; Prithviraj Sanyogita; Shri Balaji; Suhhadra Haran; 1930: Chatur Sundari; Shamsher Bahadur, Song of Life, Subramanyam; 1931 Diler Jigar; Shri Krishna Maya; 1932: Bhawani Talwar, Kailash; Mastikhor Mashuq; 1933: Daivi Khajina; falta figar, Nek Dost; Pyari Katar (all St); 1935: Himmat-e-Mard; Qatil Katar; 1937: Chevrolet 1936; Duniya Kya Hai; 1938: Rajkumari; 1939: Netaji Palhar; 1940: Captain Kishori; Nirali Duniya; 1941: Amrit; 1942: Bhakta Damaji; Gora Kumbhar, Kirti; Mamaji; Nari OA); 1943: Ashirwad; Bhakta Raidas; 1944: Ramshastri; 1945: Yateem; 1946: Behram Khan; Santan; Jhumke; 1947: Jai Malhar, Janata; Woh Zamana; 1948: Dhanyavaad; Grihasthi; Phool Aur Kaante, Rang Mahal; 1949: Dil Ki Basti; Sant Namdev, Manacha Pan; 1950: Bahurani; Banwra; Dahej; 1951: Jai Mahakali; Nand Kishore, Sazaa, Amar Bhoopali; 1952: Chhatrapati Shivaji; Mayecha Pazhar, Aasmaan; Bhakta Puran; Daag; Parchain; Raja Harishchandra; Sandesh; Usha Kiron; 1953: Sant Bahinabai; Aabshar, Faraib, Patita; Firdaus; Shuk Rambha; Thokar; 1954: Bahut Din Huye, Mahatma Kabir, Shiv Kanya; 1955: Khandaan; Do Dulhe, Miss Coca Cola; Mr and Mrs ‘55; Navratri; Oonchi Haveli; Patit Pawan; Shri 420; Shri Krishna Bhakti; Ratnaghar, Kalagi Tura; 1956: Gauri Puja; Heer, Jayashree, Pocketmaar, Rajrani Meera; Sajani; Zindagi Ke Meie; Paidali Padleli Phule; 1957: Aasha; Alladdin Laila; Baarish; Ek Gaon Ki Kahani; Ek Jhalak; Nau Do Gyarah; Neel Mani; Parisian; Ram Lakshman; Sant Raghu; Devagharcha Lena; 1958: Balyogi Upamanyu; Kabhi Andhera Kabhi Ujala; Karigar; Malik; Mehndi; Naag Champa; Naya Kadam; Parvarish; Raj Tilak; Taxi 555; Samrat Chandragupla; Sukhache Sobti; 1959: Anari; Baap Bete; Didi; Grihalakshmi; Guest House; Kanhaiya; Maa Ke Aansoo; Mohar; Mr John; Pehli Raat; Sati Vaishalini; Sujata; 1960: Jis Desh Mein Ganga Behti Hai; Aanchal; Bhakta Raaj; Bindiya; Chand Mere Aaja; Sarhad; Qatil; 1961: Chhaya; Gharana; Hum Dono; Jhumroo; Junglee; Main Aur Mera Bhai; Maya; Memdidi; Opera House; Sampoorna Ramayan; Sasural; 1962: Banarasi Thug; Maa Beta; Professor; Raakhi; 1963: Akela; Bahurani; Band Master; Bharosa; Bluff Master; Ek Dil Sau Afsane, Ek Raaz; Gehra Daag; Ghar Basake Dekho; Grihasthi; Hamrahi; Mummy Daddy; Sehra; 1964: Apne Huye Paraye; Kohraa; Mahasati Behula; Majboor; Phoolon Ki Sej; Sangam; Sharabi; Tere Dwar Khada Bhagwan; Sundara Manamadhye Bharli; 1965: Bedaag; Janam Janam Ke Saathi; Khandaan; 1966: Biradari; Chhota Bhai; Insaaf Love In Tokyo; Phool Aur Patthar; Suraj; Tasveer; 1967: Patthar Ke Sanam; Aurat; Bahu Begum; Boond Jo Ban Gaye Moti; Diwana; Hare Kaanch Ki Chudiyan; Laat Saheb; Manjhli Didi; Noorjehan; 1968: Aabroo; Aankhen; Duniya; Ek Kali Muskayi; Izzat; Neel Kamal; Teen Bahuraniyan; 1969: Chirag; Hum Ek Hain; Khamoshi; Meri Bhabbi; Road To Sikkim; Tumse Achha Kaun Hai; Saticha Vaan; Tambdi Mati; 1970: Anand; Darpan; Devi; Gopi; Man Ki Aankhen; Naya Raasta; Pushpanjali; Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi; Suhana Safar; Jwala; 1971: Buddha Mil Gaya; Jaane Anjane; Lakhon Mein Ek; Mela; Naya Zamana; Parwana; Preet Ki Dori; 1972: Bombay To Goa; Bees Saal Fehle; Gaon Hamara Shaher Tumhara; Yeh Gulistan Hamara; 1973: Hifazat; Jugnu; Do Phool; Ek Mutthi Aasmaan; Kahani Hum Sub Ki; 1974: Goonj; Hamrahi; Naya Din Nayi Raat; Doosri Seeta; Kunwara Baap; Aaina; 1975: Khel Khel Mein; Tapasya; 1976: Aaj Ka Yeh Ghar, Alibaba; Bandalbaaz; Do Anjaane, Khalifa; Raksha Bandhan; Sangram; Shankar Shambhu; Choricha Mamla; 1977: Chakkar Pe Chakkar, Dream Girl; Jai Vijay; Kali Raat; Mama Bhanja; Mandir Masjid; Niyaz Aur Namaaz; Prayashchit; Taxi Taxi; 1978: Dil Se Mile Dil; Ganga Sagar, Prem Bandhan; Tumhari Kasam; Vishwanath; Sasurvasheen; 1979: Naukar, Raja Harishchandra; Duniya Meri Jeb Mein; Jaan-e-Bahar, Janata Havaldar, Manzil; Kali Ghata; 1980: Badrinath Dham; Do Aur Do Paanch; Phir Wohi Raat; Sau Din Saas Ke; 1981: Naseeb; Sannata; Yaarana; 1982: Chatak Chandani; 1983: Ek Din Bahu Ka; Kaise Kaise Log; Nastik; 1984: Apna Bhi Koi Hota; Jhootha Sach; Gharcha Bhedi; Kulaswamini Ambabai; Ram Tera Desh; 1985: Ram Tere Kitne Naam; Pyari Bhabhi; 1986: Ghar Sansar, Love and God; Pyar Ke Do Pal; Ram Milaijodi; 1987: Madadgaar, Hifazat; Watan Ke Rakhwale, Uttar Dakshin; 1988: Bai Chali Sasariye; Kali Ganga; Zalzala; Sherni; Bhatakti Jawani; Pyaasi Atma; 1989: Garibon Ka Daata; 1990: Hatyare; 1993: Shiv Teri Mahima Nyari; Saibaba; 1995: Limited Manuski.

PENDHARKAR, BABURAO (1896–1967)

Pioneer Marathi actor and producer born in Kolhapur. Actor-manager of Maharashtra Film (1919); then a manager in Prabhat (1929); manager and main star at Kolhapur Cinetone (1933) and for several years associated with Master Vinayak at Huns Pics (1936) and Navyug Chitrapat; then producer with Navhans (1943). Best-known work after the mid-40s was with V. Shantaram at Rajkamal Kalamandir, including the classic role of the Chinese general in Dr Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani, and with his brother, the director Bhalji Pendharkar. Noted actor as a villain in mythologicals (e.g. in Shantaram’s Ayodhyecha Raja/Ayodhya Ka Raja, Kans in Vasant Joglekar’s Nand Kishore, and Keechaka in Pethkar’s Keechaka Vadha) and for character roles in socials by Atre (the crotchety grandfather in Shyamchi Aai; the title role of Mahatma Phule). Directed Prabhat’s only major Tamil film, Seeta Kalyanam, a landmark in Tamil cinema. Also a noted stage actor. His autobiography (1961/1983) is also an important record of Marathi film history.

FILMOGRAPHY (* also d). 1920: Sairandhri; 1921: Surekha Haran; 1922: Bhagwata Bhakta Damaji; 1926: Vande Mataram Ashram; 1930: Rani Saheba; Udaykal; 1931: Zulm (all St); 1932: Ayodhyecha Raja/Ayodhya Ka Raja; Jalti Nishani/Agnikankan; Maya Machhindra; 1933: Seeta Kalyanam*; Sinhagad; 1934: Akashwani; 1935: Vilasi Ishwar/Nigah-e-Nafrat; 1936: Chhaya; 1937’: Dharmaveer; Begunah; 1939 Devata; Sukhacha Shodh/Mera Haq; 1940: Ardhangi/Ghar Ki Rani, Lapandav; 1941: Amrit; 1942: Bhakta Damaji; Pahila Palna; 1943: Paisa Bolto Aahe/Nagad Narayan; 1945: Pehli Nazar, Vikramaditya; Parinde; 1946: Dr Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani; Jeevan Yatra; Valmiki; Jeena Seekho; Magadhraj; Rukmini Swayamvar; 1947: Jai Malhar; 1948: Adalat; Bhagyarekha; 1949: Meeth Bhakar; Shilanganache Sone, Sakharpuda; Nara Narayan; Manacha Pan; Mazha Ram; 1950: Mi Daru Sodli; Kalyan Khajina; Sant Kanhopatra; Chalitil Shejari; 1951: Jashaas Tase, Nand Kishore; 1952: Chhatrapati Shivaji; May Bahini; Devyani; Jeet Kiski; 1953: Shyamchi Aai; 1954. Mahatma Phule; 1955: Kalagi Tura; Ye Re Majhya Maglya; Punavechi Raat; 1956: Pavankhind; Pasant Aahe Mulgi; Jagavegali Goshta; Gaath Padli Thaka Thaka; Deoghar; Paidali Padleli Phule; 1957: Preetisangam; Dev Jaga Aahe, Naikinichi Sajja; Do Aankhen Barah Haath; Devagharcha Lena; 1958: Mausi; 1959: Navrang; Keechaka Vadha; Baap Bete; 1961: Stree; 1963: Baiko Maheri Jaate; Te Mazhe Ghar, Thoratanchi Kamala; Sehra; 1966: Amrapali.

PENDHARKAR, BHALCHANDRA GOPAL [BHALJI] (1898–1994)

Marathi and Hindi director, producer, scenarist and lyricist born in Kolhapur, the son of King Shahu’s court physician. Committed from early years to Hindu and Marathi regional chauvinism. Younger brother of cineaste Baburao Pendharkar and V. Shantaram’s cousin. Disciple of Veer Savarkar and founder of Kolhapur branch of Hindu Mahasabha, functioning as its regional director for a while. Worked for Lokmanya Tilak’s political journal Kesari; started film journal Cinema Samachar. Started in theatre; wrote six plays, notably Sangeet Kaydebhang, and acted in Krantikarak. As film-maker, found support among local nobility and sought to achieve an economically autonomous Marathi cinema. Acted in Manilal Joshi’s Prithvi Vallabh (1924), then made his directorial début at Sharda. Wrote all the early Shantaram films: Udaykal; Rani Saheba and Khooni Khanjar (all 1930), and Zulm (1931). Scenarist for Prabhat (1932–3), before he moved to Kolhapur Cinetone (Akashwani). Started his own studios, Arun Pics (1939) in Pune, later the Famous-Arun Studio in partnership with Shiraz Ali Hakim. Also helped start the Jayaprabha Studio in Kolhapur. His historicals, usually starring the brothers Chandrakant and Suryakant, often exploit the 17th C. Marathi empire of Shivaji, the figurehead of the Hindu chauvinist Shiv Sena party in Maharashtra. His Vande Mataram Ashram was banned by the British and triggered a major censorship case in 1927–8. Also made ruralist socials. Tamasha star Dada Kondke made his début in Tambdi Mati. Nearly always wrote his own scripts, dialogues and lyrics. Other script credits include Shantaram’s Sairandhri (1933), Nimbalkar’s Swarajya Seemevar (1937), Jaishankar Danve’s Jai Bhawani (1947), Master Vithal’s Swarajyacha Shiledar (1951: using the pseudonym Shyam Sundar), Dinkar D. Patil’s May Bahini (1952), Raja Paranjpe’s Gaath Padli Thaka Thaka (1956), Rajdutt’s Gharchi Rani (1968), Govind Kulkarni’s Sakbya Sajana (1972); and his son Prabhakar Pendharkar’s films Bal Shivaji (1981) and Shabas Sunbai (1986). Autobiography Sadha Manoos (1993).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1924: Prithvi Vallabh (only act); 1925: Bajirao Mastani; 1926: Vande Mataram Ashram; 1931: Rani Rupmati (all St); 1932: Shyam Sundar; 1934: Akashwani; Parthakumar; 1935: Kaliya Mardan/Muraliwala; 1936: Savitri; Rukmini Kalyanam; 1937: Kanhopatra; 1938: Raja Gopichand; 1939: Netaji Palkar; 1940: Gorakhnath/Alakh Niranjan; 1941: Thoratanchi Kamala; 1942: Sunbai; Bhakta Damaji; 1943: Bahirji Naik; 1944: Maharathi Karna; Swarna Bhoomi; 1946: Sasurvas; Valmiki; 1949: Meeth Bhakar; Shilanganache Sone; 1950: Mi Daru Sodli; 1952. Chhatrapati Shivaji; 1953 Majhi Zameen; 1954: Maharani Yesubai; 1955: Ye Re Majhya Maglya; 1956: Pavankhind; 1957: Naikinichi Sajja; 1959: Akashganga; 1963: Mohityanchi Manjula; 1964: Maratha Tituka Melavava; 1965: Sadhi Manse; 1969: Tambdi Mati; 1981: Ganimi Kava.

