AALL, see American Association for Labor Legislation
AAMC, see Association of American Medical Colleges
abortion and legal rights, 391
access to medical care, 56–59, 63–71, 124–27, 172–74, 181–84, 244–46, 262, 270, 333–34, 350, 362–74, 387–89, 417, 421–22, 448
accommodation, contradictions of, 383–88; pattern of, 27–28, 229–31; politics of, 374–78; triumph of, 290–334
acetanilid, 130
Ackerknecht, Erwin, 135
Adams, Samuel Hopkins, 130, 131, 133
advertising: of medical plans, 324; of patent medicines, 127–34; of physicians, 92
Advisory Board for Medical Specialties (American Board of Medical Specialties), 357
AHA, see American Hospital Association,
Aiken, George, 285
Alford, Robert, 264, 488–89n94
allopathic medicine, labeling of, 100
almshouses, 73, 149–51, 160, 172, 465n9
Altmeyer, Arthur, 277, 279, 281
AMA, see American Medical Association
American Association for Labor Legislation (AALL), 243–48, 251, 252, 254, 277, 280
American Association for Social Security, 267, 280
American Bar Association, 283
American Board of Medical Specialties (Advisory Board for Medical Specialties), 357
American Cancer Society, 343
American College of Hospital Administrators, 178
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 392
American College of Physicians, 268
American College of Surgeons, 167, 177, 222, 268, 272, 274
American Federation of Labor, 203, 249–52, 255, 285
American Hospital Association (AHA), 178, 283, 296–98, 309, 348, 349, 367, 390, 398, 402, 430; Council on Community Relations and Administrative Practice, 296
American Institute of Homeopathy, 101
American League for Public Medicine, 274
American Medical Association: as bargaining agent, 427; and conservatives, 419, 423; and corporate practice, 204–5, 215–20, 299–302, 324–27, 445–46; Council on Medical Education, 117–19, 121, 167, 224, 272; Council on Medical Education and Hospitals, 167, 357; Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, 131–33; early development, 90, 91, 94, 98–101, 105, 107, 112, 120; and economic depression, 271–72, 276–77; and group practice, 211–15; and HMOs, 304–6, 323–27, 397–98; and hospital appointments, 168; House of Delegates, 109, 252–53, 269, 273, 276, 282, 306, 327, 347; and industrial physicians, 203; and insurance, governmental, 247–48, 252–53, 255, 255–65, 268, 271–89, 368, 369, 370, 378; and insurance, private, 299–300, 306–9, 313, 323, 331; intern listing of, 124; Judicial Council, 136, 271; on lodge practice, 208; on medical cooperatives, 304–5; and medical schools, 90–91, 117–18, 121, 360; and medication, 128–34; Medicredit national health plan, 398; membership levels in, 109, 110, 273, 398, 427; and muckrakers, 129–32, 140; research grants of, 339; and specialization, 357; and supply of physicians, 125–27, 272, 347; surveys cited, 82, 118, 142, 211–15, 221–22, 369, 423
American Medical Eclectic College, 106
American Medical International, 430, 432, 435
American Medicine and the People’s Health (Moore), 262
American Psychiatric Association, 345
American Public Health Association (APHA), 185, 277, 382
American Rehabilitation Foundation, 395
American Society for the Control of Cancer, 342
American Society of Clinical Pathologists, 222
Anderson, Odin, 296
anesthesia, 156, 221; and insurance, 299; see also anesthesiology
anesthesiology, 221; and nurse anesthetists, 221, 223
antipoverty programs, 366–67; see also access to medical care, Great Society
antitrust laws and medicine, 305, 327, 418
APHA, see American Public Health Association
appendectomy, 68–69
Apple, Rima, 134
apprenticeship, medical, 40, 63, 82, 89, 114
Arendt, Hannah, 9
Arnold, Thurman, 305
Arrow, Kenneth, 225–27
aseptic techniques, 156
Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), 115, 407
Association of American Physicians, 91
Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, 407
Association of Hospital Superintendents, 178
Astor, John Jacob, 153
atabrine, 341
authority: definition of, 9, 13; elements of, 9–13; struggle for, 17–20; types of, 13–16
authority, professional: challenges to, 17–18, 30–35, 44–59, 80–81, 88, 105, 127–28, 304, 379–81, 389–93, 402; in definition of needs, 13, 18–19, 263–64; distinctive elements of, 12–13, 15–16; and the division of labor, 155, 220–25; in hospitals, 20, 162–69; in prescription of drugs, 20, 27, 127–34; relation to science, 3–6, 16–19, 54–59, 134–40, 142; requirements for, 37, 80; support for, 18–19, 35–37, 106, 112–16, 119–21, 129–31, 138–44, 263–64, 335–37; see also autonomy
automobile and medical services, 69–71
autonomy: defense of, by physicians, 24–29, 77–78, 164–65, 204–6, 208–9, 292, 299–307, 318, 320, 325–27, 332–33, 351; lack of, among paramedical workers, 221–22; see also authority, professional
autopsy, 177, 222; historical practice of, 55
bacteriology, 137–39, 181–91, 464n156; and surgery, 135–36
Baltimore City Hospitals, 150
Baltimore County Almshouse, 150
Bartlett, Josiah, 83
Baruch, Bernard, 285
Baylor University Hospital Plan, 295, 299, 301, 302
Beach, Wooster, 96
Bennett, Wallace, 400
Beveridge insurance plan, 280
Bierring, Walter, 272
Bigelow, Jacob, 55
Bigelows (family), 89
Biggs, Hermann M., 185, 186, 195
Billings, John Shaw, 90
bill of rights, economic, 280
Biologics Control Act, 340, 342
blacks: in hospitals, 158, 173, 175, 350; in medical profession, 48, 124, 167–68; use of services, 373
Blendon, Roger J., 410
blood pressure, measurement of, 137
Blue Cross, 294–98, 307–10, 322, 327, 330, 367, 413, 439: administrative expenses in, 328, 333; charges of, 309; and commercial insurance companies, 311, 312, 327–31; coverage of, 313–14; emergence of, 295–98; enabling legislation for, 297; enrollment of, 298, 311, 327–28; and Medicare, 375; reimbursements of, 385, 387, 388; see also Blue Shield
