Knight: The Medieval Warrior’s (Unofficial) Manual

Banners, forward, forward! Let us take the Lord God as our protector, and let every man acquit himself honourably.

As a valorous knight, you will, of course, want to fight in battle. For Geoffroi de Charny, battle is the peak of what a knight can do. Think, however, of the dangers. Before you ride into the fight, full of a sense of chivalric glory, determined to display your prowess, remember the scene after the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. Boucicaut had been captured, and stood in his underclothes before the Turkish sultan, expecting to be executed along with so many of the Christian army. That is something you want to avoid.

You should not expect to fight in many major battles. Boucicaut was involved in just three. If you are sensible, you will see that the risks involved in battle often outweigh the possible gains. At Buirenfosse in 1339, the English and their allies faced a French army for a day, but no fighting took place. The sides were thought to be too easily matched for it to be worth risking a battle. However, there are those who argue that it is only through battle that war can be brought to an end. If you take the view that battle is a form of trial before God, you will want to fight to prove that your side is in the right. You will find that some commanders are eager to commit their troops to battle.

The battle of Poitiers in 1356, from a manuscript of Froissart’s Chronicles. This typical battle scene shows the victorious English on the left. English archers are shown shooting at the mounted French vanguard. (From Jean de Froissart, Chroniques, 15th century. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris)

Plan in advance

It is a good idea to think out your battle tactics in advance, and if you are a knight of great distinction, you may have the chance to do so. Before the recent battle of Agincourt in 1415, Boucicaut drew up a plan for battle against the English. There were to be two large battalions, one a vanguard, which could join together to form a single body. Two flanking wings of footsoldiers were to have archers positioned in front of them. A reserve battalion of 1,000 men-at-arms was to be used to attack the English archers, while a smaller reserve of 200 men was to go right round to assault the English baggage train from the rear. In the event, the English were able to counter these tactics by selecting a narrow field of battle, and the French were unable to deal with the English archers, who protected their positions with stakes.

It is exceptional to have a written plan like Boucicaut’s, but though the French failed at Agincourt, advance planning is obviously advisable. There is every indication that the English had their battle plans at Crécy and Poitiers properly thought out in advance; the crusaders at Nicopolis, however, were in disarray and if they had plans, they certainly did not put them into proper effect.

Suitable terrain

Make sure that the terrain is right for the way you want to fight.

•The boggy ground of Bannockburn was hard-going for horses.

•At Crécy a small escarpment, giving a vertical drop of 6 feet or so, on the opposite side of the valley to the English position made things difficult for the French cavalry. The French were unable to advance straight towards the enemy position, and were led into a killing ground from which escape was hard.

•At Poitiers stone walls and hedges created good defences for the English, and created difficulties for the French.

If the terrain is not good, it is possible to transform it. A defensive position can be improved by digging small pits in front of the lines, so as to trip horses as they charge. At Loudoun Hill in 1307 Robert Bruce cunningly narrowed the battlefield by digging trenches. At Castagnaro John Hawkwood had prepared the route in advance for his cavalry to take in their decisive flanking attack.

At Crécy in 1346 the English formed up at the top of a slope, on which a windmill stood. Pits dug in front of their archers provided a defence against cavalry. The French were forced by the terrain into a very vulnerable position. (From Jean de Froissart, Chroniques, 15th century. Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris)

Morale

You need to be in the right mood to fight, so give your men a good pep talk before battle. Commanders traditionally try to whip up enthusiasm by making speeches, but in the open air, with all the noise of the horses and of men preparing their armour and weapons, it is not easy to hear what is being said. At Poitiers in 1356 the Black Prince is said to have made two speeches, one to the knights and men-at-arms, and the other to the archers. He told the troops that they were descended from true Englishmen:

Who, under the lead of my father, and my ancestors, kings of England, found no labour painful, no place invincible, no ground unpassable, no hill however high inaccessible, no tower unscaleable, no army impenetrable, no soldier in arms or host of men formidable.