PENDYALA NAGESHWARA RAC (1924–84)

Telugu composer born in Kattur, coastal AP. Son of a music teacher. Harmonium accompanist in the theatre; joined films as a musician, playing the harmonium in Jyotish Sinha’s Talliprema (1941). First break as composer in L.V. Prasad’s Drohi. Early films mainly with K.S. Prakash Rao. Best-known work associated with the lyrics of Arudra, e.g. in K.B. Tilak’s and K.V. Reddy’s films. Regarded as the one who introduced rural folk music into the Telugu film song, influencing contemporaries like Ghantasala. Singers P. Susheela and S. Janaki both débuted with him. Scored most of NTR’s big 70s mythologicals (Chanakya Chandragupta, Shri Rama Pattabhishekham).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1948: Drohi; 1950: Modathi Rathri; 1951: Deeksha; 1953: Kanna Talli/Petrathai; 1954: Balanandam; Jyoti/Illara Jyoti; Menarikam; 1955: Donga Ramudu; 1956: Muddubidda; Melukolupu; Penki Pellam; 1957: Bhagya Rekha; MLA; Saubhagyavati; 1958: Shri Krishna Garudi; 1959: Jayabheri; 1960: Shri Venkateswara Mahatyam; Mahakavi Kalidasa; Nityakalayanam Pachathoranam; Bhatti Vikramarka; Kadedullu Ekaram Nela; Bhakta Shabari; 1961: Velugu Needalu; Krishna Prema; Jagadeka Veeruni Katha/Jagathala Prathapan; Vagdanam; Bava Maradallu; 1962: Mahamantri Timmarasu; Chitti Tamudu; Shri Krishnarjuna Yuddham; 1963: Paruvu Pratishtha; Eedu Jodu; Anuragam; 1964: Ramudu Bheemudu; Raktha Tilakam; Shabash Soori; 1965: Uyyala Jampala; Satya Harishchandra; Prameelarjuneyam; Prachanda Bhairavi; 1966: Srikakula Andhra Mahavishnu Katha; Shri Krishna Tulabharam; 1968: Bandhipotu Dongalu; Bhagya Chakram; Gramadevathulu; Pantalu Pattimpulu; Papakosam; Umachandi Gauri Shankarula Katha; 1970: Maa Nanna Nirdoshi; Pelli Sambandham; Shri Krishna Vijayam; Manasu Mangalyam; 1971: Naa Thammudu; Shri Krishna Satya; 1972: Mathru Murthi; 1974: Kode Naagu; Dhanavanthulu Gunavanthulu; Bhoomikosam; Deeksha; 1975: Vemulavuda Bhimakavi; 1976: Kolleti Kapuram; Shri Rajeshwari Vilas Coffee Club, Suprabhatam; 1977: Koilamma Koosindi; Chanakya Chandragupta; Sati Savitri; 1978: Shri Rama Pattabhishekham; 1979 Shri Tirupati Venkateswara Kalyanam; Galivana; Priya Bandhavi; Srishti Rahasyulu; 1982: Dharma Vadi; 1984: Kala Ranjani; 1985: Kondi Kshetrayya; 1987: Prema Deepalu.

PHADKE, SUDHIR VINAYAK (B. 1919)

Marathi-Hindi singer and composer born in Kolhapur, Maharashtra. Started at Prabhat (Pethkar’s Aage Badho); later associated mainly with the lyrics of G.D. Madgulkar, which he set to music in numerous films, esp. by Raja Paranjpe. Also recorded Madgulkar’s rewritten version of the Ramayana in simple Marathi verse, one of the most enduringly popular pieces of Marathi devotional music. Hindi compositions include Kishore Kumar’s hit number Pehli tareekh hai yeh paheli tareekh hai from Pehli Tareekh.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1946: Gokul; Rukmini Swayamvar; 1947: Aage Badho; 1948: Seeta Swayamvar, Jivacha Sakha; Vande Mataram; 1949: Aparadhi; Jai Bhim; Maya Bazaar, Ram Pratigya; Sant Janabai; 1950: Shri Krishna Darshan; Johar Maibaap, Pudhcha Paool; 1951: Malati Madhav, Muraliwala; Jashaas Tase; 1952: Lakhachi Goshta; May Bahini; Narveer Tanaji; Pratapgad; 1953: Bolavita Dhani; Kon Kunacha; Kuberache Dhan; Saubhagya; Vahinichya Bangdya; 1954: Pehli Tareekh; Een Meen Sadeteen; Maharani Yesubai; Oon Paoos; Ovalani; Postatil Mulgi; Reshmachya Gaathi; 1955: Ratnaghar, Ganget Ghoda Nhala; Mi Tulas Tujhya Angani; Shevgyachya Shenga; 1956: Sajani; Andhala Magto Ek Dola; Deoghar, Mazhe Ghar Majhi Manse; 1957: Devagharcha Lena; Gharcha Jhala Thoda; 1958: Gaja Gauri; 1959: Gokul Ka Chor; 1960: Jagachya Pathivar; Umaj Padel Tar; 1961: Adhi Kalas Mag Paya; Kalanka Shobha; Majhi Aai; Nirupama Ani Parirani; Prapancha; Suvasini; Bhabhi Ki Chudiyan; 1962: Bhintila Kan Astaat; Char Divas Sasuche Char Divas Suneche, Chimnyanchi Shala; Gariba Gharchi Lek, Sonyachi Paoole; 1963: Baiko Maheri Jaate, Ha Mazha Marg Ekala; Te Mazhe Ghar; 1964: Daivacha Khel; 1966: Gurukilli; 1967: Sant Gora Kumbhar; 1968: Amhi Jato Amuchya Gava; Ekati; 1969: Adhaar; 1970: Dev Manoos; Dhakti Bahin; Mumhaicha Javai; Jhala Mahar Pandharinath; 1971: Bajiravacha Beta; Jhep; Lakh at Ashi Dekhani; Mihi Manoosach Aahe; 1972: Daraar; 1973: Anolkhi; Javai Vikat Ghene Aahe; 1974: Kartiki; 1975: Jyotibacha Navas; 1976: Aram Haram Aahe; 1978: Chandra Hota Sakshila; Dost Asava Tar Asa; 1982: Aplech Daat Aplech Oth; Shapit; 1983: Thorli Jau; 1984: Chorachya Manaat Chandana; Maherchi Manse; 1986: Dhakti Soon; Pudhcha Paool; 1987: Sher Shivaji; 1988: Reshim Gaathi.

PHALKE, DHUNDIRAJ GOVIND (1870–1944)

Pioneering director aka Dadasaheb Phalke. Born in Trymbakeshwar, Nasik. Claimed to have started the film industry in India with Raja Harishchandra. Saw his cinema as a direct contribution to Swadeshi. Son of Sanskrit scholar. Studied at J.J. School of Art (1885) and at Kala Bhavana, Baroda (see art schools). Then studied architecture. Became proficient as landscape painter of academic nature studies. Worked in photographic studio and learnt to develop and print negative film. At Ratlam studied three-colour blockmaking, photolithography and ceramics (1890). Worked as portrait photographer, stage make-up man, assistant to a German illusionist and as a magician (as Professor Kelpha). Started Phalke’s Art Printing & Engraving Works at Lonavala (1908), later Laxmi Art Printing Works. Did photolitho transfers of Ravi Varma oleographs. Sailed to Germany to obtain three-colour printing equipment (1909). Saw The Life of Christ around Christmas 1910 in a Bombay cinema, an event he describes with great passion although contemporary notices suggest it must have been around Easter 1911. Strongly moved by the ‘magic’ of cinema, also dedicated himself to bringing Indian images to the screen. Raised finance from Yeshwant Nadkarni, a photographic equipment dealer, with short trick film, Birth of a Pea Plant, shooting one frame a day to show a plant growing. Went to London in February 1912 to familiarise himself with film technology and to acquire equipment. Bought a Williamson camera, Kodak negative and a perforator. Cecil Hepworth tutored him at Walton Studios. Returned to establish Phalke Films on Dadar Main Road in Bombay (1912) for which he made five films, starting with Raja Harishchandra. Went to England again in 1914 to organise trade shows and received many offers to remain in Europe. Returned to India with new equipment, closed Phalke Films and set up the Hindustan Cinema Films (1918). Resigned briefly from Hindustan to write the Marathi play Rangbhoomi (1922) in Benares. Made c.44 silent features, several shorts and one talkie, Gangavataran. The films introduced the mythological genre to Indian cinema, allowing him to merge his notion of Swadeshi with an industrial practice and a politico-cultural aesthetic. Satish Bahadur compiled the film D.G. Phalke, the First Indian Film Director for the FTII (1964); the film contains the only existing footage of How Films Are Made, footage of himself directing Raja Harishchandra, and Setu Bandhan, and is a tribute not only to the founder of the Indian film industry but also to a daring experimenter with animation techniques (including match-sticks), inventor of promotional films and of documentaries, creator of special effects and codifier of a new generic form, the mythological film. Essays on film, ‘Bharatiya Chitrapat’, were published in Navyug (1917–8).

D. G. Phalke in How Films Are Made

FILMOGRAPHY 1913: Birth of a Pea Plant (Sh); Raja Harishchandra; 1914: Pithache Panje (Sh); Scenes of the River Godavari (Sh); Mohini Bhasmasur, Satyavan Savitri; 1915: Glass Factory at Talegaon (Sh); 1916: Dhumrapan Leela (Sh); Lakshmicha Galicha (Sh); Sanlagna Ras (Sh); Swapna Vihar (Sh); Professor Kelpha’s Magic (Sh); Kartiki Purnima Utsav (Sh); 1917: Aagkadyancha Mauja (Sh); Dhandhal Bhatjiche Gangasnaan (Sh); How Films Are Made (Sh); Raja Harishchandra; Lanka Dahan; 1918: Shri Krishna Janma; 1919: Sinhastha Parvani (Sh); Kaliya Mardan; 1922: Gajandravache Bhagya (?, Sh); Patwardhan’s Royal Circus (Sh); Sant Namdev (?); 1923: The Thirty-Seventh Gaya Congress(?) (Doc); Unusual Scenes from Bodhgaya(?) (Doc); Jarasandha Vadha; Mahananda; Babruwahan; Buddhadev; Ashwathama; Guru Dronacharya; 1924: Shivajichi Agryahun Sutaka; Municipal Elections; Vinchucha Dansh; 1925: Ganesh Utsav(?) (Sh); Ellora Caves (Sh); Vichitra Shilpa (Sh); Khod Modali (Sh); Vachanbhang (Sh); Khandalyacha Ghat (Sh); Simantak Mani; Hidimb Bakasur Vadha; Kakasahebanchya Dolyat Jhanjhanit Anjan; Chaturthicha Chandra; Satyabhama; 1926: Nashikcha Panjaipol (Sh); Sant Eknath; Janaki Swayamvar, Bhakta Prahlad; Bajaji Nimbalkar; 1927: Rugmangad Mohini; Nala Damayanti; Hanuman Janma; Draupadi Vastraharan; Bhakta Sudama; Rukmini Haran; 1928: Kumari Millche Shuddhikaran (Sh); Shri Krishna Shishtai; Parashuram; Bhakta Damaji; 1929: Malavikagnimitra; Chandrahasa; Vasantsena; Bolki Tapeli; Sant Meerabai; Kacha Devayani; Malati Madhav; 1932: Setu Bandhan (all St); 1937: Gangavataran.

PHALKE FILMS COMPANY

One of the founding institutions of Indian cinema. Set up by Dadasaheb Phalke and his family at Dadar Main Road, Bombay (1912). Initial capital came from a loan against his insurance policy and the main equipment was imported from London. Staffed by Phalke’s family and friends, e.g. Trymbak B. Telang, whom he trained to use the Williamson camera. Mrs Phalke (Saraswati aka Kaki) was an essential partner who took upon herself the managerial and technical tasks, included perforating raw Kodak stock. The family kitchen was turned into a laboratory. The first production, Raja Harishchandra (1913), was a success released at the Coronation Cinematograph and Variety Hall in Bombay as part of a programme with Miss Irene Del Mar in a duet and dance number, a comical sketch by the McClements, Alexandroff the Wonderful Foot Juggler and Tip-Top Comics. In 1913 the company moved to Nasik for easier access to locations Phalke deemed essential for cinema: rivers, mountains, and several famous shrines (locations where popular superstition placed some of the Ramayana stories). After four films, it became evident that a familial-artisanal set-up could not cope with the administration for production, processing, distribution and exhibition. In 1918 the company folded and was replaced by the more professional partnership enterprise Hindustan Cinema Films.

PHOTOGRAPHY

Established as an industry in India c.1840 when Thacker & Co. advertised the sale of imported daguerreotypes in Calcutta. In the 1850s, several photography studios sold equipment and took portraits on commission (e.g. Bourne & Shepherd), providing an infrastructure later extended into film. Earliest British uses of photography include journalism (e.g. the Robertson and Beato partnership which covered the last days of the 1857 Mutiny), military expeditions, surveys and, after 1861, the Central Directorate of Archaeology’s records for the preservation of ancient monuments. Encouraged as an amateur practice by the founding of the Photographic Societies of Bombay (1854), Calcutta and Madras (1856). Although there were Indian photographers in the 1850s (e.g. Narayan Dajee, the Merwanjee and Bomanjee company in Bombay) and some Indian aristocrats sponsored the practice (esp. Maharaja Sawai Ram Singh II of Jaipur), the technology became popular among Indians only after the 1880s with the introduction of dry-plate printing. It developed into a popular bazaar art alongside lithographs and woodcut prints, becoming the main medium through which the conflict was played out between traditional Indian aesthetic practices and the Western representational conventions deploying a renaissance ‘vanishing-point’ perspective. Indian usage almost uniformly emphasised surface rather than depth, working mainly through flattened planar effects. The best-known Indian photography pioneer was Lala Deen Dayal (1844–1905), employed by Tukoji Rao II, the Maharaja of Indore and, after 1885, the court photographer of the Nizam of Hyderabad. He had studios in Secunderabad and Indore, a ‘zenana’ studio for women in Hyderabad and a major workshop in Bombay. His numerous still photographs attempt several innovations vis-a-vis the portraiture conventions of easel paintings, often suppressing perspective lines and temporal moulding while reintroducing narrative devices from earlier pictorial techniques. This was further emphasised in most bazaar photographs by tinting, painting or sticking things on to the photographic print, often adding theatrical backdrops and three-dimensional objects to give contextualised ‘grandeur’ to the sitter who commissioned the portrait photograph. Several techniques as well as modes of signification were invented in the process, such as e.g. stage backdrops which sometimes duplicated photographs on massive stage curtains to anchor the enacted fiction in a sense of reality. Like the urban Pat Painting and Company School painting genres, the illusion of photographic verisimilitude was used to suggest an ‘objective’ reproduction transcending human fallibility, offering a promise of immortality to the photographed/painted subject. One of the most famous forms of hybrid photography-painting combinations developed as the Manoratha in the temples of Nathdwara, where, as a record of their presence and devotion, photographs of devotees would be glued on to the lower part of a painting of Krishna in the place where formerly small figures of devotees would be painted. Several of these forms later influenced the framing and editing conventions adopted in the early silent cinema (see Phalke and Ravi Varma).

PILLAI, MUTHUKULAM RAGHAVAN (B. 1909)

Malayalam playwright, actor, one of Kerala’s first scenarists and well-known lyricist (Balan; 1938). Scripted e.g. Krishna Iyer’s Nallathanka (1950), K. Vembu’s Jeevitha Nauka (1951), E.R. Cooper’s Velaikkaran and Velappan’s Lokaneethi (both 1953). Wrote the dialogues for K.S. Sethumadhavan’s Daham (1965). Turned actor with Jeevitha Nauka, later playing small roles in e.g. Navalokam (1951) and Snehaseema (1954). Author of 127 plays, including Manushyan on which K. Ramnoth’s Manithan (1953) is based.

POTHAN, PRATHAP K. (B. 1952)

Malayalam and Tamil director and actor; educated in Madras. Theatre actor associated with the Madras Players, adapting Shaw, Sartre and Beckett. Brother of producer Hari Pothan (cf. Thulabharam; 1968). Started as actor in Bharathan’s Aravam and broke through in Balu Mahendra’s Azhiyada Kolangal, often playing obsessive characters. Turned to direction in 1984 while continuing his acting career (acting credits are incomplete). Was married to Tamil actress Radhika.