Blue Shield, 294, 306–10, 385; administrative costs of, 328; and Blue Cross, 308–9; competitiveness of, 328–31; and compulsory insurance, 325; enabling legislation for, 306; income ceilings in, 307, 314; and Medicare, 375; see also Blue Cross
Blumberg, Mark, 386
boards of health, 36, 184–89, 196–97
bonesetters, 49
Boston City Hospital, 173
Bornemeier, Walter, 398
Boston Dispensary, 247
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 65, 164
Boston University, 99
botanic doctors, 45, 51–54, 57–58, 96, 229; see also Eclectics; herbal medicine
Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 341
Brandeis University, 176
Bridgeport Hospital, 158
British Medical Association, 256
Brown, Rexwald, 214
Brown, Montague, 437
Bulletin Number Four (Flexner), 119–21
Burdett, Henry, 164
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 246, 259, 312
Burnham, John, 192n
burnout, professional, 423
Burton, Harold H., 348
Business Roundtable, 444
Business Week, 381
Cabot, Richard, 174
Califano, Joseph A., 412, 414, 415, 418
California Medical Association (CMA), 272, 282, 283, 307
California Physicians Service (CPS), 307, 330
Canada, universal insurance in, 412
cancer, 340, 392; federal emphasis on, 370; research, 343
capitalism: and medical care, 16–17, 215–32, 428–49; ideological function of medicine for, 462n103; and scientific medicine, 227–28; see also corporate control of medical care; employers; insurance, health (governmental)
capitation payment, 247, 398; see also contract practice; health maintenance organizations
Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, 397
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 118, 119
Carter, Richard, 347
Case Western (Western Reserve), 355
Catholics and hospitals, 173–75
CCMC, see Committee on the Costs of Medical Care
certificate-of-need programs, 398, 414, 416, 426
certification, specialty, development of, 224, 356–58
Chapin, Charles V., 189–91
Chapmans (family), 89
Chicago Medical Society, 194, 203
Chicago Women’s Liberation Union, 391
childbirth: feminist approach to, 391–92; growth of medical control over, 49–50, 223; see also obstetrics
children: child health centers, 260; in hospitals, 158–59; and public health, 187–89, 191; see also infants
Children’s Bureau, 275, 283, 289
Children’s Hospital, 158
chiropractors, 127, 229, 333; independence of, 223
cholera, 36; organism isolated in, 137; vaccine for, 138
Christian Science, 95, 105, 108, 127, 229, 253, 255
cinchona (quinine), 47
CIO, see Congress of Industrial Organizations
Civil War, 200
Clapesattle, Helen, 210
clinics, public health, 187–89, 191–97; see also health centers; group practice
CMA, see California Medical Association
coal industry, medical care in, 315–20
collective bargaining and health care, 204, 310–20
collective mobility, 17, 79–80, 143–44
Collier’s Weekly, 130
Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, 361
Commission on Hospital Care, 349
Commission on Industrial Relations, 248
Committee for Economic Development, 396
Committee for National Health Insurance, 382, 404
Committee for the Nation’s Health, 280, 286, 287
Committee of One Hundred on National Health, 135–36
Committee of Physicians for the Improvement of Medicine, 274, 275
Committee on Economic Security, 267–69, 275, 276
Committee on Hospital Service, 297
Committee on Medical Research, 340
Committee on the Costs of Medical Care (CCMC), 142, 261–67, 275, 295, 299, 348, 373, 383
Commons, John R., 243, 252, 311
Commonwealth Fund, 348
communication technology and medical services, 65–71
community health centers; see health centers
community mental health centers, 365–66
Congressional Office of Technology Assessment, 422
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 304, 312
Connecticut Medical Society, 98
conservatism, 423; and assimilation of reform, 393–405; changing perspectives of, on medical care, 418–19
contract practice, 63, 198, 204–9, 248, 301–2
cooperatives, medical, 302–6, 321; legal status of, 306, 324
coronary bypass operations, 386
corporate control of medical care, 8, 16, 25–27, 110–11, 164–65, 198–232, 290–334, 420–49; professional resistance to, 25–27, 110–11, 164–65, 198–232, 299–301, 306, 324–27, 445–46; via group practice, 209–15; via HMOs, 301–6, 396–97, 439–42; via holding companies, 437–38; via hospitals, 164–65, 430–38, 446–47; via industrial employers, 110–11, 200–6; via insurers, 291–92, 301–6, 325–27
corporate liberalism, 488–89n94
corporate rationalists, 264
costs of medical care, 66–71, 236, 245–46, 380–88; committee on, 261–66; control of, 393–404; effects of insurance on, 298, 309–10, 319, 334, 364; effects of monopoly on, 143; effects of new forms of transportation on, 66–71; estimates of, 245–46, 254n, 258–60, 262, 281, 335, 380, 384, 412; in fraternal lodges, 208; in hospitals, 160, 172, 260, 384, 433–34; and medical education, 64, 126; and public health, 189, 228
CPS, see California Physicians Service
Crisis in Hospital Finance, The (Davis and Rorem), 296
cultural authority, definition of, 13–15; see also authority
Dakin, Edward, 108
Davis, Michael M., 183, 194, 213, 247, 259–61, 280, 285, 286, 296, 299
DDT, 335
death benefits, 242, 244, 252, 258
Debakey Commission (Presidential Commission on Heart Disease, Cancer, and Stroke), 370
deinstitutionalization, 365, 391
Delafield, Francis, 91
Democratic Party, 254, 286; and Carter administration, 411; and compulsory insurance, 285, 286; and economic growth, 366; and Great Society, 367; and Nixon administration, 394
democratization of medical service, 246; see also access to medical care
Denmark, insurance in, 237