The Prince was eloquent, but it is not really necessary to have great skill with words. John Hawkwood had no trouble inspiring his troops, but was said to have been ‘more able with hand and industry than with tongue’.

The mood of troops is unpredictable. At Agincourt, the English army was exhausted after the march from Harfleur. Many of the men were suffering from dysentery. Try spending the night in the open, in heavy rain, under orders not to make a sound. You will not feel good in the morning. That is what it was like before the battle, when the English faced an army far larger than their own. Henry V did his best to boost morale, but those who heard him declare that he himself was prepared to die in the conflict cannot have been particularly reassured that victory was theirs for the taking. Yet his resolve was clear, and his example inspirational. Somehow, almost miraculously, the English troops were convinced that they could win. A desperate position was turned into a winning advantage.

Do not argue

This is easily said. One of the standard explanations for defeat is that there were too many arguments before the battle.

•At Bannockburn there was a dispute between the earls of Gloucester and Hereford over who had the right to lead the vanguard. Gloucester’s subsequent suicidal charge contributed to the English defeat.

•Before Crécy there was much argument among the French as to whether or not they should attack; it would have made more sense to rest the troops rather than advancing in a headstrong manner.

•At Nicopolis the crusaders were disunited, with the Franco-Burgundian knights failing to co-operate properly with King Sigismund of Hungary’s troops.

It is, however, not only the vanquished whose commanders argue. There was a row at the battle of Auray in 1364, when Hugh Calveley objected to being given command of the rearguard, but nonetheless the Anglo-Breton forces won the battle. Nevertheless, it is safe to assume that if you start arguing over the right tactics, you are likely to be in a bad way once the fighting starts. You should accept the orders you are given with good grace, and not dispute them.

Avoid arranged battles

You may find that your opponents will challenge you to fight a battle on equal terms. Before Poitiers, de Charny suggested that the issue might be settled between one hundred men from each side. You should resist any such suggestions; if you have any sense, you want to ensure that you have the advantage when you fight.

A particularly notable encounter of this sort took place in Brittany in 1351, with the Fight of the Thirty. Jean de Beaumanoir challenged an English captain to a fight between three champions on each side. The English refused, but suggested 20 or 30 on each side, fighting in an agreed location. Rules were settled, with starting signals, breaks for refreshment (a bottle of Anjou wine each), and so forth. The fight was long and hard, and ended in triumph for the French. The English captain and eight of his companions were slain, and the remainder imprisoned. This was a glorious conflict in chivalric terms, and the survivors were always treated with great honour. That does not, however, mean that the challenge was a good idea.

HUGH CALVELEY

Hugh Calveley was a Cheshire man, whose fighting career began in Brittany in the early 1340s, and lasted about 40 years. He was Robert Knollys’ brother-in-arms. Calveley captured Bertrand du Guesclin in 1361, and fought at Auray in 1364. He fought alongside his former opponent du Guesclin in Spain in 1366, and was with the Black Prince at Nájera in the next year. Calveley continued to play a distinguished role in the English war with France until the early 1380s; his final campaign was the bishop of Norwich’s crusade to Flanders in 1383, and he died in 1394.

Fighting on horseback

As a knight, the traditional way for you to fight is on horseback. At the start of battle, the cavalry forces look magnificent. The scene when the English drew their cavalry up ready to charge the Scots in 1307 was described by Robert Bruce’s biographer, John Barbour:

Their bacinets were all burnished bright, gleaming in the sun’s light; their spears, their pennons and their shields lit up all the fields with light. Their best, bright-embroidered banners, horse of many hues, coats of armour of diverse colours, and hauberks which were white as flour, made them glitter as though they were like to angels from the kingdom of Heaven.

The charge is frightening for those standing waiting for the crash of the warhorses as they meet the line of defenders. Again, the life of Robert Bruce provides some impression of what it was like:

If you had come by you would have heard a great crash of the spears that broke, for their enemies attacked fast, galloping on steeds with great arrogance, as if to ride down the earl and all his company.