FILMOGRAPHY (* act only): 1978: Aravam*; 1979: Thakara*; Chamaram*; Azhiyada Kolangal*; 1980: Lorry*; Varumayin Niram Sigappu*; Nenjathai Killathey*; Moodupant*; Arohanam*; Chandrabimbam*; Manju Moodal Manju*; Ormakale Vida Tharu*; Pappu*; Pavizha Muthu*; 1981: Aparna*; Akali Rajyam*; Echil Lravugal*; Karaiyellam Shenbagappu*; Kudumbam Oru Kadambam*; Madhumalar*; Nenjil Oru Mul*; Panneer Pushpangal*; Rani*; Jai Gantalu*; 1982: Vazhve Mayam*; Novemberinte Nashtam*; Priyasakhi Radha*; Nandri Meendum Varuga*; Vasantham Varum*; 1984: Meendum Oru Kadhal Kadai; 1985: Sindhu Bhairavi*; 1987: Ruthubhedam, Pushpak/Pushpak Vimana*; 1988: Daisy Jeeva; Penmani Aval Kanmani*; 1989: Vetri Vizha; 1990: My Dear Marthandan; 1991: Chaitanya; 1992: Magudam; 1993: Atma; 1994: Sivalaperi Pandian; 1995: Lucky Man.

PRABHAT FILM COMPANY

Est: 1929 in Kolhapur as partnership by five key figures from Maharashtra Film: V. Shantaram, Vishnupant Damle, Fattelal, Keshavrao Dhaiber and Sitarampant Kulkarni. Baburao Pendharkar joined as manager. Moved to Pune in 1933 where it became Western India’s élite studio with a national reputation comparable only to Calcutta’s New Theatres. It had the largest stage floor in India and an art department under Fattelal regarded as the country’s finest. Like New Theatres, Prabhat had many stars on the payroll, well-equipped sound and editing departments and its own laboratory. Early films were mainly remakes of Maharashtra Film productions. Their first major hit was Shantarm’s Amritmanthan (1934). The studio’s success benefited from astute distribution arrangements, first with Baburao Pai’s Famous Pics and long-term contracts with exhibitors, later taking on distribution itself through its Central Film Exchange and building theatres in Bombay, Pune and Madras. This made them fairly independent from managing-agency financiers for production capital. The studio also benefited from its cultural policies in the wake of significant developments in popular theatre, music and literature. Apart from its Maharashtra Film inheritances, the studio’s repertoire was crucially shaped by two major stage phenomena: Sangeet Natak superstar Bal Gandharva, whose Gandharva Natak Mandali provided its two most famous music composers Govindrao Tembe and Master Krishnarao, and the vanguard Natyamanwantar group whose Andhalyanchi Shala (1933) led to K. Narayan Kale, composer Keshavrao Bhole and star Keshavrao Date joining the studio. Untroubled by New Theatres’ type of classical aspirations, Prabhat pioneered new popular forms such as the Bhakti biographicals or Saint films by Damle-Fattelal and socials by Shantaram. Other major Prabhat film-makers include K. Narayan Kale, Raja Nene, Keshavrao Dhaiber, Vishram Bedekar and Gajanan Jagirdar. Master Vinayak started at Prabhat as an actor, and an influential post-Independence generation of Marathi film-makers led by Anant Mane and Datta Dharmadhikari began their careers as technical assistants there. The studio closed in 1953. A.V. Damle is presently constructing a video collection of the classic Prabhat films. Shantaram Athavale wrote a history of the company, Prabhat Kaal (1965).

PRAKASH, KHEMCHAND (1907–50)

Composer associated mainly with the Ranjit Studio which he joined in 1940 and where he scored music for Kardar (Holi, Pagal), Jayant Desai’s Saigal film Tansen and some Kidar Sharma films (Gauri, Vish Kanya, Bhanward). Born in Jaipur. Son of Pandit Govardhan Prasad, court singer at the Jaipur palace. Learnt kathak for a while. Aged 19, was appointed court singer by the Maharaja of Bikaner, and later also served under the Nepal royalty. Radio artist in Calcutta; later worked with Timir Baran at New Theatres. Scored the classic soundtrack of Amrohi’s Mahal at Bombay Talkies, with his most memorable song Ayega anevala sung by Lata Mangeshkar. Introduced Kishore Kumar as playback for Dev Anand in Shaheed Latif’s Ziddi. His last film, Tamasha, was the studio’s last production.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1939: Gazi Salauddin; Meri Aankhen; 1940: Aaj Ka Hindustan; Diwali; Holt; Pagal; 1941: Holiday in Bombay; Pardesi; Pyaas; Shadi; Ummeed; 1942: Baraat; Chandni; Dukh Sukh; Fariyad; Lqraar, Khilona; Mehmaan; 1943: Chirag; Gauri; Qurbani; Tansen; Vish Kanya; 1944: Bhanwara; Bhartrahari; Mumtaz Mahal; Shahenshah Babar; 1945: Dhanna Bhagat; Prabhu Ka Ghar; 1947: Chalte Chalte, Gaon; Mera Suhaag; Mulaqat; Samaj Ko Badal Dalo; Sindoor; 1948: Asha; Ziddi; 1949. Mahal; Rimjhim; Sawan Aya Re; 1950: Bijli; Jaan Pehchan; Muqaddar, Sati Narmada; 1951: Jai Shankar, Shri Ganesh Janma; 1952: Tamasha.

PRAKASH, RAGHUPATI SURYA (1901–56)

Full name: Raghupati Surya Prakasha Rao. South Indian pioneer director and cinematographer. Worked in Tamil and Telugu. Born in Madras, son of Raghupathi Venkaiah, a wealthy Andhra businessman and photographer who started film exhibition in South India around 1910 and built the first cinema in Madras (1914). Educated by Christian missionaries in Vepery. Sent overseas to learn film-making, he went to London and joined Barkers Motion Photography in Ealing (1918), then went to Germany (where he saw Murnau at work) and to Hollywood. He travelled to various European countries, bringing a 35mm camera home to Madras (1920). The faulty camera ruined his first feature, Meenakshi Kalyanam. Set up Star of the East Studio, known as the Glass Studio, in Purasawalkam, Madras (1921), owned by his father R. Venkaiah, where he made Bhishma Pratigya. A. Narayanan, C. Pullaiah and other pioneers worked with him there. The films were distributed throughout the subcontinent with intertitles in various languages. Probably directed the Catholic propaganda film, The Catechist of Kil-Arni; produced and written by the Irish priest Thomas Gavin Duffy together with Bruce Gordon as a fund-raiser for the Paris Foreign Mission Society in Pondicherry. Operated as distributor (1924–5) and founded Guarantee Pics (1926) with backing from the merchant-landlord Moti Narayana Rao, but it also went bankrupt. Helped Narayanan to set up the famous General Pics (for which he made the hit Leila the Star of Mingrelia) and Srinivasa Cinetone Studio (1928–39). Started a laboratory (1930). Separated from Narayanan in the mid-30s and joined Sundaram Sound Studio. Worked with Govardhan Film Distributors, owning 3 cinemas in Madras. Shot, developed and edited all his early films. Known as a brilliant technician: in Draupadi Vastrapaharanam he managed to make one actor appear in 5 places within one image, apparently without resorting to optical effects. Freelance director from mid-30s. Influenced Y.V. Rao who acted in his Gajendra Moksham. Associated mostly with mythologicals, often shot at the Gingee Fort near Madras. His Tamil reformist social, Anadhai Penn, is an early instance of nationalist propaganda just before WW2. There is contradictory evidence about some of Prakash’s early Tamil sound films, which some sources ascribe to Prakash and others to his collaborator Narayanan; e.g. Draupadi Vastrapaharanam, Krishna Arjuna, Indrasabha and Rajasekharan. We have credited them to both film-makers. Also, the Telugu film Bondam Pelli (1940), made at the Madras United Artists and officially credited to H.M. Reddy, is at times credited to Prakash.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1921: Bhishma Pratigya; 1923: The Catechist of Kil-Arni; Gajendra Moksham; Bhakta Nandan; Samudra Madanam; 1926: Mohini Avatar; 1929: Dashavtar, Stage Girl; 1930: Gajendra Moksham; Lanka Dahana; Gandhariyin Pulambal; 1931: Pavalakkodi; Leila the Star of Mingrelia; Rose of Rajasthan; 1932: Vishnu Leela (all St); 1934: Draupadi Vastrapaharanam; 1935: Lanka Dahanam; Thooku Thooki; Krishna Arjuna; 1936: Krishna Naradi; Nalayini; Indrasabha; 1937: Andal Thirukalyanam; Soldier’s Wife, Rajasekharan; 1938: Anadhai Penn; Porveeran Manaivi; 1939: Sirikathe; 1940: Chandika; 1941: Tara Sasankam; 1942: Babruvahana; 1951: Mayapilla; 1956: Moondru Penngal.

PRAKASH RAO, KOVALAPATI SURYA (1914–96)

Telugu director, also worked in Tamil. Born in Kolavennu, Krishna Dist., AP. Employed briefly as an insurance agent and by a gold jewellery firm. Associated with the Praja Natya Mandali, the Telugu wing of the IPTA. Started in films as lead actor in Ramabrahmam’s Apavadu (1941) and Patni (made in 1940, released in 1942: he played Kovalan); acted in R.S. Prakash’s Babruvahana (1942); produced and acted in L.V. Prasad’s Drohi (1948) for Swatantra Pics, which he replaced by his own Prakash Prod. (1949), producing and directing Modathi Rathri and Deeksha. Expanded this company into the Prakash Studio. 50s films were melodramas which later became psychological fantasies: e.g. Prem Nagar, a story of unrequited love drowned in liquor written by Kousalya Devi, and Kode Naagu, a remake of Kanagal’s demented love story Nagar a Haavu (1972). Made Kannada films in the late 70s. His son K. Raghavendra Rao is a mainstream Telugu director of action fantasies.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1950: Modathi Rathri; 1951: Deeksha/Anni; 1953: Kanna Talli/Petrathai; 1954: Balanandam; 1955: Ante Kavali; 1956: Melukolupu/Marumalarchi; 1960: Renukadevi Mahatyam; 1961: Gullopelli; 1962: Mohini Rugmangada; 1966: Badukuva Daari; 1967: Stree Janma; 1968: Bharya; Harishchandra; Bandhipotu Dongalu; 1969: Vichitra Kutumbam; 1971: Naa Thammudu; Bhale Papa; Prem Nagar, Tehsildarugari Ammayi; 1972: Pedda Koduku; Vasantha Maligai; 1973: Jeevitham; Ida Lokam; 1974: Kode Naagu; Satyaniki Sankellu; Prem Nagar; 1975: Chikati Velugulu; 1976: Secretary, Suprabhatam; Avan Oru Charitram; 1977: Ganda Hendthi; 1979: Balina Guri; 1982: Garuda Sowkiyama; Kotha Neeru; 1983: Muddula Mogudu.

PRAKASH RAO, TATINENI (1924–92)

Telugu, Tamil and Hindi director born in Kapileshwaram village, Krishna Dist., AP. Member of the CPI before Independence and associated with the radical theatre movements in Telugu. Joined L.V. Prasad as assistant director (1947–51). Début Palletooru, starring NTR, a strident but influential ruralist melodrama in which the hero represents the grandeur of the Andhra people when he confronts the village moneylender. Later work continues the Prasad tradition of the mid-budget family drama and musical, often remade from other languages: e.g. Illarikam, produced by Prasad, adapted Ch. Narayanamurthy’s Tamil film Ethirparadathu (1954) and starred Telugu cinema’s leading star duo of the 50s, A. Nageshwara Rao and Anjali Devi, as stepson and stepmother. The film was remade again, by L.V. Prasad, in Hindi as Sharada (1957). Prakash Rao took over Prasad Art Pics, running it with Pratyagatma. Made several Hindi films, e.g. the Rajendra Kumar and B. Saroja Devi hit Sasural, which included the calendar art Garden of Eden hit song Teri pyari pyari soorat ko sung by Mohammed Rafi. Directed Sivaji Ganesan (Uthama Puthran) and MGR (Padakotti). Also made children’s films (Ganga Bhawani, Engalalum Mudiyum).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1952 Palletooru; 1953: Pichhipullaiah; 1954: Nirupedalu. Parivarthana; 1956: Jayam Manade; Mathar Kula Manikam/Charanadasi; Amara Deepam; 1958: Amar Deep; Uthama Puthran/Sitamgarh; 1959: Kanniraindha Kanavan; Nulla Theerpu; Illarikam; 1960: College Girl; Maa Babu; Ellorum Innattu Mannar; 1961: Anbu Magan; Sasural; 1962: Kathirunda Kankal; 1963: Bahurani; Hamrahi; 1964: Padakotti; 1965: Bahu Beti; 1966: Suraj; 1968: Duniya; Izzat; Vaasna; 1969: Nannha Farishta; 1970: Ghar Ghar Ki Kahani; 1972: Rivaaj; 1973: Minor Babu; 1974: Gali Patalu; 1975: Samsaram; 1976: Pogarubottu; 1977: Chiranjeevi Rambabu; 1978: Ganga Bhawani; Hamara Sansar; 1981: Asha Jyoti; 1983: Engalalum Mudiyum; 1988: Kab Tak Chup Rahungi.

Sivaji Ganesan (Centre) in L. V. Prasad’s Manohara (1954)

PRASAD, L. V. (1908–94)

Full name Akkineni Lakshmi Vara Prasada Rao. Telugu, Tamil and Hindi producer and director born in Elluru, TN. Actor and studio hand in Bombay-based studios (1930), including a small role in Imperial’s Alam Ara (1931). Assisted and acted for H.M. Reddy in the first Telugu sound film, Bhakta Prahlada (1931) and in the Tamil Kalidas (1931). Starred in several other Reddy films. Occasionally acted in Prithvi Theatres plays. Directorial début for the Sarathi Studio with a Tripuraneni Gopichand script, Grihapravesham, stressing comic routines instead of the story’s reformism. Palnati Yuddham completed Ramabrahamam’s dream project: a big-budget historical with allusions to India’s Independence struggle. Made his mark at the Vijaya Studio with Shavukaru and Samsaram, remaining the studio’s top director for five years with successful domestic melodramas and ensemble comedies consistently featuring the urban middle class, a new departure for Telugu cinema. Elaborated this genre into a distinctive set of mid-budget soap-operas produced and distributed by Prasad Art Pics (1956), which assigned a group of younger directors to these multilinguals, often remaking hits from other languages. In the Prasad school of film-makers are his former assistants T. Prakash Rao and K. Pratyagatma who, together, briefly ran Prasad Art Pics in the early 60s; Yoganand, K.B. Tilak, Adurthi Subba Rao, Ranganath Das and Rajanikant. Shifted to Tamil in the late 50s and 60s, directing films scripted, surprisingly, by the DMK politician Karunanidhi (Manohara, Thayilla Pillai and Iruvar Ullam). Hindi début in 1957 with the melodrama Sbarada, a remake of the Tamil Ethirparadathu (1954) and the Telugu Ilavelpu (1956), in which Raj Kapoor finds that he has become the stepson of his beloved, Meena Kumari. The comedy Miss Mary is the Hindi version of two previous hits: Missiamma (Tamil) and Missamma (Telugu). His third Hindi film, Chhoti Bahen; remade the Tamil film En Thangai (1952). Launched the Prasad Studio (1965) and the Prasad Film laboratory (1976), currently considered India’s finest lab. After Beti Bete, signed only his Hindi films. Scripted Udhaar Ka Sindoor (1976). Persuaded by Kamalahasan to return to acting, aged 73, for Raja Parvai. Biography by K.N.T. Sastry (1993).