dentists, independence of, 223
Dent v. West Virginia, 106, 226
Department of Agriculture, 339, 340
Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW), 371, 372, 375, 393–95, 399, 400, 404, 406–8, 412, 414
Department of Labor, 275
dependence: and agrarian life, 32; and authority, 9–13, 20; and hospitals, 20; mechanisms of, 20–21; and power, 4
Depression, Great, and health insurance, 266, 270–79, 295, 331
Deutsch, Albert, 345
Dextri-Maltose, 134
diagnosis: errors in, 87; importance of, and private group practice, 210–11, 213; instruments for, 136–37; physician responsibility for, 136–37, 221–22; and public health, 196; tests for, 188
dialysis, 442–43; clinics for, 445, 448; cost and extent of, 442–43
Dingell, John, 280
diphtheria, 230; antitoxin for, 138, 139; organism isolated in, 137; pseudo-, 185–86; and public health, 185–87
Directory of Medical Specialists, 357
dispensaries, public, 181–84, 232, 469n6
division of labor and professionalism, 25–26, 37–40, 47–50, 76–78, 85, 133, 141–42, 149, 155–56, 163, 177–78, 195, 209–11, 216–18, 220–25, 236, 354, 355–59, 383, 424, 426; see also paramedical workers; specialization
doctor-patient relationship, 9–21, 85–88, 136–37, 157–60, 217; as basis of professional power, 217, 222–23; authority in, 5, 9–12, 38, 85–88, 141–42; change in, 22–24, 41–42, 75–76, 136–37, 157–60, 362, 389, 424; class differences in, 12, 172, 183, 362; corruption of, 317; democratic view of, 42, 56, 389; etiquette of, 94; in Europe and America, 80–81; in homeopathy, 97; in hospitals, 20, 157–60, 164, 172; legal aspects of, 62–63, 106; Parsonian model of, 21n, 74–75; prejudice in, 174; rights in, 389–92; variation in, by type of practice, 362
doctors, see physicians
domestic medicine, 32–37, 39, 65–67
Domestic Medicine (Buchan), 32–34, 452n4
Domestic Medicine (Gunn), 34, 452n8
Douglas, Paul, 269
Drew, Elizabeth, 370
drugs: botanic, 48, 51–52; home preparation of, 32, 34; homeopathic, 96–97; patent medicines, 127–33; physician control of, 20, 27, 87, 127–34; regulation of, 131–34, 403; skepticism of, 34, 55; see also pharmacy
Dryden, John F., 242
Dubos, René, 339
Duffy, John, 188
Duke University, 418
Easley, Ralph, 251
Eclectic Medical Institute of Cincinnati, 93
Eclectics, 54, 96, 102; and licensing, 106–9; numbers of, 99, 127
ecology of medical practice, 65–71
Economic Stabilization Program, 423
Eddy, Mary Baker, 108
education, medical, see apprenticeship; internship, hospital; medical schools; residency, hospital
Ehrlich, Paul, 135
Ehrlichman, John, 394
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 363, 366
electrocardiograph, 137
Eliot, Charles, 112–15, 123, 218
Eliot, Martha, 275
Elizabethan Prayer Book, 35
Ellwein, Linda, 426
Ely, Richard, 243
emergency room services, sharing of, 438
employers: as sponsors at medical programs, 200–6, 235, 294, 301–2, 309, 311–17, 320, 333; demand for cost control, 383, 388, 444; view of compulsory insurance, 228, 250–1, 256–57, 287
engineering, preventive, 228
England: health insurance in, 237, 239–40, 280; hospitals in, 74, 151, 154; medical profession in, 6, 37–40, 61, 65, 78, 117, 224; national health service in, 337; religion and medicine in, 35–37
Enthoven, Alain, 418
epidemics, 36, 151, 184–85, 189, 340, 346
equity and competition, 329–30, 418–19
ether, 157
ethics, professional, 15, 91, 94, 98, 107, 118, 128–29, 164, 216–17, 225–26
ethnicity: and hospitals, 167, 168, 170–74; and professional status, 89, 96, 167
Ewing, Oscar, 284
Fairview Community Hospitals, 432
faith healing, 35–36, 95, 127; see also Christian Science
family: and hospitals, 73–75, 149, 151–52, 158–59; and medical care, 22, 32, 36–37; size and structure of, changes in, 73–75; see also domestic medicine
farmers, cooperative medical prepayment plans for, 271, 304, 321
Farm Security Administration (FSA), 271, 304, 321
Feder, Judith, 375
Federal Home Loan Bank, 305
Federal Security Agency, 284, 342
Federal Trade Commission, 418
Federation of State Medical Boards, 120–21
fee, physicians’, 61–63, 84, 110–11, 136, 154, 157, 163–64, 205, 206, 208, 221, 358, 385–86
fee-for-service compensation, 25–26, 226, 247, 323–25, 383, 385, 398, 422, 425; see also capitation; contract practice; fee, physicians’
Feldstein, Martin S., 384
feminism, 391–92; see also women
Ferguson, Homer, 284
Field, Stephen, 106
Finch, Robert, 395
Fisher, Irving, 135, 136, 245–46
Flexner, Abraham, 118–21, 123–26, 131, 224, 230, 355
Flint, Austin, 184
folk medicine, 47–51, 392; see also domestic medicine; herbal medicine
Forand, Aime, 368
foreign medical graduates, 39, 82, 272, 360, 427
Fortune, 288, 336, 381, 393, 436
Forum, The, 182
France: health insurance in, 237, 239; medical schools in, 42; mental hospitals in, 73; physicians in, 6, 65, 117; scientific development in, 54–55, 78
Frankel, Lee K., 252
fraternal organizations, medical care for, 206–9, 242; see also lodge practice
French Revolution and medicine, 54, 73
Freud, Sigmund, 345
Friedman, Lawrence, 103
Friedman, Milton, 143, 270, 418
FSA, see Farm Security Administration
Fuchs, Victor, 409
fumigation, 190
funeral benefits, see death benefits
Galbraith, John Kenneth, 206, 373
game theory, 424
gamma globulin, 341
Garceau, Oliver, 273
Gates, Frederick, 228
Gaylin, Willard, 390
Geiger, H. Jack, 371
General Education Board, 121, 123, 126
Germany: as educational model, 113–14; insurance in, 237, 239–40, 243, 256; as political symbol, 253, 287, 341
Gerster, Arpad, 80, 88, 165–66
GHA, see Group Health Association
GI Bill, 357
Gibson, Count D., 371
GMENAC, see Graduate Medical Education National Advisory Committee
Goldberger, Joseph, 340
Goldsmith, Jeff, 425
Goldwater, Barry, 366
Gompers, Samuel, 249, 251, 252, 475n39