This is how you should approach fighting in battle on horseback:

•When you charge, start slowly, and keep alongside your fellow knights.

•Never gallop ahead on your own; only put your spurs to your horse when the enemy is within close range.

•Lances are only useful for the initial strike. Many get broken, others cast aside after this.

•Once you have penetrated the enemy lines, you are in a mêlée. The best weapon in this hand-to-hand fighting is your sword.

•If you can, drive through the enemy lines, turn, and charge them again from the rear.

You may find it difficult to remain mounted in the confusion of battle. Pedro IV of Aragon, in his early years, charged into battle in Sardinia. He quickly lost his lance and was unhorsed, but continued to fight on foot. He was struck no fewer than 19 blows, but once he got hold of his sword, which he called Villardelle, the enemy began to fall back in disarray.

Fighting on horseback can sometimes work well. The French cavalry triumphed at Cassel in 1328, and again at Roosebeke in 1382, when French and Burgundian cavalry defeated the townspeople of Ghent. At Poitiers it was the cavalry under the Gascon Captal de Buch who dealt the final hammer blow to the French. There are, however, major potential problems if you do choose to fight in battle in this way.

Fighting on horseback gives an advantage in height, but horses are vulnerable to archers and footsoldiers with pole weapons. (From A. Parmentier, Album Historique, Paris 1895)

The failure of the mounted knight

Worryingly for knights, recent history shows that you are more likely to face defeat if you try to fight on horseback:

•The battle of Courtrai in 1302 saw the Flemish townspeople, fighting on foot, defeat the flower of French chivalry.

•At Bannockburn in 1314 the English cavalry were cut down by Scottish spearmen.

•Swiss troops fighting on foot, with long halberds, were successful against knightly cavalry at Morgarten in 1315.

•The Swiss infantry were successful against aristocratic cavalry at Laupen in 1339.

•The English broke the French cavalry in spectacular fashion at Crécy; archery was one key to their success, but in the mêlée it was the dismounted English knights and men-at-arms who won the battle.

•At Nájera in 1367 the Black Prince’s troops were successful against the cavalry of Henry of Trastamara, the claimant to the Castilian throne.

•At Aljubarrota in 1385 English dismounted forces, including archers, assisted the Portuguese in their defeat of the Franco-Castilian army.

•At Sempach in 1386 the Swiss infantry defeated the Austrian cavalry.

The crusading battle of Nicopolis in 1396 was the final demonstration of the failure of the mounted knight. There, Boucicaut fought with exceptional bravery. He spurred his great charger, his sword in his hand, and rode through the Turkish ranks, turning his horse to assist his companions. Inevitably, he was captured. His biographer described the odds, 20 Saracens against one Christian (believe that if you want). He considered that the defeat was the fault of the Hungarian troops, not of the noble French knights who displayed such courage and valour, but the fact remains that the knights were a failure. Turkish archers were important in Sultan Bãyazîd’s triumph; by aiming at the horses they destroyed half of the duke of Burgundy’s cavalry.

This imaginative picture of the battle of Neville’s Cross in 1346, from a manuscript of Froissart’s Chronicles, shows mounted knights in the foreground, fighting with lances and swords. (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris)

Be ready to fight on foot

Since there are such dangers in fighting on horseback, think again about it. The most effective tactic is for you to stand close-packed with your colleagues, knights, squires and men-at-arms, and face the enemy on foot. This tactic was first developed by the English.

•The English government gave instructions in 1327 that the knights and men-at-arms were not to bring their great warhorses on campaign against the Scots. They were drawn up on foot for battle, though on this occasion the Scots withdrew and did not fight.

•In 1332 the method worked brilliantly, when a small English force dismounted to face the Scots at Dupplin Moor. By selecting a perfect defensive position the English nullified the advantage that the Scots had in numbers, and cut them down as they advanced on the English line. The trick was repeated in 1333 at Halidon Hill.

•In 1346 similar tactics were used at Crécy, with the English employing dismounted knights and men-at-arms flanked by archers.