FILMOGRAPHY (* also act/** only act): 1931: Alam Ara**; Kalidas**; Bhakta Prahlada**; 1933: Seeta Swayamvar**; 1940: Barrister Parvatisham**; Bondam Pelli**; Chaduvukonna Bharya**; 1941: Tenali Ramakrishna**; 1942: Gharana Donga**; 1946: Grihapravesham*; 1947: Palnati Yuddham*; 1948. Drohi*; 1949: Mana Desam; 1950: Shavukaru; Samsaram; 1952: Petti Chesi Choodu/Kalyanam Panni Paar; Rani; 1953: Poongothai/Paradesi; Pempudu Koduku*; 1954: Manohara/Manohar; 1955: Missamma/Missiamma; Mangayar Thilakam; 1957: Bhagyavati; Miss Mary, Sharada; 1958: Appu Chesi Pappu Kood/Kadan Vangi Kalyanam; 1959: Chhoti Bahen; 1961: Thayilla Pillai; 1963: Iruvar Ullam; 1964: Beti Bete; 1966: Dadi Maa; 1969: Jeene Ki Raah; 1972: Shadi Ke Baad; 1974: Bidaai; 1977: Jai Vijay 1981: Raja Parvai**.

PRATYAGATMA, KOTAYYA (B. 1925)

Aka K.P. Atma. Telugu and Hindi director born in Gudivada, AP. Political activist in the Congress-affiliated Andhra Youth Federation (1946–8) and later editor and publisher of Madras-based film journal Jwala (Est: 1951). Early work in films as scenarist in L.V. Prasad’s Prasad Art Prod, e.g. for T. Prakash Rao with whom he later took over the company. Best known as manufacturer of L.V. Prasad-derived family melodramas, often remade in Hindi. Started independent production company Atma Arts (1966) signing as K.P. Atma. Wrote his own films as well as Nirupedalu (1954), Maa Inti Mahalakshmi (1959) and Tandrulu Kodukulu (1961).

FILMOGRAPHY (* as K.P. Atma): 1961: Bharya Bartulu; 1962: Kulagothralu; 1963: Punarjanma; 1964: Manchi Manishi; 1965: Manasulu Mamathalu; 1966: Chilaka-Gorinka; Chhota Bhai*; 1967: Maa Vadina; 1968: Raja Aur Runk*; 1969: Tamanna*; Adarsha Kutumbam; 1970: Bachpan*; Manasu Mangalyam; 1971: Shrimanthudu; Ek Nari Ek Brabmchari*; 1973: Mehmaan*; Palletoori Bhava; Stree; 1974: Deeksha; Mugguru Ammayilu; 1976: Do Ladkiyan*; Alludochadu; Attavarillu; 1977: Gadusu Ammayi; 1978: Kannavarillu; Manchi Manasu; 1979: Kamalamma Kamatam; 1980: Nayakudu Vinayakudu.

PRIYADARSHAN

Malayalam director trained at Appachan’s Navodaya Studio in Kerala. Started as scenarist (e.g. M. Mani’s Kuyiline Thedi, 1983). Early films were domestic comedies. After the musical hit Rakkuyilin Rajassadasil, shifted into a series of musicals, as well as psychological dramas, associated mainly with megastar Mohanlal; the pair started working together with Priyadarshan’s second film Puchakkoru Mookuthi, but hit their most successful formula with a string of late 80s hits Thalavattam, Chithram and Kilukkam. Made a high-profile entry into Hindi films with the Jackie Shroff movie Gardish. His Malayalam hit Thenmavin Kombath was remade with Rajnikant as Muthu (1995).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1984: Oodarathuammava Alariyum; Puchakkoru Mookuthi; 1985: Parayanumvayya Parayathirikkanumvayya; Boeing Boeing; Aram+Aram = Kinnaram; Onnanam Kunnil Oradi Kunnil; Punnaram Cholli Cholli; 1986: Ayalvasi Oru Dharithavasi; Dheem Tharikita Thom; Hello My Dear-Wrong Number, Mazha Peyyunnu Maddalam Kottunnu; Ninnishtam Ennishtam; Rakkuyilin Rajassadasil; Thalavattam; 1987: Cheppu; Abhimanyu; 1988: Aryan; Chithram; Kilukkam; Mukunthetta Sumitra Vilikkunnu; Vellankalude Naatil; Oru Muthassi Katha; Vellankalude Naatil; 1989: Vandanam; 1990: Akkareakkareakkare; 1991: Nirnayam; Gopura Vasalile, Advaitham; 1992: Muskurahat; 1993: Gardish; Midbunam; Manichithratharazu; 1994: Gandeevam; Minnaram, Thenmavin Kombath; 1995: Kalapani.

PROGRESSIVE ARTISTS GROUP

Movement in the visual arts launched in Bombay in 1947 by the painter Francis Newton Souza (b. 1924). Visual art precedents include the pro-CPI Calcutta Group (Prodosh Dasgupta, Nirode Majumdar, Gopal Ghosh, Gobardhan Ash and Rathin Maitra) formed in 1943, and the Progressive Painters Association initiated in Madras by K.C.S. Panicker in 1944, although the title referred to the PWA. Souza, briefly a CPI member, had been expelled by the British Principal of the J.J. School of Art for his nationalist demonstrations. The first PAG show (1947), featuring S.H. Raza, M.F. Husain, K.H. Ara, H.A. Gade and Bakre, published an exhibition manifesto attempting to define a socially responsive aesthetics for the visual arts. However, the very next year the group distanced itself from these aims, with Souza claiming to have ‘changed all the chauvinist ideas and the Leftist fanaticism which we had incorporated in our manifesto at the inception of the group. [T]he gulf between the so-called people and the artists cannot be bridged’ (cf. Kapur, 1978). The PAG broke up shortly thereafter, most of the artists migrating to Paris or London except Husain. A second phase of the Bombay Progressives included Akbar Padamsee, Krishen Khanna and Tyeb Mehta as affiliates. Subsequently, a series of Progressive groups were started in Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. More than in its political thrust, the Bombay group’s major impact lay in Souza’s oft-repeated claim that the PAG introduced modernism into Indian art. Although this claim is partially belied by subsequent art-historical revaluations of Tagore, Binode Behari Mukherjee and Amrita Sher-Gil as formidable antecedents, the PAG’s work certainly adheres to the Western modernist canon in presenting an ideology of high art as opposed to the popular. Their consciously stated disaffiliation after Independence from nationalism informed the first significant expressionist current in India (although expressionism had been used sporadically in e.g. Ram Kinker Baij’s work). The group made an existential as well as a more painterly alliance with expressionism, foregrounding figural motifs through pigment and brushwork as well as through the use of a compact figure-ground composition.

PROGRESSIVE WRITERS ASSOCIATION

Movement of Indian writers launched in London (1935) in the wake of the meeting in Paris of the International Association of Writers for the Defence of Culture against Fascism led by Gorky, Gide, Malraux et al. It became a broadly based cultural movement after the first All-India Congress in Lucknow (1936) with Munshi Premchand as President. As the first major cultural initiative involving the independent Left and the CPI, the PWA made a formidable impact, introducing a politically aware realism into the predominantly feudal and reformist traditions of Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Telugu and Malayalam literatures. However, it was overshadowed by its theatrical successor, the IPTA. The PWA’s influence on film was both formal, signifying a populist vanguardism for the commercial industry (e.g. Bhavnani’s Mazdoor; 1934, scripted by Premchand) and economic, giving virtually all the progressive Hindi-Urdu writers employment as scenarists in Bombay: Krishan Chander, Rajinder Singh Bedi, Sadat Hasan Manto, Ismat Chughtai, Amritlal Nagar and Josh Malihabadi, poets-songwriters Kaifi Azmi, Sahir Ludhianvi et al.

PULLAIAH, CHITTAJALLU (1895–1967)

Telugu director born in Kakinada, AP. Started in 1921 as camera apprentice at R. Venkaiah’s Star of the East (Madras), and at Kohinoor (Bombay). Playwright for the important Kakinada Young Men’s Happy Club, for whom he wrote the play Veedhi Gayakalu, starring the then-unknown S.V. Ranga Rao and Anjali Devi. Toured Kakinada exhibiting films and later ran the permanent Minerva theatre. East India Film in Calcutta, then attempting to enter the South Indian market, invited him (1933) to make Telugu films. Directed the hit Savithri and four more films for the Calcutta studio. Made double bill Ansuya and Dhruva starring his son C. Srinivasa Rao for its rival studio, Aurora. Best-known work at Gemini, including the highly successful Balanagamma, virtually redefining the Telugu ‘folklore’ film genre and the adventure saga Apoorva Sahodarulu adapting Dumas’s The Corsican Brothers. The latter was remade into successful Tamil and Hindi versions in the same year. Known as Star-Brahma (God of the Stars) for having introduced several of Telugu’s best-known actors to film, such as Bhanumati (Varavikrayam); Anjali Devi (Gollabhama) and Pushpavalli (Chal Mohanaranga). His last Lavakusa was an elaborate NTR-Anjali Devi remake of the 1934 film made at East India, co-d with his son C. Srinivasa Rao.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1933: Savithri; 1934: Lavakusa; 1935: Shri Krishna Tulabharam; 1936: Ansuya; Dhruva; 1937: Dasavataramulu; 1938: Satyanarayana Vratam; Kasulaperu; Chal Mohanaranga; Mohini Bhasmasura; 1939: Varavikrayam; 1940: Malathi Madhavam; 1942: Balanagamma; 1946: Narada Naradi; 1947: Gollabhama; 1948: Vindhyarani; 1950: Apoorva Sahodarulu; 1952: Sankranti; 1953: Pakkinti Ammayi; 1960: Devanthakudu/Naan Kanda Sorgam; 1963: Lavakusa; 1966: Paramanandayya Sishyula Katha; 1967: Bhama Vijayam; Bhuvana Sundari Katha.

PULLAIAH, P. (1911–85)

Telugu and Tamil director born in Nellore, AP. Actor and singer on stage. Graduate from Madras University. Had several successful song and recitation records released by Gramophone Company and worked for them as a talent scout. Assistant to Baburao Painter at Shalini Cinetone (1934), leading to a long-standing engagement with Marathi cinema: cf. Dharmapatni; shot in Kolhapur and based on a V.S. Khandekar story; or Jayabheri, adapted from V. Shantaram’s Tamasha classic Lokshahir Ramjoshi (1947). Turned producer investing in Star Combines (launched with the Kannamba film Harishchandra). Set up the successful mid-budget Tamil company Ragini Films (Est: 1948) in partnership with Bhimavarapu Narasimha Rao (first film: Bhakta Jana). Started Padmasree Films. Made the very successful NTR mythological Shri Venkateswara Mahatyam; sometimes seen as launching NTR’s political career. Many of his films starred Shantakumari, whom he married.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1935: Harishchandra; 1937: Sarangadhara; 1939: Shri Venkateswara Mahatyam; 1940: Dharmapatni; 1941: Premabandhan; Subhadra; 1943: Bhagya Lakshmi; 1945: Maya Machhindra; 1948: Bhakta Jana; 1950: Macharekhai; Veetukkari; Thirugubatu; 1952: Dharmadevata; 1953: Manampola Mangalyam; 1954: Rechukka; 1955: Ardhangi/Pennin Perumai; Kanyasulkam; 1956: Umasundari; 1957: Vanangamudi/Tala Vanchani Veerudu; 1958: Illarame Nallaram; 1959: Kalaivanan; Jayabheri; Bandaramudu/Adisaya Thirudan; 1960: Shri Venkateswara Mahatyam; 1962: Siri Sampadalu; 1964: Murali Krishna; 1965: Preminchi Choodu; Asai Mukham; 1966: Thaye Unakkaga; 1967: Pranamithrulu; 1970: Alludu Menalludu; 1972: Koduku Kodalu; 1975: Andaru Bagundali.

PUNATAR, RATILAL HEMCHAND (B. 1913)

Gujarati-Hindi director aka Ratibhai Punatar. Born in Jamnagar, Gujarat. Production manager at Ranjit. Directorial début when, following the spectacular success of Ranakdevi (1946), Ranjit started subsidiary Ajit Pics to exploit the interest in Gujarati films. First major film, Gunsundari, remade Chandulal Shah’s pathbreaking silent film and remains, with Mehndi Rang Lagyo (1960) and Jesal Toral (1971), one of the Gujarati cinema’s biggest hits, the first one to tap a substantial urban audience for a Gujarati cinema until then restricted to semi-urban B film circuits. Third film Mangalfera was also very successful, and continued the Gunsundari and Nanand Bhojai theme of a crumbling joint-family system faced with the values of a mercantile economy. Also made films based on Prabhulal Dwivedi’s folk theatre (Gadano Bel) and on e.g. D.N. Madhok’s popular novels.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1948: Gunsundari; Nanand Bhojai; 1949 Mangalfera; 1950: Man Ka Meet; Nili; Gadano Bel; 1953: Bahadur; 1961: Chundadi Chokha.

PUNJAB FILM CORPORATION

Est: 1926 as fully equipped studio in Lahore under the technical supervision of R.L. Shorey, marking the beginning of a Punjabi film industry. Ironically, the pioneers of the Lahore-based industry (Shorey, Pancholi) started with a reputation for making educational films even though they were adapting Universal’s ‘epics’ and RKO’s Westerns imported by Pancholi’s Empire distributors. The educational films were mainly sponsored documentaries by e.g. the Rural Community Board, the Peninsular Railway Board and the Punjab Directorate of Industries. In the silent era, these were the only agencies sponsoring film production in a region where finance was concentrated in the exhibition sector. The Punjab Film Corp. was intended as a co-operative organisation supported by the government providing facilities for the nearly 40 registered production companies in Punjab. Its objective was to further the ‘educational’ film in the region. With the coming of sound and the establishment of independent studios like Kardar’s Playart Phototone, Shorey’s Kamla Movietone effectively took over Punjab Film; the ‘educational’ notions faded away but the facilities remained crucial to the growing industry until Partition (1946) shifted the Punjabi industry to Bombay.