Goudsblom, Johan, 175
government, role of: changes in, 62–63, 104–7, 180–97, 238–40, 338, 363–74, 377–78, 380, 383, 393; in financing, 62, 121–22, 147, 150, 171–73, 270–71, 338–51, 363–78, 383–88; in regulation of drugs, 131; in regulation of health plans, 297–98, 306, 395–96; in regulation of medical care, 57–58, 104–7, 351, 398–407; see also hospitals; insurance, health (governmental); Medicaid; Medicare
Graduate Medical Education National Advisory Committee (GMENAC), 422
Graham, Sylvester, 50
Great Britain, see England
Great Society, 366–67, 369–74, 394, 396
Green, William, 250
Griffiths, Martha W., 394
Grob, Gerald, 73
Gross, Samuel, 80
Group Health Association (GHA), 305, 357
Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound, 321, 324–26
group practice, 199, 209–15, 217, 247–48, 318, 425
group practice, prepaid, 301–6, 318, 319–20, 320–27
Gunn, John C., 34
Guthrie, Donald, 211
gynecology: certification in, 357; self-care in, 391
Hahnemann, Samuel, 96, 97, 100, 101, 108
Hall, Lyman, 83
Hamilton, Alice, 203
Hamilton, Walton, 261, 265, 267
Harrington, Michael, 373
Harvard University, 30, 46, 55, 82, 112, 114–16, 119, 123, 125, 151, 174, 218, 485n46
Havighurst, Clark, 418
Hawker v. New York, 106
health centers, 194–97, 370–72, 448, 470n28; see also community mental health centers; dispensaries
health insurance: see insurance
Health Insurance Plan (HIP) of Greater New York, 322, 324–26
health maintenance organizations (HMOs), 27; and corporate development, 428–30, 439–46; enrollment in, 415; federal program, 396–98, 400–1, 406–8; loan guarantees for, 396, 401; name introduced, 395, 397; and supply of physicians, 424–27; see also capitation payment; contract practice; group practice, prepaid; independent practice associations
Health Manpower Act, 397
health planning, 348–50, 376–77, 401–3, 431, 449
Health Research Group, 400
Health Security plan, 394, 404
health systems agencies (HSAs), 402, 403, 415, 416, 419, 444
herbal medicine, 32, 52, 96, 227; see also botanic doctors; Eclectics
HEW, see Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Hill-Burton program (Hospital Survey and Construction Act), 283, 348–51, 371, 373, 375–77, 389, 401
HIP, see Health Insurance Plan of Greater New York
Hippocrates, 419
Hippocratic texts, 38
Hirshfield, Daniel, 310
HMOs, see health maintenance organizations
Hobbes, Thomas, 13
Hodgson, Godfrey, 364
Hoffman, Frederick L., 252
Hofstadter, Richard, 110
Hollingshead, August, 359, 361
Holloway, S. W. F., 78
Holmes, Bayard, 164
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 30, 56, 140
homeopathic medicine, 47, 96–102, 106–9, 127, 229; and allopaths, 100; and capitalism, 227; extent of, 127; and licensing, 101, 102, 107, 108; in municipal hospitals, 102; organizational split within, 101; post-Civil War popularity of, 99
Hopkins, Harry, 267
Hospital Corporation of America, 430, 432
Hospital Planning Council of Greater New York, 376
hospitals, 25–27, 72–76, 145–79, 217–20, 259–60, 295–98, 347–51, 375–76, 430–39; architecture of, 147, 149, 159; as bureaucratic organizations, 148–49, 159–60, 177–79, 446–47; and Catholics, 173–75; control of, 146, 147–49, 152–54, 161–69, 173, 177–79, 219–20, 231, 299, 349, 359–62; and corporate development, 148–49, 428–38, 446–47; cost escalation of, 160, 259–60, 298, 319, 368, 383–88, 412, 414; emergence of modern form of, 147–62; and ethnicity, 167–68, 170–77; financing of, 160–62, 176–79, 348–51 (see insurance); hygiene in, 75, 154–57; and insurance, 291–302, 327–34, 368–69, 384–85; integration of system of, 147, 176–79, 429–36, 440; and Jews, 154, 168, 173–76; and medical schools, 116, 145–46, 152, 348, 353, 360–62; for mental illness, 72–73, 345–46, 365; number of, 73, 169, 430, 440; and nurses, 155–56; and physicians, 26, 27, 72, 111, 145–46, 152, 161–69, 178–79, 220–22, 353, 360–62, 385–86, 403; proprietary, 157, 165, 170–71, 219–20, 428–40; and Protestants, 175, 176; public and private, relation of, 147, 150–51, 171–73, 289, 387, 436, 448; regulation of, governmental, 349–51, 398–400, 401–4, 406–7, 412, 414–15; regulation of, nongovernmental, 167, 177, 222, 431–32; and surgery, 156–58, 170; teaching and nonteaching, competition between, 426–27; and urbanization, 72–75
Hospital Service Plan Commission, 297–98
Hospital Survey and Construction Act, see Hill-Burton program
House of Burgesses, Virginia, fee controls of, 62
house staff, see internship, hospital; residency, hospital
Howard Medical School, 124
How to Avoid Infection (Chapin), 190
HSAs, see health systems agencies
Hughes, Everett, 23
Humana, Inc., 431, 432, 436, 446
Hurd, Henry, 184
Hutchinson, John, 137
hygiene: in hospitals, 75, 154–57; industrial, 200–3, 228; infant, 192, 260; personal, 135, 138, 141, 180, 190, 191, 260, 261, 263; public, 135–36, 180–97
ideology, political: and compulsory insurance, 255–56, 287–88; conservative, 417–19; Jacksonian, 56–59; liberal, 61, 105–6, 261–66, 337, 363–67, 382, 488–89n94; populist, 19, 105, 302–4; progressive, 19, 110, 129–30, 140, 192, 243–46
Illinois Insurance Commission, 245, 254, 294
Illinois Social Hygiene League, 194
income and medical care, 259–60, 262, 270, 309–310, 350, 366–78, 469n6; and cost escalation, 384–85; see also access to medical care
indemnity benefits, 291–94, 307, 309, 322, 327, 329, 331, 440
independent practice associations (IPAs), 397, 413
Indian medicine (American), 48–49
industrial medicine, 200–6, 315–18
infants: feeding of, 139–40; formulas for, 133–34; hygiene for, 192; mortality rates, 260, 382, 410; see also children
insanity: confinement for, 28; and mental hospitals, 72–74; see also psychiatry
