FIRE

As a survivor, you must learn how to make fire from the natural materials around you. Do not rely on matches or other commercial methods of making fire. This chapter explains the basic principles of how to start and maintain fires.

Fire is extremely important to the survivor both physically and psychologically. It is a great morale booster, keeps you warm, dries your clothes, boils water, can be used for signalling and for cooking food. It is therefore imperative that you know how to build, start and maintain a fire.

MAKING FIRE

The three ingredients of a successful fire are air, heat and fuel. The key to making a fire is to prepare all the stages of the materials and ensure all the ingredients are present. Be patient, and practise until you get it right.

The materials for a fire fall into three categories: tinder, kindling and fuel.

Tinder is any type of material that has a low flash point and is easily ignited. It usually consists of thin, bone-dry fibres. Tinder includes shredded bark from some trees and bushes, crushed fibres from dead plants, fine, dry wood shavings, straw and grasses, resinous sawdust, very fine pitch wood shavings, bird or rodent nest linings, seed down, charred cloth, cotton balls or lint, steel wool, dry powdered sap from pine trees, paper and foam rubber.

Get into the habit of always having tinder with you, and remember to carry it in a waterproof container.

Kindling has a higher combustible point and is added to the tinder. It is used to bring the burning temperature of the fire up to the point where less combustible fuel can be added to the fire.

Kindling includes dead, small, dry twigs, coniferous seed cones and needles, and wood that has been doused with flammable materials.

Fuel doesn’t have to be dry, but moist wood will produce a lot of smoke. The best fuel sources are dry, dead wood and the insides of fallen trees and large branches (which may be dry even if the outside is wet). Green wood can be split and mixed with dry wood to be used as fuel. If there are no trees, twist dry grass into bunches, use dead cactus, dry peat moss or dried animal dung.

FIRE SITES

A site for your fire should be carefully selected. Remember that you want your fire to be a source of warmth, protection and cooking facilities.

BRITISH SAS TIPS:

RULES FOR FIRE SITES

It is important to have a good spot for your fire. The SAS has many years experience of building survival fires in all types of terrain. It advises:

• Choose a sheltered site.
• Do not light a fire at the base of a stump or tree.
• Clear away all debris on the ground from a circle at least 2m (6ft) cross until you reveal bare earth.
• If ground is wet or covered with snow, build the fire on a platform constructed from green logs covered with a layer of earth or stones.
• In strong winds dig a trench and light a fire in it.
• In windy conditions encircle your fire with rocks.

If you have to build a fire in deep snow or marshy ground, build a temple fire. This consists of a platform of green logs with earth on top which is raised above the ground by four uprights at each corner, which have cross-pieces in their forks for the platform to rest on.

FIRE REFLECTORS

If you can, build a fire reflector (basically a wall) out of logs or rocks. It will direct or reflect the heat where you want it and will reduce the amount of wind blowing into the fire. You can use reflectors to direct heat into your sleeping shelter.

DANGER

Do not place wet or porous rocks and stones near fires – they can explode when heated. Do not use slates and soft rocks, or any that crack, sound hollow or flake. Test all rocks by banging them together. If they contain moisture they will expand faster than the rock when heated and may explode, with potentially lethal effects.

Do not build a fire up against a rock; rather, position it so you can sit between the rock and the fire. For even greater warmth, build a reflector beyond the fire that directs warmth back towards you (the rock will absorb warmth and keep your back warm).

STARTING FIRES WITHOUT MATCHES

Survivors must know how to start a fire without matches in a long-term survival situation. There are a number of easy ways to make fire without commercial matches. When trying to start a fire, remember to do so out of the wind or with your back to the wind.

Flint and steel Hold the flint and steel above the tinder. Strike the flint with the edge of the steel in a downward glance. The sparks must be fanned on the tinder and then further blown or fanned to produce a coal and subsequent flame.

WARNING

Keep sparks and flames away from the battery because explosive hydrogen gas is produced, which can cause serious injury.

Battery If you have access to a battery, connect the end of one piece of insulated wire to the positive post and the end of another piece of insulated wire to the negative post. Touch the two remaining ends to the ends of a piece of non-insulated wire. The non-insulated wire will begin to glow and get hot, and can be used to ignite kindling. Remember to move the battery away once you have the fire going.

Burning glass Concentrate rays of the sun on tinder using a magnifying glass, a camera lens, the lens of a flashlight that magnifies, or even a convex piece of bottle glass.

Flashlamp reflector Place tinder in the centre of reflector where the bulb is usually located. Push it up from the back of the hole until the hottest light is concentrated on the end and smoke results. If available, a cigarette can be used as tinder for this method.

Bow and Drill An ancient method of making fire, and a useful one for the survivor to know.

Make a spindle out of straight hardwood, the spindle to be around 30-45cm (12-18in) long and 1.9cm (0.75in) in diameter. Round one end and work the other into a blunt point. The round end goes into the socket (which is made from hardwood and which can be held comfortably – put grease or soap in the hole to prevent friction).