Satish Kumar (left) and Om Puri in Dharavi (1991)

PURI, OM (B. 1950)

Character actor, born in Ambala, Punjab, who shot to stardom in Govind Nihalani’s Aakrosh followed by his best-known screen role, the police officer in Ardh Satya. A former student of the National School of Drama (1970–3) in Delhi and the FTII (1974–6), Pune. Taught at Roshan Taneja’s Actors’ Studio, Bombay (1976–8). Formed the Majma Theatre group which staged its opening play, Udhwastha Dbarmashala, at Shashi Kapoor’s Prithvi Theatre. This was followed by Bichhoo (The Scorpion). Feature début in B.V. Karanth’s Chor Chor Chhupja followed by Benegal’s Bhumika. His gaunt, pockmarked face and deep-set eyes tended to be used as a demotic archetype even before his Nihalani films and Benegal’s Aarohan; e.g. in Saeed Mirza’s rhetorical student documentary, An Actor Prepares. This image, one of the icons of the New Indian Cinema, was also mobilised in Attenborough’s Gandhi where he played an angry slum-dweller. His main departures from this persona, Ketan Mehta’s Bhavni Bhavai and Mirch Masala; recall his earlier stage work mixing Ibsenite naturalism (An Enemy of the People, Udhwastha Dharmashala) with folk musicals (Bichhoo, Jasma Odan), both styles rendered with equal elan. Was a member of the Yukt Film Co-operative, playing the difficult title role in the experimental film Ghashiram Kotwal. Played a major role in the Punjabi hit Chann Pardesi. Late 80s/90s films in Hindi (main villain in N. Chandra’s Narasimha) and Telugu (Ram Gopal Varaia’s Ratri, and Uma Maheshwara Rao’s Darshana and Ankuram).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1975: Kalla Kalla Bachitko/Chor Chor Chhupja; 1976: Amrita (Sh); Corpses (Sh); An Elusive Dream (Sh); Khukhari (Sh); Lokayat (Sh); Navjatak (Sh); An Actor Prepares (Doc); Duniya Chalti Hai (Sh); Ghashiram Kotwal; Bhumika; 1977: Tabbaliyu Neenade Magane/Godhuli; 1978: Arvind Desai Ki Ajeeb Dastaan; 1979: Sparsh; Shayad; 1980: Albert Pinto Ko Gussa Kyon Aata Hai; Aakrosh; Bhavni Bhavai/Andher Nagari; Kalyug; Chann Pardesi; Shodh; Samadhan; 1981: Sadgati (TV); Raaste Pyar Ke, Pyar Mein Sauda Nahin; 1982: Aarohan; Gandhi; Chokh; Disco Dancer, Waqt Waqt Ki Baat; Vijeta; Shrant; Naseeb Ni Balihari; 1983: Ardh Satya, Jaane Bhi Do Yaaron, Mandi; The Jewel in the Crown (TV); Holi; Long Da Lishkara; 1984: Ashray; Giddh; Mati Mange Khoon; Party; Ram Ki Ganga; Ravan; Tarang; Yeh Desh; Sanjhi; Paar; Duniya; Sheesbe Ka Ghar; 1985: Aaghat; Nasoor, Patthar, Mirch Masala; Bahu Ki Awaaz; Debshishu; Zamana; New Delhi Times; Khandaan (TV); 1986: Halaat; Susman; Yatra (TV); Genesis; Raag Darbari (TV); 1987: Tamas (TV); Marte Dam Tak; 1988: Hum Farishte Nahin; Puravrutham; Ek Hi Maqsad; Sam and Me; 1988–89: Bharat Ek Khoj CTV); 1989: Ilaaka; Kakkaji Kahin (TV); Mr Yogi (TV); Darshana; Sava Ser Gehnu; 1990. Disha, Ghayal; Halaat; Iraada; Sankranti; 1991: Narasimha, Dharavi; Current; Ratri/Raat; Meena Bazaar; 1992: City of Joy, Antarnaad; Angar, Ankuram; Karamyoddha; Purush; Maya Memsaab; 1993: In Custody, Patang; Woh Chokri; 1994: Drohkaal; 1995: Zakhmi Sipahi; Aatank Hi Aatank; Kartavya; Beporoya.

Puttanna, S. R. see Kanagal, S. R. Puttana

PWA see Progressive Writers Association

QADIR, KOZHIKODE ABDUL

Major Malayalam singer and popular music figure before Yesudas. Worked in Nilambur Balan’s theatre group where his political songs earned him the title ‘prophet of the peace movement’. Came from North Kerala’s Malabar region and his songs, strongly reminiscent of K.L. Saigal, were among the first examples of popular music from that region assimilating non-Carnatic influences, a practice later influencing composer Baburaj’s work. Sang first for Navalokam (1951) and for 7 more films, including the hits of Kariat’s and Bhaskaran’s first film, Neelakuyil (1954).

RAFI, MOHAMMED (1924–80)

One of the three most popular Hindi playback singers ever, with Kishore Kumar and Mukesh. Born in Kotta Sultansingh village, Punjab (now Pakistan). Moved to Lahore aged 14, where he was a student of the musicians Khan Abdul Waheed Khan, Jeevanlal Matto and Ghulam Ali Khan. The composer Feroz Nizami introduced him to Radio Lahore. Film début for the music director Shyam Sundar in the Punjabi film Gul Baloch (1944). Moved to Bombay in 1944, where he was given his break by Naushad (Pehle Aap, 1944). Found musical stardom with Mehboob’s Anmol Ghadi (1946). Sang the classic duet with the legendary K.L. Saigal, Meri sapnon ki rani in Shahjehan (1946). First big hits were in duets with Nurjehan in Jugnu (1947: he appeared briefly in the film as a student singing in the college dormitory), Saajan (1947) and Mela (1948). Remained popular until he died. His earlier work was associated with S.D. Burman’s and Shankar-Jaikishen’s music but esp. with that of Naushad (Deedar; 1951; Aan; 1952; Baiju Bawra; 1952; Udan Khatola; 1955; Mughal-e-Azam, 1960), doing his best playback singing for Dilip Kumar and in Guru Dutt’s Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959). In the early 60s made a remarkable transition to Shammi Kapoor’s ‘Yahoo’ films (Junglee, 1961; Kashmir Ki Kali; 1964) and became the unchallenged monarch of Indian film music until the late 60s when he was partially displaced by Kishore Kumar’s Rajesh Khanna wave.

RAGHAVA, BELLARI (1880–1946)

Major Telugu and Kannada stage and screen actor with a big impact on the early Telugu cinema. Key figure in the Amateur Dramatic Association which demarcated itself from the Sastry-style Company Natak through its anglophile modernism. Visited London (1928), befriended G.B. Shaw and theatre director Forbes-Robertson, returning with new ideas for rehearsing and ‘blocking’ stage movement, calling for a socially relevant theatre to help ‘nation building’ and arguing for the professionalisation of theatres and training schools. Stressed naturalistic prose rather than music and often individuated characters by heightening the sense of moral dilemma, e.g. his traitor Pathan Rustom in Kolachalam Srinivasa Rao’s play, Sultana Chand Bibi and his Chanakya in Chandragupta as adapted from Dwijendralal Roy’s Bengali play. Entered films with Draupadi Manasamrakshanam, a megabudget adaptation of his own play, upstaged by H.V. Babu’s more modest inaugural production (1936). Best film role as Narsi Reddy in Ramabrahmam’s seminal Raitu Bidda, confirming his reputation for realism. Uneasy with the film medium, he returned to the stage and did the social Teerada Samasya. Essays on theatre published in 1976, and biography by Doddanegowda (1972).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1936: Draupadi Manasamrakshanam; 1939: Raitu Bidda; 1940: Chandika; 1955: Kanyasulkam.

RAGHAVACHARYA, SAMUDRALA (1902–68)

Telugu director and scenarist born in Repalle taluk, AP in a family of Sanskrit scholars. A popular versifier in the Avadhanam tradition in his teens. Participated in Gandhi’s Salt Satyagraha. Employed as a writer by Ramabrahmam’s theatre group, Bharatamuni Brundam, and stayed with the group for several years, jointly publishing the influential journal Prajamitra (1934) with them. Started as scenarist with H.V. Babu’s Kanakatara (1937). Employed by H.M. Reddy to script Grihalakshmi (1938). Scripted and wrote lyrics for several of Vauhini’s best-known films, e.g. Vande Mataram (1939), Sumangali (1940), Devatha (1941), Bhakta Potana (1942), Yogi Vemana (1947). Also wrote P. Pullaiah’s Bhagya Lakshmi (1943), Nagaiah’s Saint film classic, Thyagayya (1946), Ramabrahmam’s Panthulamma (1943) and several films for Vedantam Raghavaiah (e.g. Strisahasam, 1951; Shanti, 1952; Anarkali, 1955; Sarangadhara, 1957; Suvarna Sundari; 1957; Swarnamanjari, 1962). Also worked with directors like B.S. Ranga, C.S. Rao and B.R. Panthulu. Became a partner in Vinoda Studios (1950). His son, Samudrala Ramanujacharyulu, also became a noted screenwriter, often referred to as Samudrala Junior. Also directed some mythologicals.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1957: Vinayaka Chaviti; 1960: Bhakta Raghunath; 1964: Babruvahana.

Raghavaiah, Kosaraju see Kosaraju Raghavaiah Choudhury.

RAGHAVAIAH, VEDANTAM (1919–71)

Telugu director born in Krishna Dist., AP. Trained in classical Kuchipudi dance. Started as choreographer for Ramabrahmam’s Raitu Bidda (1939) and for several 40s and 50s Telugu films (Vande Mataram, 1939; Swargaseema, 1945; Raksharekha, 1949; Vipranarayana, 1954), acting in some of them. Third film as director was Devadasu, starring A. Nageshwara Rao, in an adaptation of Saratchandra Chattopadhyay’s often-filmed novel, Devdas. The hit inaugurated the well-known Vinoda Pics Studio started by distributor G.K. Manga Rao. Subsequent films include Telugu versions of hits in other languages, e.g. Jaswandal’s Anarkali (1953), Bhale Ramudu (adapted from Kismet, 1943, and using Ghantasala’s music). These films opened up new directions for Telugu cinema displacing its dominant mythological genre. Made the Anjali Devi hit Suvama Sundari, but its big-budget sequel Swarnamanjari failed.

FILMOGRAPHY (* act only): 1943: Garuda Garvabhangam*; 1945: Swargaseema*; 1949: Raksharekha*; 1951: Strisahasam; 1952: Shanti; 1953 Devadasu; 1954: Vipranarayana*; Annadata; 1955: Anarkali; 1956: Bhale Ramudu/Prema Pasam; Chiranjeevulu; 1957: Suvama Sundari/Manalane Mangayin Bhagyam; Bhale Ammayilu/Iru Sahodarigal; 1958: Raja Nandini; Intiguttu; 1959: Balanagamma; Jai Bhawani; 1960: Adutha Veetu Penn; Runanubandham; Mamaku Tagga Alludu; 1962: Swarnamanjari/Mangayir Ullam Mangada Selvam; 1965: Nanna Kartavya; Sati Sakkubai; Aadabrathuku; 1967: Rahasyam; Sati Sumati; 1968: Kumkumabharina; 1969: Saptaswarulu; Ulagam Ivvalavuthan; 1970: Bhale Ethu Chivaraku Chittu.

RAGHAVENDRA RAO, K.

Successful mainstream Telugu director, son of K.S. Prakash Rao. Makes action fantasies and romances; broke through in the 80s. Announced his intentions with the NTR and Sridevi cop movie Vetagadu. Known mainly for his megahit Himmatwala, marking Sridevi’s transition into the Hindi cinema opposite Jeetendra. He repeated both stars in several heavily melodramatic romance movies (Tohfa; Dharam Adhikari with Dilip Kumar), usually adapting into Hindi the plots of established Telugu hits. The father-and-son double role in justice Choudhury was played by NTR in the Telugu and Jeetendra in Hindi version. Made the extremely succesful Chiranjeevi and Sridevi film Jagadeka Veerudu Atiloka Sundari (which was a hit even in dubbed Hindi version), and NTR’s comeback movie as the florid Telugu nationalist Major Chandrakant.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1975: Babu; 1976: Jyoti; Raja; 1977: Amara Deepam; Ame Katha; Adavi Ramudu; Kalpana; Premalekhalu; 1978: Radha Krishna; Simha Baludu; KD No 1; 1979: Driver Ramudu; Nindu Noorellu; Vetagadu; 1980: Gajadonga; Gharana Donga; Bhale Krishnudu; Nippulanti Nijam; Prema Kanuka; Ragile Jwala; Rowdy Ramudu Konte Krishnudu; Nishana; 1981: Tiruguleni Manishi; Urinki Monagadu; Satyabhama; Satyam Shivam; Kondaveeti Simham; 1982: Thirisoolam; Justice Choudhury, Devatha; Farz Aur Kanoon; Madhura Swapnam; 1983: Himmatwala; Jaani Dost; Shakti; Adavi Simhalu; Yuddha Bhoomi; 1984: Kaamyaab; Naya Kadam; Tohfa; Bobbili Brahmana; Iddaru Dongalu; 1985: Hoshiyar; Masterji; Mera Saathi; Adavi Donga; Agni Parvatham; Pattabhishekham; Vajrayudham; 1986: Dharam Adhikan; Suhagan; Chanakya Sapatham; Kondaveeti Raja; Ravana Brahma; Apoorva Sahodarulu; 1987: Manchi Donga; Agni Putrudu; Bharatamlo Arjundu; Sahasa Samrat; 1988: Dil Lagake Dekho; Aakhari Poratam; Janaki Ramudu; Donga Ramudu; 1989: Rudra Neta; Vontari Poratham; Agni; 1990: Jagadeka Veerudu Atiloka Sundari; Alludugaru; 1991: Rowdy Alludu; Coolie No 1; 1992: Allari Mogudu; Sundara Kanda; Ashwamedham; Gharana Mogudu; 1993: Allari Priyudu; Major Chandrakant; 1994. Mugguru Monagallu; Allari Premikudu; Muddula Priyudu; 1995: Gharana Bullodu; Pelli Sandhadi; Raja Simham.

RAGHUNATH, T. R. (1912–90)

Tamil director born in Trivandrum, Kerala. Assisted Raja Chandrasekhar on Gnanasoundari (1935); sound recordist with Narayanan at Srinivasa Cinetone (e.g. Tara Sasankam, 1936). Directorial début: the 3-reeler Kizhattu Mappillai, followed by Ramalinga Swamigal, made in Calcutta. MGR appeared, mainly in minor roles, in his 40s films: Vedavathi, Thasippen. Later made Raja Desingu with MGR, adapting Raja Chandrasekhar’s 1936 version. Best-known work in the 60s with all-star adventure films packed with sword fights, songs and dances, e.g. Kanavane Kan Kanda Daivam. Later technical adviser at Karpagam Studios, Madras. Appointed President of the Films Division, Madras, by his former protégé, MGR.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1936: Kizhattu Mappillai; 1939: Ramalinga Swamigal; 1941: Vedavathi; 1942: Thamizhariyum Perumal; Thasippen; 1944: Mahamaya; Prabhavati; 1945: Ardhanari; Paranjoti; 1946: Udayanan Vasavadattha; 1951: Singari; Vanasundari; 1952: Mappillai; 1954: Vilayattu Bommai; 1955: Kanavane Kan Kanda Daivam; Maheshwari; Rajkumari; 1956: Marmaveeran; 1957: Rani Lalithangi; Yar Paiyan; Allavudeenum Arputha Vilakkum/Allauddin Adbhuta Deepam/Alladdin Ka Chirag; 1958: Kanniyin Sabatham; Mangalya Bhagyam; Piya Milan; 1959: Vannakkili; 1960: Anbukkor Anni; Raja Desingu; 1961: Marudu Nattu Veeran; Naga Nandini; 1962: Kavitha; Vikramadithan; 1971: Lora Nee Evide; 1972: Mappillai Azhaippu; 1973: Angathattu.