insurance, health (governmental), 8, 235–89, 368–70, 382, 396–98, 404–5; businessmen’s view of, 228, 250–52, 256–57, 283, 287–88; campaigns for, 243–54, 275–78, 280–85, 368–69, 382, 404–5; failure to pass, 252–57, 267–69, 277–79, 413–14; origins in Europe, 237–40; and physicians, 235–36, 246–48, 252–53, 255–57, 265–88, 368–69, 398; program for seamen, 62, 240; proposals, AMA, 369, 398; proposals, Kennedy, 382, 394, 404–5, 412–14; proposals, Nixon, 285, 397, 404–5; proposals, Progressive, 244–49; proposal, Truman, 280–86
insurance, health (private): basic types, 291–94; distribution, 298, 309–310, 327–28, 333–34, 417; early development, 200–9, 241–42, 294–95; and experience rating, 329, 330; financial risks in, 291; fraud in, 241–42; and hospitals, 295–302, 327–34, 368–69, 384–85; indemnity benefits in, 291–94, 307, 309, 327, 329, 331; and moral hazard, 290–91, 298; and physician autonomy, 26, 27, 204–6, 208–9, 292, 299–307, 318, 320, 325–27, 332–33; self-insurance, 329; service benefits in, 291–94, 296–98, 306–8, 315, 318–19, 330; and unions, 235, 241, 249–50, 310–20, 324, 330, 334; see also Blue Cross; Blue Shield; group practice, prepaid; health maintenance organizations
Interdepartmental Committee to Coordinate Health and Welfare Activities, 275, 276
international comparisons: of health, 382; of health insurance, development of, 237–43, 256–57, 286–87, 331–32, 412; of hospitals, 147, 149–50, 155, 168, 175; of medical profession, 6, 37–39, 41, 60, 61, 65, 77–78, 80–81, 90; of medical research, 341; of psychiatry, 345; of public health, 184, 186; of women in medicine, 117
internships, hospital, 123, 124, 360; and professional autonomy, 220–21; standards for, 167, 168
IPAs, see independent practice associations
Irish and hospitals, 173
Italy, insurance in, 237
Jackson, James, 151
Jacksons (family), 89
James, William, 105
Janowitz, Morris, 344
Javits, Jacob, 285
Jefferson Medical College, 115, 218, 219
Jeffries, B. Joy, 88
Jews: discriminated against, 168, 173–74; and hospitals, 154, 173–76; mutual societies of, 207–9
Johns Hopkins Hospital, 184
Johns Hopkins University, 112, 113, 115–18, 120, 122, 123, 146, 361
Johnson, Lyndon, 366, 367, 369
Jones, Barbara, 263
Jones, Lewis, 263
Journal of the American Medical Association, 70, 85, 110, 129, 131, 134, 164, 213, 265, 274, 283
Julius Rosenwald Fund, 297
Jungle, The (Sinclair), 131
Kaiser, Henry J., 301, 321, 322
Kaiser-Permanente health plan, 322–27, 332, 383, 395, 415, 432, 439, 447
Kellogg Foundation, 348
Kennedy, Edward M., 371, 382, 394, 395, 401, 404, 405, 412–14
Kennedy-Mills plan, 404
Kerr, Robert, 368
Keynesian economics, 266–67, 394
King County Medical Society, 321, 324
Kinyoun, Joseph J., 340
Knowles, John, 409
Koch, Robert, 128, 135, 138, 187
Kuhn, Adam, 41
Kulp, C. A., 298
labor, see unions
Labor Department, 406
Labor Health Institute, 320
Ladies’ Home Journal, 129, 130
laetrile, 392
La Guardia, Fiorello, 322
Larson, Leonard, 327
Larson, Magali Sarfatti, 22
Lasker, Albert, 286
Lasker, Mary, 342, 343, 346, 386
Lee, Roger I., 263
Lee, Russell, 212
Lerner, Gerda, 50
Leuchtenberg, William, 278
Lewin and Associates, 433
Lewis, John L., 315–17
liberalism: classical, 61, 238–40; contemporary, 335–38, 363–67, 381–83, 388–90; corporate, 251, 488–89n94; and professional authority, 337; and public investment in science, 338–47; reaction against, 380, 417–19; see also ideology, political
licensing, 20, 22, 24, 27, 28, 226; historical development of, 40, 44–45, 50, 54, 57–58, 102–7; and supply of physicians, 118–19, 126, 230
Life Extension Institute, 193
Lincoln, Abraham, 98
Lincoln Hospital, 158
Lloyd George, David, 239, 243, 256, 257
lobelia inflata (Indian tobacco), 51
lodge practice, 206–9
Loos, H. Clifford, 301
MacIntyre, Duncan, 298
Mahoney, Florence, 342
malpractice suits, 62, 111, 389, 445, 461n84
Mannheim, Karl, 56
Marglin, Stephen, 216
Marine Hospital Service, 184, 240, 340; see also insurance, health (governmental); Public Health Service
market forces: before Civil War, 61–64; belief in, 418–419; definition of, 23; and professional autonomy, 77–78; professional control of, 24–28, 125–27, 133–34, 181–89, 194–97, 198–232, 300; relation to professional authority 22–24; see also corporate control of medical care; costs of medical care
Martin, Franklin, 272
Marxism, 16–17, 216, 227–29, 239, 462n103
Masons, 57
Massachusetts General Hospital, 150, 156, 157, 164, 173, 174
Massachusetts Medical Society, 46, 98, 111
maternity benefits, 244
Mathews, George S., 207
Mayo, Charles, 156, 175, 210–13
Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 211
Mayo, William, 156, 157, 175, 210–13
Mayo, William Worrall, 70, 210
McClellans (family), 89
Medicaid, 369–70; cap on federal support of, 419; and community health centers, 372; and corporate development, 428, 435–36; and cost escalation, 381–87, 406; cutbacks in, 422; and HMOs, 395; and hospital costs, 385; impact on public sector, 377; and minority health care, 373; and nursing homes, 445; and peer review, 399–400; and states, 398; stigma in, 370; see also Medicare
medical centers, 361–62
Medical Committee for Human Rights, 398
medical economics, see access to medical care; contract practice; corporate control of medical care; costs of medical care; division of labor; fee, physicians’; group practice; insurance, health; physicians
Medical Economics, 423
medical education, see apprenticeship; internship, hospital; medical schools; residency, hospital
medical-industrial complex, 428, 429
Medical Nemesis (Illich), 409
medical practice, see doctor-patient relationship; physicians
medical research, development of, 54–56, 115–16, 189–90, 338–47