The bow should be made from a branch around 0.9m (3ft) long and 2.54cm (1in) in diameter. Tie a piece of suspension line or leather thong to both ends so it has the tension of a bow.

The fireboard is made from softwood and is around 30cm (12in) long and 1.9cm (0.75in) thick and 7.5-15cm (3-6in) wide. Carve a small hollow in it then make a V-shaped cut in from the edge of the board. It should extend into the centre of the hollow, where the spindle will make the hollow deeper. The object of the ‘V’ is to create an angle that cuts off the edge of the spindle as it gets hot and turns to charcoal dust.

While kneeling on one knee, place the other foot on the fireboard and place tinder just beneath the V-cut. Rest the board on two sticks to create the space (this allows air into the tinder).

Twist the bow string once around the spindle and place spindle upright into the hollow. Then press socket down on the spindle and fireboard. Spin the spindle with long, even strokes of the bow until smoke is produced. The spinning should become faster until thick smoke is produced. By this stage a hot powder that can be blown into a glowing ember has been produced.

US SPECIAL FORCES TIPS:

FIRECRAFT TIPS

Use these very simple rules, employed by America’s elite soldiers, for making and siting fires in the wild.

• Reserve your matches for starting properly prepared fires, not for lighting cigarettes or improperly prepared fires.
• Always try to carry dry tinder in a waterproof container.
• In the arctic, a platform will be needed to prevent fire from melting down through deep snow and putting it out.
• You will also need a platform if you start a fire in an area of peat or humus to stop it spreading – a smouldering peat fire can burn for years.
• In woods, clear away ground debris to prevent fire from spreading.

The bow and spindle can be removed and tinder placed next to the glowing ember. Roll tinder around the burning ember and blow to burn the tinder. The burning tinder is then placed in a waiting fire containing more tinder and small kindling.

TYPES OF FIRE

There are different types of fires, all used for specific purposes. You should learn how to site and build them all.

Safety night fire This fire enables you to stay close to the fire while sleeping without the danger of burning logs rolling on you. Place two large, green logs against the fire, ensuring that as the fire burns it will be pushed away from you and your shelter. Make sure the fire has as few air spaces as possible to ensure it burns throughout the night. Note the position of the heat reflector.

Long fire This fire begins as a trench, which is dug to take advantage of the wind. However, it can also be constructed above ground by using two parallel green logs to hold the coals together. Make sure the logs are at least 15cm (6in) wide (although the thicker the better) and positioned so that cooking utensils can be rested on them. Two 2.5cm (1in) diameter sticks can be placed under them to allow the fire to receive more air.

‘T’ fire This fire is good for cooking. The fire is maintained in the top part of the ‘T’, which provides coals for cooking in the bottom part of the ‘T’.

Tepee A good fire for both cooking and heat (remember to have ample supplies of fuel). Place tinder in middle of fire site and push a stick into the ground, slanting over the tinder. Lean a circle of kindling sticks against the slanting stick, with an opening towards the wind for draft. Light the fire with your back to the wind and feed the fire from the downwind side.

Star fire Used to conserve fuel or if you want a small fire. The fire is in the centre of the ‘wheel’; the logs are pushed in according to needs. They can be drawn apart if cooking over embers is required. Hardwood is recommended for this type of fire.

Keyhole Fire Dig a hole in the ground in the shape of a key, taking advantage of the wind. This fire does the same job as the long fire.

Pyramid fire Similar to the log cabin fire, except there are layers of fuel instead of a hollow framework. This fire burns for a long time and can be used as an overnight fire.

Log cabin This fire gives off great heat and light because of the amount of oxygen which enters it. As such, it can be used for cooking and signalling.

CARRYING FIRE

Carrying fire is an effective way of preserving your fire-starting materials and saving you the bother of starting a fire when you decide to make camp for the night. Carrying fire was used by prehistoric man and is still used by primitive peoples throughout the world. As with everything else concerning survival, you should practise making fire bundles and tubes before you actually need them, and remember to have more than one ready to use.

Diagram 14 shows two of the most effective ways of carrying fire, though you may only be able to use fire tubes if you do not have a tin can.

Fire bundles Place a number of hot coals, surrounded by dry tinder and then damp grass and leaves, in a medium-sized tin can. Ensure there are ventilation holes pierced in the can.

Fire tube Take a long sheet of bark and lay tinder down the middle (B). Roll the tube and secure it with ties all down its length. Drop embers into the end of the tube to start it smouldering (C). Keep the tube pointing into the breeze; if it catches fire spit on it or stamp on it to regain control.

There other ways of carrying fire, including transporting a burning log and swinging it to keep it alight (though if you are going to do this make sure you are physically strong enough!) and wrapping a coal in a fireproof leaf. There is much to be recommended about carrying fire, not least the fact that it is a portable morale-booster. It is very important that you are proficient in carrying fire before you set off on your journey.