RAGHURAMAIAH, KALYANAM (1915–68)

Telugu singing star, born in Guntur, AR Original name: Venkatasubbaiah. Developed a characteristic singing style combining it with whistling (later even whistling classical Carnatic tunes, which gave him his popular name of ‘Eelapata’ Raghuramaiah). Joined Telugu theatre aged 8, playing Raghurama in the mythological play Bhakta Ramadas. In 1928 he acted the female role of Shakuntala in front of Rabindranath Tagore, who called him Andhra Nataka Kokila. With his second film, Kuchela, became known for acting Krishna, later adding the role of Narada to his repertoire.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1933: Prithvi Putra; 1935: Kuchela; 1936: Lanka Dahanam; 1937: Rukmini Kalyanam; 1939: Pasupatastrama; 1941: Apavadu; Talliprema; 1947: Gollabhama; Brahma Rathnam; Radhika; 1948: Madalasa; 1950: Maya Rambha; 1951: Agni Pareeksha; Chandravanka; Mayapilla; 1952: Aadabrathuku; 1953: Prapancham; 1954: Sati Sakkubai; 1955: Shri Krishna Tulabharam; 1956: Bhakta Markandeya; Chintamani; Nagula Chaviti; 1958: Shri Ramanjaneya Yuddham; Shri Krishna Maya; 1959: Bhakta Ambarish; 1960: Devanthakudu; 1961: Usha Parinayam; Nagarjuna; Rushyashrunga/Rishyashringar, Krishna Kuchela; 1963: Valmiki; Shri Somavara Vratha Mahatmyam; Vishnu Maya; 1966: Mohini Bhasmasura.

Himansu Rai (right) in Prem Sanyas (1925)

RAI, HIMANSU (1892–1940)

Film producer and actor; founder and chief of Bombay Talkies. Born into a wealthy Bengali family with a private theatre. Law degree from the University of Calcutta and studied with Rabindranath Tagore. Trained as a lawyer in London in the early 20s where he also acted in the theatre and worked as a consultant for films with an Oriental theme. Acted in the London run of Niranjan Pal’s play The Goddess. With Pal’s script adapted from Edwin Arnold’s poem The Light of Asia, went into partnership with the major German producer Peter Ostermayer whose brother (Franz Osten) directed the film (Prem Sanyas) co-financed by the Delhi-based Great Eastern Film Corp. owned by Sir Moti Sagar and Prem Sagar. Rai played the lead: the Buddha. To overcome distribution problems in Britain, he screened the film for the Anglo-German Royal family at Windsor Castle. The film was fairly successful in Central Europe and launched Rai on a series of international co-productions on Orientalist themes. His next film, Shiraz, was pre-sold to UFA and to British Instructional Films. Prapancha Pash was co-financed by UFA and Harry Bruce Woolfe in London and introduced Devika Rani, married to Rai in 1929. Osten directed all the Pal scripts as Orientalist exotica, claiming Prem Sanyas to be the ‘first authentically Indian film’. British support for the films made it seem that Rai and Pal were working within the terms of the objectives of Empire Films as established at the 1926 Imperial Conference. Since the films were pre-sold, Rai made no money from their success. His next production, Karma (1933), was in English, directed by J.L. Freer Hunt and wholly produced by Rai. Although critically acclaimed, it flopped. The introduction of sound and the Nazi’s seizure of power in Germany persuaded Rai to abandon international co-productions and to concentrate on the domestic market. With Devika Rani, he set up Bombay Talkies (1934) relying on his European collaborators and on the support of wealthy financiers such as Sir Cowasji Jehangir and Sir Chunilal Mehta. After 3 years, Rai was able to pay dividends to his backers. His main artistic achievement is the story and production of Achhut Kanya (1936), starring Devika Rani as an Untouchable. The outbreak of WW2 meant that the German technicians and director were interned by the British, crippling the studio. Rai died in 1940. After his death, Devika Rani took over the studio.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1925: Prem Sanyas; 1928: Shiraz; 1929: Prapancha Pash; 1933: Karma/Nagan Ki Ragini.

RAJALAKSHMI, T. P. (?–1964)

Actress, producer and first Tamil woman director. Born in Salaimangalam near Thanjavur; married and separated when aged 7. Learnt dance and music, and made her stage début under the tutelage of the famous Sankaradas Swamigal, considered the father of the modern Tamil theatre. Acted in silents directed by Raja Sandow, and then in the first Tamil feature, H.M. Reddy’s Kalidas, where she also sang a nationalist song in praise of Gandhi. Major star with R. Prakash’s Anadhai Penn. Became a novelist (Kamalavalli and Vimala), then a director adapting her first novel as Miss Kamala.

FILMOGRAPHY (* also d): 1930: Rajeshwari; Sati Usha Sundari (all St.); 1931: Kalidas; 1935: Gul-e-Bakavali; Lalithangi; Poornachandra; 1936: Bhakta Kuchela; Bhama Parinayam; Miss Kamala*; Simantini; 1937: Kausalya Parinayam; 1938: Madurai Veeran*; Nandakumar; Anadhai Penn; 1939: Bhakta Kumaran; Saguna Sarasa; Tamil Thayi; 1943: Uthami; 1945: Paranjoti; 1947: Jeevajyoti; 1950: Idhaya Geetham.

RAJAMMA, M. V. (B. 1923)

Kannada, Tamil and Telugu actress born in Agandanahalli, TN. Associated mostly with B.R. Panthulu’s films, with whom she started her stage career at Chandrakala Natak Mandali. First film: the lead role in Simha’s Samara Nauka. Established her own production company, Vijaya Films, for Radha Ramana (1943), later merged into Panthulu’s Padmini Pics. Her acting remains the most distinctive element of Panthulu’s influential brand of melodrama, both in its reformist-realist aspect (School Master) and in its historical-spectacular avatar (Kittur Chanamma, Shri Krishnadevaraya). Acted in K. Subramanyam’s films Ananthasayanam, Bhaka Prahlada and Gokula Dasi amd in the seminal DMK Film Velaikkari. She was a star in 3 languages and made over 100 films.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1936: Samsara Nauka; 1938: Krishna Jarasandha; Yayati; 1940: Uthama Puthran; 1941: Gumastavin Penn; Madanakamarajan; 1942: Ananthasayanam; Bhakta Prahlada (K); 1943: Radha Ramana; 1945: Mayalokam; Ardhanari; 1946: Vijayalakshmi; 1947: Yogi Vemana; 1948: En Kanavar, Gnanasoundari; Gokula Dasi; 1949: Kanakangi; Laila Majnu; Velaikkari; 1950: Parijatham; Raja Vikrama; 1952: Puiyal; Penn Manam; Thayi Ullam; 1954: Iddaru Pellalu; 1955: Modalatedi; Shivasharane Nambiyakka; 1956: Kudumba Vilakku; Kannin Manigal; 1957: Manalane Mangayin Bhagyam; Ratnagiri Rahasya/Tangamalai Rahasyam; 1958: School Master/Badi Pantalu; 1959: Abba! A Hudgi; 1960: Makkala Rajya/Pillalu Techina Challani Rajyam/Kuzhandaigal Kanda Kudiyarasu; 1961: Pavamanippu; Thayilla Pillai; Kittur Chanamma; 1962: Galigopura/Gali Medalu; Thayi Karulu/Thayin Karunai; 1963: Sati Shakthi; 1964: Chinnada Gombe/Muradhan Muthu; Karnan/Karna/Daanveer Karna; 1965: Aadabrathuku; 1966: Dudde Doddappa; Emme Thammanna; 1968: Amma; 1970: Thedi Vantha Mappillai; Shri Krishnadevaraya; 1971: Thayi Devaru; Malathi Madhava; 1972: Ondu Hennina Kathe; 1973: Bangarada Panjara; 1974: Sampathige Saval; 1975: Dari Tappida Maga; 1976: Besuge, Vijayavani; 1989: Kamabhimani.

Rajanikant see Rajnikant

RAJAN-NAGENDRA (RAJAN, B. 1933; NAGENDRA, B. 1935)

Composer duo mainly in Kannada cinema; dominated popular music since the early 50s (with G.K. Venkatesh). They are brothers, both born in Mysore, taught by their father, Rajappa, a classical musician who also worked in live orchestras for silent films. Rajan was trained as a violinist, Nagendra, who also sang, on jaltarang. Learned classical Carnatic music under Bidaram Krishnappa. They went to Madras and worked under Tamil film composer H.R. Padmanabha Sastry. Returned to Mysore to record with singer P. Kalingrao for AIR. Nagendra first sang in Shri Srinivasa Kalyana (1952) by B. Vittalacharya, who then gave them their first break as composers in Chanchala Kumari. The bulk of their music used traditional instruments and evoked diluted versions of Carnatic music. They claim their more recent work introduced sophisticated recording devices and instruments in Kannada, including stereophony in Singaporenalli Raja Kulla, recorded in Singapore. Important predecessors of a former assistant, Ilaiyaraja.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1953: Saubhagya Lakshmi; Chanchala Kumari; 1954: Kanyadana; Rajalakshmi; 1956: Muttaide Bhagya; 1958: Mane Thumbida Hennu; Mangalya Yoga; 1959: Manegebanda Mahalakshmi; 1961: Nagarjuna; 1962: Ratnamanjari; 1964: Mangala Muhurta; Veera Sankalpa; Navajeevana; Annapurna; 1965: Patala Mohini; 1966: Endu Ninnavane; Mantralaya Mahatme; Shri Kannika Parameshwari Kathe; 1967: Anuradha; Sati Sukanya; Devara Gedda Manava; Bangarada Hoovu; 1968: Addadari; Pravasi Mandira; 1969 Mayor Muthanna; 1970: Kanneeru; Aparajithe; Mooru Muttugalu; Boregowda Bangaloruge Banda; 1971: Ondekula Ondedaiva; Bethaala Gudda; Anugraha; Nyayave Devaru; Vishakanya; Darde Budedi; 1972: Nari Munidare Mari; Kulla Agent 000; Bhale Huchcha; Dharmapatni; Pagetha Puge; 1973: Premapasha; Beesida Bale; Swayamvara; Cowboy Kulla; Gandhadagudi; 1974: Eradu Kanasu; Maha Thyaga; Professor Huchuraya; Shri Srinivasa Kalyana; Devara Gudi; 1975: Kalla Kulla; Mantra Shakti; Beluvalada Madilalli; Pooja; 1976: Mugiyada Kathe, Bayalu Dari; Vijayavani; Na Ninna Mareyalare, Mangalya Bhagya; Devara Duddu; Phoenix; 1977: Bayasade Banda Bhagya; Bhagyavantharu; Pavanaganga; Girikanye; Thayiginte Devarilla; Kittu Puttu; Panthulamma; 1978: Hombisilu; Anuragha Bandhana; Parasangada Gendethimma; Kiladi Jodi; Madhura Sangama; Singaporenalli Raja Kulla; Sommokadidhi Sokokadidhi; 1979*. Na Ninna Bidalare; Putani Agents 1–2-3; Preeti Madu Tamashe Nodu; Na Niruvude Ninagangi; Chandanada Gombe; Dangeyedda Makkalu; Nanobba Kalla; Maralu Sarapani; Intinti Ramayanam; Veetuku Veedu Vasappadi; 1980: Point Parimala; Rama Parashurama; Kulla Kulli; Auto Raja; Rama Lakshmana; Biligiriya Bandalalli; Mankuthimma; Allari Bhava; Naga Malli; Tathaiah Prema Leelalu; 1981: Galimathu; Kudi Balidare Swargasukha; Yava Hoovu Yara Mudigo; Premanu Bandha; Muniyana Madari; Chadurida Chitragalu; Jivakke Jiva; Prema Pallavi; Avala Hejje; Addala Meda; Pranaya Geetham; 1982. Archana; Parijata; Tony Nanna Devaru; Chelisuva Modagalu; Bettale Seve; Nagalu Stambalata; Maa Intiyina Katha; Manchu Pallaki; Vayyari Bhamulu Vagalamari Bharthulu; 1983: Onde Guri; Jaggu; Benkiya Bale, Prema Parva; Ibbani Karagitu; Gayatri Madhuve, Kotikokkadu; Lanke Bindelu; Moodu Mullu; Puli Bebbuli; Raju Rani Jackie; 1984: Mareyade Mahalu; Premasakshi; Kalinga Sarpa; Mooru Janma; Yarivanu?; Rampurada Ravana; Premigala Saval; Onde Raktha; Preeti Vatsalya; Marali Goodige, Olavu Moodidaga; 1985: Anuragabandham; Bidugadeya Bedi; Bettada Hoovu; Kadina Raja; Giri Bale, Sedina Hakki; Shabdagalu; Jeevana Chakra; 1986: Usha; Prema Gange, Mrigalaya; Guri; Mathondu Charithre; 1987: Karunamayi; Inspector Krantikumar, Apath Bandhava; Raga Leela; 1988: Sambhavame Yuge Yuge, Nammoora Raja; Jana Nayaka; Suprabhata; Dharmatma (K); 1989: Hridaya Geethe, Gagana; Doctor Krishna; 1990: Cbappala Channigaraya; Kempu Soorya; Shiva Shankar, Mathe Hadithu Kogile, Bare Nanna Muddina Rani; Ganeshana Madhuve; 1991: Gandanige Thakka Hendthi; Modada Mareyalli; Gauri Ganesha; Nagunagutha Nali; Jagadeka Veera.

RAJARATHNAM, BEZAWADA (B. 1921)

Actress and singer in Telugu film. Born in Tenali, AP. Studied music under Tenali Saraswathi and Jonavittula Sheshgiri Rao. Started recording through Lanka Kameshwara Rao and became a known recording star, esp. for the number Sabha gopala, set to lyrics by actor-singer Kopparapu Subba Rao. Also known for her music in plays like Rukmini Kalyanam (in the role of Rukmini), Pundarika (as the courtesan), Radha Krishna (as Radha), the title role of Meera, etc. Film star after Malli Pelli; with hit singles like Eepoo podarinta (from Vishwamohini); Rade cheli (from Devatha). Playback singer in the late 40s in e.g. Bhakta Potana (1942) and Mohini (1948). After a major performance in Balaramaiah’s Mugguru Maratilu, then returned to film singing after a gap of 22 years with Jagadeka Veeruni Katha (1961).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1934: Seeta Kalyanam; 1939: Malli Petti; 1940: Vishwamohini; 1941: Devatha; Dakshayagnam; 1942: Jeevanmukti; 1946: Mugguru Maratilu; 1947: Yogi Vemana; Shanbagavalli.

Raja Sandow see Sandow, P. K. Raja

RAJDUTT (B. 1932)

Aka Rajdutt Mayalu. Marathi director and actor born in Dhamangaon, Vardha District. Studied commerce, then worked as theatre reviewer and sub-editor of the Nagpur daily Tarun Bharat. Assistant of Raja Paranjpe for 12 years, acting in some of his films; later remade Paranjpe’s Pudhcha Paool. Continued the tradition of Marathi prose melodrama, flavoured, after 1970, with notions of social relevance as promoted by the New Indian Cinema (e.g. Shapit, based on a novel by Marathi writer Arun Sadhu. The film was originally started by the noted experimental theatre director Arvind Deshpande, and completed by Rajdutt when he died). Regarded, with Raja Thakur, as part of the ‘decent’ middle-class 60s orthodoxy preceding the trend exemplified by Dada Kondke and the Mahesh Kothare-Lakshmikant Berde comedies (e.g. Thartharaat, 1989). Divorced from the literary and theatrical moorings of the Paranjpe and Madgulkar films, his work tends to present the exhaustion of established Marathi genres like the Saint film (Devaki Nandan Gopala) or his revisiting of the traditional genre of the urban-rural divide in the comedy Mumbaicha Fauzdar.