medical schools, 40–44, 112–23, 352–55, 358–62; admissions requirements of, 43, 114–15, 121; admission of women into, 50, 117, 124, 391; curriculum of, 43, 113–14, 354–55; federal aid to, 352, 365, 397, 421; full-time positions in, 122–23, 352–53; homeopathic, 97, 100; and hospitals, 42, 116, 353, 360–62; numbers of, 42, 112, 118, 121, 272, 421; origins of, 38, 40–44; proproprietary, 218–20; reform of, 112–23; and specialization, 355–56; struggles for control of, 93–94, 114, 123; and universities, 122; and VA medical staff, 348
medical societies: early development of, 40, 44–46, 90–92; exclusion of dissidents by, 97–98, 208, 303–5, 324; as gatekeepers to hospital appointments, 168; growth in power of, 109–12; insurance plans established by, 205, 306–7, 324; liberal tendencies in, 272–75, 398; see also American Medical Association
Medical Society of New Jersey, 40, 83
Medicare, 368–70, 375–78; and Blue Cross, 375; and Blue Shield, 375; and corporate development, 434, 436; and cost escalation, 381–87, 406; and HMOs, 395; and nursing homes, 445; political support for, 286, 364, 367–70, 378; and poverty, 373–74; and peer review, 399–400; see also Medicaid
Meharry Medical School, 124
Menninger, Charles F., 211
mental hospitals, 72–75, 169, 365
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., 193, 242, 252, 262, 294, 328, 339
Michigan State Medical Association, 110
microscope, 136
midwives, 333; historical status of, 45, 49–50, 85, 87; nurses as, 223; and obstetricians, 223; recent revival of, 391–92
military medicine: in Civil War, 99, 154; in Revolutionary War, 93, 151; in Spanish-American War and World War I, 141; in Vietnam War, 484n25; in World War II, 335–36, 344–45
Mill, John Stuart, 75
Miller, Perry, 56
Millerites, 95
Mills, Wilbur, 368, 369, 404, 405
miners’ medical care, 201, 315–20
Minots (family), 89
Mitchell, S. Weir, 82
Modern Healthcare, 430, 493n26
Mommsen, Theodor, 14
Moore, Harry H., 262
moral hazard in insurance, 290–91
Moynihan, Daniel, 367
multihospital systems, 429–36
Munts, Raymond, 312
Nader, Ralph, 400
National Academy of Sciences, 338n, 342
National Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, 192
National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, 191
National Association of Manufacturers (NAM), 250
National Board of Health, 185, 240
National Bureau of Economic Research, 143, 209
National Cancer Institute, 340
National Civic Federation (NCF), 251, 252, 257, 288
National Conference on Economic Security, 268
National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, 343, 346, 348
National Grange, 283
National Health Assembly, 284
National Health Conference, 276, 277, 279
National Health Council, 193
national health insurance, see insurance, health (governmental)
National Health Planning Advisory Council, 402
National Health Planning and Resource Development Act, 402
National Heart Institute, 343
National Hospital Record, 165
National Industrial Conference Board, 250
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 340, 342–47, 351, 352, 363; budget of, 343, 347
National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act), 311, 312
National Medical Care, Inc., 443
National Mental Health Act, 346
National Research Council, 338n
National Science Foundation, 341–43
National Tuberculosis Association, 191, 339
nature-trusting heresy, 56
Netherlands, insurance in, 237
New and Nonofficial Remedies (AMA Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry), 131
New Deal, 204, 266–81, 310, 311, 367
New England Journal of Medicine, 386, 429
New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery, 63
New England Medical College, 50
New Guide to Health (Thomson), 51
New York Academy of Medicine, 90, 161
New York Almshouse, 150
New York City Health Department, 185–88
New York County Medical Society, 187, 195
New York Daily Tribune, 84
New York Evening Star, 56
New York Hospital, 150
New York State Medical Society, 58, 90–91, 101–2
Nightingale, Florence, 154, 155, 159
NIH, see National Institutes of Health
Nixon, Richard, 285, 381, 393, 394, 396, 397, 399, 404, 405, 407, 415, 418, 423
Northwest Kidney Center, 443
Norway, insurance in, 237
Notes on Hospitals (Nightingale), 159
Numbers, Ronald L., 253
nurses: as anesthetists, 221, 223; and consumers, 416; division among, 225; and hospitals, 155–56; as midwives, 223; professionalization, 155–56; and public health, 180, 188; undersupply of, 364
nursing homes: chains of, 438–39; and corporate development, 428, 429; and Medicaid, 445; and mental hospitalization, 365
nutrition, 139–40, 191, 263, 410
obstetrics, 30; certification in, 356; and division of labor, 225; historical aspects of, 45, 49–50; and midwives, 223
occupational disease, 243
OEO, see Office of Economic Opportunity
Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), 370, 371
Office of Management and Budget, 419, 440
Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), 340, 341
Olson, Mancur, 92
One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, 409
ophthalmology, 224; certification in, 356; and optometrists, 223
optometry: independence of, 223
Oregon State Medical Society, 205
otolaryngology, certification in, 356
Palo Alto Clinic, 212
paramedical workers, professionalization of, 221–23; see also division of labor; midwives; nurses
Pareto optimality, 227
Parsons, Talcott, 21n, 74, 75, 160
pathology, 54–55, 116, 210, 222–23
Patient’s Bill of Rights, 390
Pearl, Raymond, 125
pediatrics, 139–41, 192; and division of labor, 225
pellagra, 340
Pennsylvania Hospital, 150, 152, 154, 159
People’s Common Sense Medical Advisor (Pierce), 133
Peppers (family), 89
Perkins, Frances, 267–69
Perlman, Selig, 249
Perrow, Charles, 178
persuasion, 9–11
pesthouses, 151
Peters, John, 274
Petersdorf, Robert G., 352
Petty, William, 229
pharmacy, 127–34; development of and communications, 69–70; and medical education, 41; and physicians, 65, 85; see also drugs
Philadelphia General Hospital, 150
philanthropy, 121–23, 227–28; and hospitals, 153; and medical research, 338–39, 342–43, 346
Physician Himself, The (Cathell), 85–87
physicians: compensation of, 6, 62–64, 66–68, 84–85, 111, 136, 142–43, 163, 206, 208, 215, 226, 248, 270, 318, 354, 358, 385–87; geographic distribution of, 64, 125–26, 201–3, 363, 424; and hospitals, 26, 27, 72, 111, 145–46, 152, 161–69, 178–79, 220–22, 353, 360–62, 385–86, 403; in politics, 83; relations among, 21, 27, 39, 80, 93–112, 162–64, 183–84, 209–18, 271–75, 303–6, 353–54, 362–63, 425–27, 447; social position of, 4–7, 37–40, 54, 81–92, 141–44; supply of, 40, 64, 99, 117, 125–26, 162, 272, 420–27; women as, 50–51, 117, 124, 391, 423, 427, 446; see also American Medical Association; authority, professional; doctor-patient relationship; fee, physicians’
Physicians’ Protective League of New York, 208
physiomedicals, 99
physiotherapy, 438
Pierce, Franklin, 240
Pierce, R.V., 133
Pinel, Philippe, 73
Pinkham company, 132
plague, vaccine for, 138
pneumonia, 335
Poen, Monty, 287
polio, crusade against, 346–47
pollution, environmental, 189–90, 410
polycorporate enterprise, 437, 441
Populism, 19; and cooperatives, 302; and licensing, 105
poverty: cycle of, 366; extent of, 373–74; mass and minority, 373; see also access to medical care
power: and dependency, 4, 11–12; economic, and authority, 21–24, structural, 377; see also authority
prepaid health plans, see group practice, prepaid; health maintenance organizations
Presbyterian Hospital, 161, 361
prescription of drugs, 27
Presidential Commission on Heart Disease, Cancer and Stroke (Debakey Commission), 370
President’s Council on Wage and Price Stability, 406
preventive medicine, 135, 196–97
Price, Don, 351
prices, see costs of medical care; fee, physicians’
Primitive Physic (Wesley), 33
product differentiation, 92
professions: authority of, 12–13; definition of, 15; and division of labor, 220; economic power of, 21–24; rise of, 3, 17, 39–40, 58, 110, 144; see also authority, professional; physicians
Professional Standard Review Organizations (PSRO), 400, 402–4, 406, 407, 414, 416, 419, 444, 447
Progressivism: divisions in, 251, 254; and health insurance, 243–57; history of, 244, 254; and medical authority, 19, 129–32, 140–42; and social control, 192n; and status revolution, 110–11
Progressive Party, 248
proletarianization of medicine, 446
proprietary drugs, 128–29
Protestants, 35; and hospitals, 175, 176
Prudential Insurance Company, 242, 252, 328, 439
PSRO, see Professional Standard Review Organizations
psychiatry: community, 365; criticism of, 409; emergence of profession, 73, 345–46; and medical education, 355; in military, 344–45; popular faith in, 345; private practice in, 72, 345
psychoanalysis, 345
psychological testing, 344
psychosurgery, 390
public health, 28, 180–97; and bacteriology, 135, 185–91; and costs, 189; definition of, 180; federal role in, 184–55, 240; government departments for, 184–89; and health centers, 194–97; and health insurance, 247; and nurses, 180, 188; and private practice, 181–89; regional differences in, 185; and schools, 187–89
Public Health Service, 132, 240, 246, 275, 283, 289, 340, 342, 346, 349; see also Marine Hospital Service
Pure Food and Drug Act, 131
Pusey, William Allen, 126
rabies, vaccine for, 135, 138, 186
Radam, William, 128
railroads, impact on medical practice of, 69; medical programs of, 201–2
Ransdell Act, 340
Reader, W. J., 90
Reading Hospital, 152
Reagan, Ronald, 374, 380, 396, 414, 418, 419, 443
Reformation, Protestant, 35
Regional Medical Programs, 370, 401
religion: and cultural authority of medicine, 17, 33, 35–36, 95, 105, 108; and hospitals, 145–46, 149, 153, 158, 169–77
Relman, Arnold S., 429
Report on National Vitality (Fisher), 135
Republican Party, 243; and Carter administration, 411; and compulsory insurance, 282–85
Resettlement Administration, 271
residency, hospital, 220–21, 358–60; origins of, 116; see also internship, hospital
Reuther, Walter, 382
Richardson, Elliot, 395, 396, 407
Richmond, Mary, 183
rights of patients, 388–93
Rimlinger, Gaston, 238
Rivlin, Alice, 405
Rockefeller, John D., 339
Rockefeller, Nelson, 396
Rockefeller Foundation, 348, 409
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 118, 339
Rockefeller Medicine Men (Brown), 227, 228
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 340
Roe, Benson, 386
Roemer, Milton, 364
Roemer’s Law, 399
Rogers, David E., 410
Rome, ancient, physicians in, 6
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 266–69, 275, 277–80, 340, 341, 347
Roper poll, 288
Rorem, C. Rufus, 212, 213–15, 296–99
Rosen, George, 149
Rosenberg, Charles, 36
Rosenkrantz, Barbara, 196
Rosenwalds (family), 286
Rosner, David, 167
Ross-Loos Clinic, 301, 302, 304
Rotch, Thomas Morgan, 139, 140
Roth, Russell, 402
Rothman, Sheila, 260
Roux, Emile, 186
Royal College of Physicians, 33, 38, 46
Rubinow, I. M., 245–47, 249, 253, 254
Rumsfeld, Donald, 396
Rush, Benjamin, 42, 52, 56, 65, 83, 93, 151, 154
St. Luke’s Hospital, 153
St. Mary’s Hospital, 175
salvarsan, 138
San Joaquin Medical Care Foundation, 397
Scheele, Leonard, 343
Schmidt, Louis, 194
school health programs, 187–89
Schumpeter, Joseph, 229
Schweiker, Richard, 419
science: and professional authority, 3–6, 16–19, 54–59, 134–40, 142; public investment in, 338–47; symbolic value of, 336
Seager, Henry R., 243
Sears, John, 443
Sears, Roebuck Co., 203
secret societies, 455n63
sects, medical, 93–112, 127; convergence in, 99–102; and licensing, 101–12, 127; relation to religious sects, 95