FILMOGRAPHY (* act only). 1960: Jagachya Pathivar*; 1961: Suvasint*; 1966: Gurukilli*: 1967’: Madhuchandra; 1968: Gharchi Rani; 1969: Aparadh; Adhaar*; 1970: Dev Manoos; Dhakti Bahin; 1971: Jhep; 1973: Bholi Bhabdi; Varhadi Ani Vajantri; 1975: Ya Sukhano Ya; 1977: Devaki Nandan Gopala; 1978: Chandra Hota Sakshila; 1979: Ashta Vinayak; 1980: Bhalu; 1981: Are Sansar Sansar; 1982: Aplech Daat Aplech Oth; Shapit; 1983: Raghumaina; Sasu Varchad Javai; 1984: Hech Mazha Maher, Mumbaicha Fauzdar; 1985: Ardhangi; 1986: Aaj Jhale Mukt Mi; Mazhe Ghar Mazha Sansar, Pudhcha Paool; Maphicha Sakshidar; 1987: Anandi Anand; Sarja; 1990: Phaansi Ka Phanda.

RAJE, ARUNA (B. 1946)

Hindi director born in Pune. Graduated as editor from the FTII (1969). Early features co-d. with Vikas Desai, jointly signed Arunavikas. First solo feature, Rihaee; was a commercial hit. Also makes ads, promotional films and TV serials (most recently, the documentary series Shadi Ya … for the cable channel Zee-TV).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1976: Shaque; 1980: Gehrayee; 1982: Sitam; 1988: Rihaee; 1992: Patit Pawan; 1993: Shadi Ya … (TV).

RAJENDAR, THESINGU (B. 1955)

Successful Tamil director and star who claims to be the writer, composer, director, cameraman, lead star, publicist and distributor of all his films. Born in Mayavaram, Tanjore Dist. in a family of musicians; entered films as scenarist and lyricist of E.M. Ibrahim’s Oru Thalai Ragam (1980). Director-critic K. Hariharan writes about his 6th successive hit, En Thangai Kalyani: ‘Everything he does is against all reasonable and accepted methods of presentation. From the casting of himself as the hero, to the indiscriminate use of trolleys and cranes, from his bizarre, opulent sets to the cacophonic background scores, his cinema defies logic … yet, almost the entire population of Tamil Nadu must have seen his films.’ Hariharan suggests their strong counter-cultural thrust is due mainly to the overturning of the DMK Film’s conventions: women cause the problems in his films, his use of rhyming dialogue and puns contrasts with the DMK film’s emphasis on rhetoric, and he eliminates all location shooting while using psychedelic lighting patterns. En Thangai Kalyani, notably, took the alliterative dialogue popularised by the DMK to its extreme limit, extended even into English dialogue. He publicly rebuffed megastar and chief minister MGR in a dispute over the distribution rights of Uravai Katha Kili, using the rival DMK platform. Introduced several young actors such as Amala and Anand Babu. His son Silambarasan acts in all his films. Became a DMK supporter in 1984, but then started his own Party for the Resurgence of the Motherland, contesting and losing the state assembly elections to the star and future chief minister, Jayalalitha (1991). Later rejoined the DMK as its Propaganda Secretary. Runs his own journal T. Rajendarin Usha.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1980: Vasantha Azhaippukkal; 1981: Rail Payanangalil; 1982: Ragam Thedum Pallavi; Nenjil Oru Ragam; 1983: Uyir Ulla Varai Usha; Thangaikor Geetham; 1984: Uravai Katha Kili; Prema Prema Prema; 1986: Maithili Ennai Kathali; 1987: Oru Thayin Sabhatham; 1988: En Thangai Kalyani; 1989: Samsara Sangeetham; 1991: Shanti Enathu Shanti; 1992: Enga Veetu Velan; 1993: Shabash Babu (act only); 1994: Oru Vasantha Geetham; 1995: Thayi Thangai Pasam.

RAJENDRAN, LENIN (B. 1952)

Malayalam director born in Trivandrum, Kerala. Started as P.A. Backer’s assistant. Worked in several genres including love stories and the elaborately mounted period film Swathi Thirunal. Best-known work tries to rewrite Kerala’s political history informed by CPI(M) positions, e.g. on the 19th C. feudal history of Travancore and the agrarian reform struggles in the 40s (see Meenamasathile Sooryan). Contested 1989 and 1991 General Elections as CPI(M)-sponsored independent candidate. Also made documentaries, e.g. Uppukattu, Nervazhi and Badratha. Employed in the Kerala State Film Development Corp.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1981. Venal; 1982. Chillu; 1983: Prem Nazirine Kanmanilla; 1985: Meenamasathile Sooryan; 1987: Swathi Thirunal; 1988: Puravrutham; 1989: Vachanam; 1992: Daivathinte Vikrithikal.

Rajendra Singh, S. V. see Singh, S. V. Rajendra Rajeswara Rao, Saluri see Rao, Saluri Rajeswara

RAJKAMAL KALAMANDIR

Studio started by V. Shantaram in the former Wadia Movietone buildings in Bombay (1942). Début feature was Shakuntala (1943), and the fourth film here was Dr Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani (1946). With Mehboob and Raj Kapoor, he was one of the few to sustain a studio infrastructure into the post-WW2 and post-Independence era. Rajkamal’s productions were directed by Shantaram and former colleagues like Vinayak (who made Jeevan Yatra, 1946, here), Keshavrao Date, his brother cameraman V. Avadhoot and his son Kiran Shantaram. Overall they adhered to Prabhat’s generic formulas but departures include the virtual launch of the successful Marathi Tamasha genre with Lokshahir Ramjoshi (1947). The shift into the industrialised All-India Film, after Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baaje (1955) and especially with colour (Navrang, 1959), went with the decline of the popular into a lumpenised mass culture. Rajkamal is now mainly rented for TV serials and audio facilities.

RAJKUMAR (B. 1929)

Kannada superstar born in Gajanur, Karnataka; made over 200 films (25% of the industry) since the mid-50s. Child actor for Veeranna playing Arjuna in the stage spectacular Kurukshetra (originally staged 1924). Broke through in R. Nagendra Rao and Subbaiah Naidu’s theatre company, playing Narada in Bhukailasa (repeating the role in K. Shankar’s 1958 film version) and Ramakant in Ambarish. Film début in H.L.N. Simha’s Gubbi-Karnataka production based on G.V. Iyer’s play, Bedara Kannappa; which established him as a mythological hero overcoming the severest tests of conscience to prove his devotion to his ideals. Formed a loose collective with G.V. Iyer, T.V. Singh Thakore, Balkrishna, Narasimhraju, etc., the Kannada Film Artists’ Association, which produced one film, Ranadheera Kanteerava. Although the group did not survive, it became the nucleus for a Kannada film industry. His image, mainly moulded by Iyer, was politicised into a quest for Karnataka’s cultural glory. The bulk of his historicals (Ranadheera Kanteerava, Immadi Pulakesi) and mythologicals were geared to a populist, regional-chauvinist version of Karnataka’s history in terms of a return to the Southern Kingdoms from the 7th C. Pallava period and to the 14th C. Vijayanagara Empire, focusing on Dravidian feudalism’s resistance to the North Indian agrarian systems. In his films, Rajkumar often absence himself as he weaves through the bewilderingly complex narrative and kinship structures towards the final assertion of truth, unfailingly built around soliloquies expressing moral dilemmas redolent with political wish-fulfilment. Expanded the idiom from the early mythologicals into the contemporary with Bangarada Manushya. His persona takes upon itself all the burdens which in Tamil DMK Films would be distributed across several figures. His effectiveness is illustrated by the way he modulates his performances from the historical to the mythological (Shri Kannika Parameshwari Kathe), from contemporary melodrama (Karulina Kare) to James Bond thrillers (Goadalli CID 999 and his Dorairaj-Bhagavan films). Retired after making 200 films to become a producer promoting his sons, Shivraj Kumar (introduced as hero in Singeetham Srinivasa Rao’s Ananda, 1986) and Raghavendra Rajkumar. Shyama Sundar Kulkarni published a monograph, Dr Rajkumar (1988), and P. Lankesh edited a special issue of Lankesh Patrike, ‘Innuru Chitragala Raj’Quly 1988), devoted to the star.

Jayanti and Rajkumar in Chakra Teertha (1967)

FILMOGRAPHY: 1954: Bedara Kannappa; 1955: Sodari; 1956: Bhakta Vijaya; Hari Bhakta; Ohileshwara; Tenali Raman; 1957: Rayara Sose, Sati Nalayini; 1958: Anna Thangi; Bhukailasa; Shri Krishna Garudi; 1959: Abbal A Hudgi; Dharma Vijaya; Jagajyothi Basaveshwara; Mahishasura Mardini; 1960: Ranadheera Kanteerava; Ashasundari; Bhakta Kanakadasa; Dashavtara; Rani Honamma; 1961: Bhakta Cheta; Kaivara Mahatme, Kantheredu Nodu; Kittur Chanamma, Nagarjuna; Shrishaila Mahatme; 1962: Bhoodana; Devasundari; Galigopura; Karuneye Kutumbada Kannu; Mahatma Kabir, Swarna Gauri; Tejaswini; Vidhi Vilasa; 1963: Nanda Deepa; Saaku Magalu; Kanya Ratna; Gauri; Jeevana Taranga; Malli Madhuve, Kulavadhu; Kalitharu Henne, Veera Kesari; Valmiki; Mana Mechhida Madadi; Chandrakumara; Sant Tukaram; Shri Ramanjaneya Yuddha; Sati Shakthi; 1964: Navakoti Narayana; Chandavalliya Tota; Shivarathri Mahatme, Annapurna; Tumbidakoda; Shivagange Mahatme, Muriyada Mane, Pratigne, Nandi; 1965: Naga Pooja; Chandrahasa; Sarvagna Murthy, Vatsalya; Satya Harishchandra; Mahasati Ansuya; Ide Mahasudina; Bettada Huli; Sati Savitri; Madhuve Madi Nodu; Pativrata; 1966: Mantralaya Mahatme; Kathari Veera; Balanagamma; Thoogu Deepa; Prema Mayi; Kiladi Ranga; Madhu Malathi; Emme Thammanna; Mohini Bhasmasura (K); Shri Kannika Parameshwari Kathe, Sandhya Raga; 1967: Parvathi Kalyana; Sati Sukanya; Gange Gauri; Rajashekhara; Lagna Patrike, Rajadurgada Rahasya; Devara Gedda Manava; Beedhi Basavanna; Manasiddare Marga; Bangarada Hoovu; Chakra Teertha; Immadi Pulakesi; 1968: Jedara Bale; Gandhinagara; Mahasati Arundhati; Manasakshi; Sarvamangala; Bhagya Devathe, Bangalore Mail; Hannele Chiguridaga; Bhagyada Bagilu; Natasarva Bhowma; Rowdy Ranganna; Dhumketu; Amma; Simha Swapna; Goadalli CID 999, Manninamaga; 1969: Margadarshi; Gandondu Hennaru; Mallammana Pavada; Punarjanma; Bhale Raja; Uyyale; Churi Chikanna; Mayor Muthanna; Operation Jackpot; Chikamma; 1970: Shri Krishnadevaraya; Karulina Kare, Nadina Bhagya; Hasiru Thorana; Bhoopathiranga; Mr Rajkumar, Bhale Jodi; CID Rajanna; Nanna Thamma; Balu Belagithu; Devara Makkalu; Paropakari; 1971: Kasturi Nivasa; Bala Bandhana; Kulagaurava; Namma Samsara; Kasidre Kailasa; Thayi Devaru; Pratidhwani; Sakshatkara; Nyayave Devaru; Shri Krishna Rukmini Satyabhama; Sipayi Ramu; 1972: Janma Rahasya; Bangarada Manushya; Hridayasangama; Krantiveera; Bhale Huchcha; Nanda Gokula; Jaga Mechida Maga; 1973: Devaru Kotta Thangi; Bidugade; Swayamvara; Doorada Betta; Gandhadagudi; Muruvare Vajragalu; Bangarada Panjara; 1974: Eradu Kanasu; Sampathige Saval; Bhakta Kumbhara; Shri Srinivasa Kalyana; 1975: Dari Tappida Maga; Mayura; Trimurthi; 1976: Premada Kanike, Bahadur Gandu; Raja Nanna Raja; Na Ninna Mareyalare, Badavara Bandhu; 1977: Babruvahana; Bhagyavantharu; Sanadhi Appanna; Olavu Gelavu; Girikanye; 1978: Shankar Guru; Operation Diamond Rocket; Thayige Takka Maga; 1979: Huliya Halina Mevu; Nanobba Kalla; 1980: Ravichandra; Vasantha Geethe; 1981: Havina Hedde, Nee Nanna Gellalare, Bhagyavantha; Keralida Simha; 1982: Hosa Belaku; Halu Jenu; Chelisuva Modagalu; 1983: Kavirathna Kalidas; Kamana Billu; Bhakta Prahlada; Eradu Nakshatragalu; 1984: Samayada Gombe, Shravana Banthu; Yarivanu?; Apoorva Sangama; 1985: Ade Kannu; Jwalamukhi; Dhruva Tare, Bhagyada Lakshmi Baramma; 1986: Anuragha Aralitu; Guri; 1987: Ondu Muthina Kathe; Shruti Seridaga; 1988: Shiva Mechida Kannappa; Devatha Manushya; 1989: Parashurama; 1992: Jeevana Chaitra; 1993: Akasmika; 1994: Odahuttidavaru; Gandada Gudi II.

RAJNIKANT (B. 1950)

80s-90s Tamil megastar; also worked in Hindi, Telugu and Kannada films. Born as Shivajirao Gaekwad in Bangalore, the son of a police constable; employed as a bus-conductor in the city before he joined the Madras Film Institute. Début in a brief role in Puttanna Kanagal’s Katha Sangama; in the Munithayi episode; broke through in K. Balachander’s Apoon;« Ragangal. A fanatic film viewer since childhood, his unique acting style is characterised by a trade-mark gesture: flipping a cigarette in the air before he catches it with his mouth. Claims to ‘explode like a tiger on screen’. In his early films he often played controversial heroic figures, violating the prohibitions of morality set in place by the MGR persona. Often played negative roles (Apoorva Ragangal, Pathinaru Vayathinile; Priya where he plays the producer of soft-porn films). First Hindi success: Andha Kanoon, trying to out-swagger Bachchan: they acted together again in Giraftaar and m Hum; and Rajnikant featured in Tamil remakes of Don and Trishul (both 1978). With make-up covering his dark skin, making it look slightly purple, heavy-lidded eyes affecting a ‘macho’ gaze and a manic, infantile energy, his acting can appear embarassing but is much appreciated by teenagers. However no movie star in Tamil Nadu with the exception of MGR has approached the degree of fanatic popularity Rajnikant enjoyed in the late 80s and 90s. A trade paper described him as prey to ‘faulty diction, unconventional looks and flashy overacting’. The style, evoking a childish delight in film acting, is aptly mobilised in Mani Rathnam’s Dalapathi. Acted in one Hollywood production, Dwight D. Little’s Bloodstone (produced by Ashok Amritraj).

FILMOGRAPHY: 1975: Katha Sangama, Apoorva Ragangal; 1976: Moondru Mudichu; Katha; 1977: Aadu Puli Atham; Aaru Pushpangal; Avargal; Bhuvana Oru Kelvi Kuri; Gayatri; Kavikuyil; Raghupati Raghava Rajaram; Pathinaru Vayathinile; Chilakamma Cheppindi; Ame Katha; Sahodarara Saval; Kumkuma Rakshe, Galate Samsara; Tholireyi Gadichindi; 1978: Ayiram Janmangal; Aval Appadithan; Bhairavi; En Kelvikku Enna Bathil; Iraivan Kodutha Varam; Elamai Vunjaladugiradhu; Justice Gopinath; Mangudi Minor, Mullum Malarum, Pavathin Sambalam; Chadarangam; Shankar Saleem Simon; Thayi Meethu Sathyam; Thappida Tala/Thappu Thalangal; Vanakathukuria Kathaliye, Priya; Anna Dammula Saval; Kiladi Kittu; Matu Tappada Maga; 1979: Kuppathu Raja; Ninaithale Inikkum; Thayillamal Nannilai; Dharma Yuddham; Arulirundhu Arupadhu Varai; Amma Evarikaina Amma; Naan Vazhavippen; Annai Oru Alayam; Allavudeenum Albutha Velakkum/Allavudeenum Arputha Vilakkum; Tiger, Andamaina Anubhavam; 1980: Bilia; Anbukku Naan Adimai; Ram Robert Rahim; Naan Potta Saval; Kali; Johnny, Ellam En Kairasi; Polladhavan; Murattu Kalai; Mayadari Krishnudu; Mr Rajnikant; Kurinchi Malar; 1981: Thee, Thillu Mullu; Kazhugu; Netrikkan; Garjanai; Ranuva Veeran; 1982: Agni Satchi; Pookkari Raja; Puthu Kavithai; Ranga; Thanikatu Raja; Engeyo Ketta Kural; 1983: Payum Puli; Adutha Varisu; Sasthi Viratam; Sigappu Suryati; Thayi Veedu; Thanga Magan; Thudikkum Karangal; Uruvavugal Malaram; Moondru Mugam; Prema Pariksha; Andha Kanoon; Jeet Hamari; 1984: Anbulla Rajanikant; Kayi Kodukkum Kayi; Naan Mahaan Alla; Nallavanukku Nallavan; Thambikku Entha Ooru; Tiger Rajani; Takkaridonga; Rowdycaku Saval; Nuvva Nena; Ithe Naa Saval; Meri Adalat; Gangvaa; John Jani Janardan; Aakhri Sangram; Zulm Ki Zanjeer; 1985: Chithirame Chithirame, Padikkadhavan; Shri Raghavendrar, Naan Sigappu Manithan; Un Kannil Neer Vazhindal; Mahaguru; Wafadaar, Bewafai; Giraftaar, Aaj Ka Dada; Mera Inteqam; Nyayam Meere Cheppali; Yaar; 1986: Naan Adimai Illai; Viduthalai; Maaveeran; Jeevana Poratam; Mr Bharat; Bhagwan Dada; Asli Naqli; Dosti Dushmani; 1987: Velaikkaran; Insaaf Kaun Karega; Uttar Dakshin; Oor Kavalan; Manithan; Sattam Oru Vilayattu; Daku Hasina; Manadhil Urudhi Vendhum; 1988: Guru Shishyan; Dharmathin Thalaivan; Kodiparakkuthu; Tamacha; 1989: Rajadhi Raja; Shiva (Ta); Raja Chinna Roja; Mappillai; Bhrashtachar, Chaalbaaz; Gair Kanooni; En Purushanthan Enakkum Mattumthan; Bloodstone; 1990: Panakkaran; Dharmadurai; Adisaya Piravi; 1991: Dalapathi; Mannan; Hum; Phool Bane Angarey; Shanti Kranti; Nattukoru Nallavan; Farishte, Khoon Ka Karz; Sivaranjani; 1992: Annamalai; Pandian; Tyaagi; 1993: Yajaman; Uzhaippali; Valli; Insaniyat Ka Devata; 1994: Veera; Badsha; 1995: Peda Rayudu; Aatank Hi Aatank, Bhagyadevata; Muthu.

RAJU, THOTAKURA VENKATA (1921–73)

Telugu-Tamil composer; also worked on Kannada films. Originally called T. Venkataraju. Born in Rajahmundhry taluk, AP. Learnt music in his native village from Nallan Chakravarthula Krishnamacharyulu. Stage actor in Madras under the name Master Venkataraju. Harmonium accompanyist for Anjali Devi’s dance performances. Assisted Adi Narayana Rao on Palletoori Pilla (1950). His first film was B.A. Subba Rao’s Tinguranga. Also scored films by Yoganand, Raghavaiah, K. Kameshwara Rao, NTR and K. Vishwanath’s early 70s films.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1952: Tinguranga; 1953: Pichhipullaiah; 1954: Todu Dongalu, Nirupedalu; 1955: Jayasimha; Aadabidda; 1957: Panduranga Mahatyam; 1958: Raja Nandini; Shri Krishna Maya; 1959: Balanagamma; 1961: Taxi Ramudu; 1963: Savati Koduku; 1965: Vishala Hridayalu; Shri Simhachala Kshetra Manatmyam; Mangamma Sapatham; 1966: Shri Krishna Pandaviyam; Bhimanjaneya Yuddham; 1967: Ummadi Kutumbam; Shri Krishnavataram; Chadarangam; Bhama Vijayam; Nindu Manasulu; Kambojaraju Katha; 1968: Tikka Shankaraiah; Baghdad Gajadonga; Devakanya; Kalisochina Adrushtam; Varakatnam; 1969: Tara Sasankam; Katha Nayakudu; Bhale Mastaru; Vichitra Kutumbam; Karpura Harati; Bandhipotu Bhimanna; Gandikota Rahasyam; Saptaswarulu; Kadaladu Vadaladu; Bhale Tammudu; Nindu Hridayalu; 1970: Marina Manishi; Kodalu Diddina Kapuram; Talla Pellama; 1971: Chinnanati Snehitulu; Nindu Dampatulu; 1972: Raj Mahal; Shri Krishnanjaneya Yuddham; Rani Yar Kulandai?; Kanimuthu Papa; 1973 Dhanama? Daivama?; 1917: Ella Hanakkagi.

RAMABRAHMAM, GUDAVALLI (1902–46)

Telugu director born in Nandamuru, AR Educated at National College, Masulipatnam (1918). Early films were seminal influences on the political preoccupations of 40s Telugu film. Started in literature and theatre, influenced by the Telugu poet Vishwanatha Satyanarayana. Theatre critic for nationalist journal Swarajya. Established his own theatre group, Bharatamuni Brundam, in Masulipatnam (1929), employing e.g. S. Raghavacharya as a writer; then went into politics, first with the Justice Party and later Congress (1931). Editor of Samadarshini (1930) and helped start the Madras-based journal Prajamitra (1932). Publicity adviser to Vel Pics. Joined Saraswathi Cinetone as production manager and supervised H.V. Babu’s Draupadi Vastrapaharanam (1936). Early work at Sarathy Films (Est: 1936) includes Malapilla and Raitu Bidda, directly alluding to topical politics. Both films show how Telugu folk performance idioms (cf. Burrakatha) were adapted into film, combining their political usage by the Kisan Sabhas with Basavaraju Apparao’s lyrics. The films also provided a start for V. Raghavaiah’s career as a choreographer. Films influenced by the politics of the Telugu reformists Kandakuri Veeresalingam (1848–1919) and Kaviraj Ramaswamy Choudhury, and by Gandhi’s anti-Untouchability campaign. Raitu Bidda, his best-known film, faced major opposition from the Andhra landed élite and is dedicated to the Maharaja of Travancore, who opened temples to people of all castes. His last, and most ambitious, film was completed by L.V. Prasad.

FILMOGRAPHY: 1938 Malapilla; 1939: Raitu Bidda; 1940: Illalu; 1941: Apavadu; 1942: Patni; 1943: Panthulamma; 1945: Mayalokam; 1947. Palnati Yuddham.

RAMACHANDRAN, MARUDUR GOPALAMENON (1917–87)

Aka MGR. Tamil megastar since 1950 and populist politician; one of the most controversial figures in Indian cinema. Born in Kandy, Sri Lanka (possibly in 1912). Legend has it that his birth coincided with his father’s death, and the family moved to Tamil Nadu where they lived poorly. Three siblings died as well. Aged 6, joined a theatre group, the Madurai Original Boys, where he learned dancing, acting and swordplay. Screen début for Ellis R. Duncan (1936); first major starring role in A.S.A. Sami’s Rajakumari (1947). Joined the DMK Party (1953), having featured in the Karunanidhi scripted Manthiri Kumari. Apparently modelled on Douglas Fairbanks, his 50s screen persona in adventure films directed by T.R. Sundaram, Ramanna, Yoganand and P. Neelakantan constructed an image of political as well as physical invincibility (vanquishing tigers with his bare hands in Gul-e-Bakavali and righting all wrongs) identified with ‘the people’ and promoting his political programme. In the 60s, esp. after Thirudathe, he turned to more ‘realistic’ fantasies in a contemporary setting, often playing a saintly member of an oppressed class: e.g. a peasant, fisherman, rickshaw-puller, gardener and taxi driver. Member of the DMK (1953–72), including a brief stint in the Madras Legislative Council (1962–4); member of the Legislative Assembly (1967) when the Party won the state elections. DMK Party Treasurer (1970); fell out with the DMK’s boss, Karunanidhi, and used the DMK Film’s propaganda idiom against the DMK itself in Nam Naadu. Set up the rival Anna-DMK (1972), claiming allegiance to the DMK’s founder, Annadurai, who had died in 1969. In 1977, his party, renamed the All-India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), won the state elections in alliance with Indira Gandhi’s Congress; became chief minister and was re-elected for three consecutive terms, organising a totalitarian crackdown on all political dissent while introducing populist schemes like the Chief Minister’s Nutritious Meal Programme and taxing the poor to subsidise the rural rich. Having survived a bullet wound when he was shot by fellow actor M.R. Radha in 1967 (affecting his speech), he achieved demi-god status following a paralytic stroke in 1984 which he survived for three years, acquiring the label ‘thrice-born’ in the process. Last film released in 1978. Thousands of fan clubs provide a political and promotional support structure with a constant stream of e.g. lithographs depicting the star as a godlike figure. Ganesan, who acted with MGR in Kundukkili, became an opposition MP. MGR developed a fantasy land via his movies, playing numerous double roles and borrowing as much from stage historicals as from pamphleteering rhetoric. M.S.S. Pandian’s The Image Trap: M.G. Ramachandran in Film and Politics (1992) noted: ‘The social universe of the MGR films is a universe of assymetrical power. [T]hus we have landlords who try to grab peasants’ land (Vivasayee), rural rich who wield whips on farm hands (Enga Veetu Pillai), moneylenders who bleed the poor (Padakotti), industrialists who dismiss workers at their whim (Thozhilali), avaricious men who desire others’ property (Muharassi, Madappura, Ayirathil Oruvan), city slickers who leave poor rural girls pregnant (There Thiruvizha), married men who desire other women (Genova, Asai Mukham, Mahadevi). The conflict between these upper caste/class oppressors and MGR as a subaltern, and its resolution, form the core of his films. MGR, in the course of the conflict, appropriates several signs or symbols of authority or power from those who dominate. Three such symbols that repeatedly and prominently appear are the authority to dispense justice and exercise violence, access to literacy/education and access to women. [T]he hero’s invincibility on the screen acquires a certain authenticity and appears credible not merely because of the dreamlike experience of film-watching but equally because the subaltern consciousness most often dwells between the impossible religious myth and possible history.’ To construct this impossible myth, MGR used food (Mattukkara Velan, Ninaithathai Mudippavan), colour patterns (black and red, symbols of the DMK), masquerades (often through double roles of oppressor and oppressed), etc. Viewing an MGR film has been promoted as a ritual, with stories of poor people selling their blood to get money to see his films on first release. His funeral procession was attended by over 2 million people. A temple has been built in Madras with MGR as the deity.

MGR in Nadodi Mannan

FILMOGRAPHY (* also d): 1936: Sati Leelavathi; Iru Sahodarargal; 1938: Dakshayagnam; Veer Jagdish; 1939: Maya Machhindra; Prahlada; 1941: Ashok Kumar; Vedavathi; 1942: Thasippen; Thamizbariyum Perumal; 1943: Harishcbandra; 1944: Salivahanan; 1945: Meera; 1946: Shri Murugan; 1947: Paithiakaran; Rajakumari; 1948: Abhimanyu; Mohini; Raja Mukthi; 1949: Ratnakumar; 1950: Maruthanattu Ilavarasi; Manthiri Kumari; 1951: Marmayogi/Ek Tha Raja; Sarvadhikari; 1952: Andaman Kaithi; Kumari; En Thangai; 1953: Genova; Naam; Panakkari; 1954: Malaikallan; Kundukkili; 1955: Gul-e-Bakavali; Alibabavum Narpatha Thirudargalum; 1956: Madurai Veeran; Thaikku Pinn Tharam; 1957: Chakravarthi Thirumagal; Mahadevi; Pudumaipithan; Rajarajan; 1958: Nadodi Mannan*; 1959: Thayi Magalukku Kattiya Thali; 1960: Baghdad Thirudan; Mannathi Mannan; Raja Desingu; 1961: Arasilankumari; Nallavan Vazhvan; Shabhash Mappillai; Thayi Sollai Thattathe, Thirudathe; 1962: Kudumba Thalaivan; Madappura; Pasam; Rani Samyuktha; Thayai Katha Thanayan; Vikramadithan; 1963: Ananda Jyoti; Dharmam Thalai Kakum; Kalai Arasi; Kanchi Thalaivan; Koduthu Vaithaval; Needhikkupin Pasam; Panathottam; Parisu; Periya Idathu Penn; Raj Mahal; 1964. Daivathai; En Kadamai; Padakotti; Panakara Kudumbam; Thayin Madiyil; Thozhilali; Vettaikaran; 1965: Asai Mukham; Ayirathil Oruvan; Enga Veetu Pillai; Kalankari Vilakkam; Kannithai; Panam Padaithavan; Thazampoo; 1966: Anbe Vaa; Naan Anaittal; Muharassi; Nadodi; Chandrodyam; Parakkum Pavai; Petral Than Pillayya; Thali Bhagyam; Thani Piravi; 1967: Arasa Kattalai; Kavalkaran; Thaikku Thalaimagan; Vivasayee; 1968: Rahasiya Police 115; There Thiruvizha; Kudiruntha Koil; Kannan En Kathalan; Pudhiya Bhoomi; Kanavan; OH Vilakku; Kathal Vaghanam; 1969: Adimai Penn; Nam Naadu; Mattukkara Velan; 1970: En Annan; Thalaivan; Thedi Vantha Mappillai; Engal Thangam; 1971: Kumari Kottam; Rickshawkaran; Neerum Neruppum; Oru Thai Makkal; 1972: Sangey Muzhangu; Nalla Neram; Raman Thediya Seethai; Annamitta Kai; Naan En Pirandein; Idaya Veenai; 1973: Ulagam Sutrum Valiban*; Pattikatu Ponnaiah; 1974: Netru Indru Nalai; Urimai Kural; Sirithu Vazha Vendum; 1975: Ninaithathai Mudippavan; Nalai Namadhe, Idayakkani; Pallandhu Vazhga; 1976: Needhikku Thalai Vanangu; Uzhaikum Karangal; Oorukku Uzhaippavan; 1977: Navarathnam; Indru Pol Endrum Vazhga; Meenava Nanban; Maduraiyai Meeta Sundara Pandian*.