selective incentives, 92
Selvin, Hanan C., 355
Senate Finance Committee, 269, 396
Serbia, insurance in, 237
service benefits, see insurance, health (private)
Seward, William, 98
sexuality, relation of medicine to, 28, 337
Shain, Max, 364
Shame of the States, The (Deutsch), 345
Shattuck, Lemuel, 84
Sheppard-Towner Act, 260–61
Sherman Antitrust Act, 305
Sherman, P. Tecumseh, 252
Shils, Edward, 351
Shrady, George, 182
Shryock, Richard, 55
sick role, 21n, 160; see also doctor-patient relationship
Sigerist, Henry, 149
Simmons, George H., 247
Simon, William, 406
Sinclair, Upton, 131
Sisters of Charity of Houston, 432
Sisters of Mercy Health Corporation, 432
Smith, Alfred E., 254
Smith, Stephen, 185
Snakepit, The, 345
Social Darwinism, 105
socialism, 239, 240–41, 243, 245, 247, 248, 249
socialized medicine, see insurance, health (governmental); socialism
social medicine, 55; see also dispensaries; health centers; public health
Social Security, 204, 250, 266–70, 311, 365, 394, 396, 399; public opinion of, 278–81
Social Security Act, 269, 276, 278, 285, 342; legislative history of, 267–70
Social Security Administration (SSA), 375
Social Security Board, 269, 275, 277, 279
societies, medical, see medical societies
Soviet Union, physicians in, 6
specialization, medical, 223–25; 355–59; and competition, 76–77; entry restrictions, 223–24; and private group practice, 212–13; and hospitals, 163, 358; and interdependence of physicians, 18, 111; and medical education, 224, 355–57; numbers of physicians in, 358–59; overspecialization, 382
Spencer, Herbert, 105
Stage, Sarah, 128
Stanford University, 355
Starkweather, David, 433, 435, 440
State Health Planning and Development Agencies (SHPDAs), 402
Statewide Health Coordinating Councils (SHCCs), 402
stethoscope, 136
Stevens, Rosemary, 221, 224, 357
Still, Andrew, 108
Still, James, 48
Stockman, David, 414, 419, 440
streptomycin, 339
Strong, George Templeton, 153
sulfonamides, 335
Sullivan, Mark, 130
surgery: historical status of, 37–39, 41, 78, 156–57; and hospitals, 156–58, 170, 171; income from, 136, 358, 386; industrial, 200–2; insurance for, 327–28; progress in, 135–36, 156–57, 210–11, 335; second opinions for, 205
Sweden, insurance in, 237, 377
Swedenborgians, 95
Switzerland: insurance in, 237
Sydenstricker, Edgar, 246, 265, 267, 268
syphilis, see venereal disease
Szasz, Thomas, 409
Taft, Robert, 283, 284, 313, 349
Taft-Hartley Act, 313–14, 316, 317
Taylor, Frederick, 200
Technical Committee on Medical Care, 275–77
technology, medical: costs of, 384; diagnostic, 136–37, 210–11; effects of, 16; laboratory, 221–22
telegraph and medical services, 69
telephone and medical services, 69–71
temperature, measurement of, 137
Thayer, W. S., 183
Theory of the Labor Movement (Perl-man), 249
therapeutic nihilism (skepticism), 55–56, 246, 408–11
therapeutic relentlessness, 390
Thomas, Keith, 35
Thomson, Samuel, 51–54
Thomsonians, 51–54, 56, 57, 95, 96, 99
Thomsonian Recorder, 52
Thorazine, 365
Thornton, Matthew, 83
Time magazine, 336
Toner, J. M., 99
Townsend, Francis, 266–67, 278
trachoma, 188
tranquilizers, 365
transportation, effects on medical care of, 65–71, 110
Truman, Harry, 280–86, 289, 313, 316
trustees of hospitals, 152–54, 161, 178–79
Tryon, Rolla, 66
tuberculosis: organism isolated in, 137; and public health, 187, 191, 193, 197
Tufts University, 371
Tuke, William, 73
typhoid, 335; organism isolated in, 137; prevention of, 135, 138, 464n146; and public hygiene, 135, 186
UAW, see United Auto Workers
UMWA, see United Mine Workers of America
unemployment insurance, 243, 249, 266, 267, 269, 278
unions, labor, 8, 24; and benefit programs, 209, 241, 310–20, 333–34; and compulsory health insurance, 249–51, 286, 382, 404; and cooperatives, 304; and employee medical programs, 202–3, 310–26
United Auto Workers (UAW), 315, 382
United Mine Workers of America (UMWA), 315–19, 325
United Rubber Workers, 319
University of Michigan, 100, 141, 347
University of Minnesota, 211
University of Pennsylvania, 41, 42, 115, 122, 123, 125
University of Wisconsin, 243
Unwin, George, 223
urbanization, 69; and hospitals, 72–74, 155
VA, see Veterans Administration
Vanderbilt University, 123
Vaughan, Victor C, 141
venereal disease, 135, 137, 192, 335; clinics for, 194, 197
Veterans Administration, 283, 289, 348, 351, 357–58
voluntarism: and health insurance, 241, 265–66, 282, 334; and hospitals, 150–54, 436–39; and medical research, 346–47
Waddington, Ivan, 65
wage-price controls, 394
Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act), 311, 312
Wagner, Robert F., 277, 280, 313, 350
Wagner-Murray-Dingell bill, 280
Waksman, Selman, 339
Wallace, Henry, 284
Walsh, Mary, 50
War Labor Board, 311
Warner, Andrew, 183
Warren, B. S., 246
Warren, John C., 151
Warrens (family), 89
Washington Business Group on Health, 444
Washington University, 123
Wasserman test, 137
Wealth of Nations, The (Smith), 76
Weber, Max, 13, 95, 148, 450n6
Weltmerism, 105
West, Olin, 262
Western Reserve (Case Western), 355
White, William, 222
Wilbur, Ray Lyman, 261, 264, 266, 307
Wildavsky, Aaron, 409
Wilson, Louis B., 210
Winslow, C.-E. A., 180, 190, 196, 261
witchcraft, 35
Witte, Edwin, 267–69
women: admission of to medical schools, 50, 96, 117, 124, 391; appeal of patent medicines to, 128; as lay practitioners, 32, 39, 49–51; in division of labor, 221; male physician view of, 87, 124; membership in AMA, 427; role in reforming hospitals, 155; see also midwives; nurses
Wyatt v. Stickney, 389
Wylie, W. Gill, 151
X-rays, 136, 137, 156, 195, 210, 221, 223
Yale University, 82, 123, 180, 274, 352, 359
Yordy, Karl, 381–82
Young, James Harvey, 128