Do not advance on foot

It is advisable to fight on foot, but do not tire yourself out by marching far. At Poitiers, the French, on the advice of the Scot William Douglas, dismounted the bulk of their cavalry. They did not, however, fight from a defensive position, but advanced on the English lines. This meant that they were exhausted by the time they were able to engage their enemy, and in no fit state to face a gruelling mêlée.

Agincourt provides another example; the French were worn out by the time they reached the English position. It is no fun advancing on foot through a muddy field, being shot at by English archers, particularly if you are weighed down by armour. You will be quite out of breath even before you start fighting. So, whatever you do, don’t advance if you are on foot. The whole idea of dismounting to fight is that your army should establish a strong defensive position, and wait to be attacked.

Watch out for archers

One of the main reasons for English success in battle has been the use of longbowmen. Their bow is a simple, but deadly, weapon. A trained man can shoot off a dozen arrows in a minute, and they are effective over a range of at least 200 yards. The sight of a cloud of arrows, with the hissing sound that they make as they fall towards you, is terrifying. The horses are particularly affected, and will buck and turn as they are maddened by the stinging missiles. These archers proved their worth at Crécy and at Poitiers.

The role of English archers has been influential on more distant battle-fields. At Aljubarrota the archers in the Anglo-Portuguese army ‘shot so vigorously and quick that the horses were larded, as it were, with arrows, and fell one upon the other.’ Archers under John Hawkwood were important in his victory at Castagnaro in 1387. Turkish archers are also to be feared. The Turks do not draw their bows back quite as far as the English, just to the moustache, not the ear. Their bows, however, are strong, and their arrows frightening.

There are ways of dealing with archers; at the battle of Auray in 1364 the English bowmen were countered by the French knights and men-at-arms, who were well-armoured and used their shields to good effect. They were in such close order that ‘one could scarcely throw an apple among them, without it falling on a helmet or lance.’

The English longbow is usually 6 feet or more in length, and requires great strength and much practice to shoot. These archers, shown in a manuscript of about 1340, carry quivers, each containing two dozen arrows. (From The Romance of Alexander, c. 1338–44. Bodleian Library, Oxford)

How to fight in the mêlée

It is hard to describe what happens in the midst of battle. The noise is unbearable, with horses neighing, men shouting and swords clashing. Barbour’s The Bruce puts it well:

There was such a din of blows, such as weapons landing on armour, such a great breaking of spears, such pressure and such pushing, such snarling and groaning, so much noise as they struck the others, and shouted rallying cries on both sides, giving and receiving great wounds, that it was horrible to hear.

Keep close to your companions; getting isolated is very dangerous. Make sure you are aware of what is happening around you, and fight as best you can. It probably will not last that long; most battles go on for no more than a few hours. If you are lucky, there will be a half-time break; at the battle of Neville’s Cross in 1346 both sides laid down their weapons at least once, so as to get their breath.

Be very careful not to get caught in the middle. The press of men can become too great, as those behind push forward, but those in front cannot move. This was the case above all at Dupplin Moor in 1332 and at Agincourt in 1415. The result is horrendous; as men are forced up to the front line, they climb over their comrades. Those beneath are suffocated, and piles of dead and dying men are built up. An eye-witness describes Agincourt:

Such a great heap grew of the slain and of those lying crushed in between that our men climbed up those heaps, which had risen above a man’s height, and butchered their enemies down below with swords, axes and other weapons.

Never think that the fighting in battle is going to be a glorious experience, a splendid opportunity to demonstrate your knightly skills. It is going to be noisy, crowded and utterly terrifying. The mêlée at Tannenberg in 1410, described by the chronicler Jan Dlugosz, provides an example:

Breaking spears and armour hitting against each other produced such a great clatter and bang, and the clang of swords resounded so loudly, as if some huge rock had collapsed, that even those who were several miles away could hear it. Then knight attacked knight, armour crushed under the pressure of armour, and swords hit faces. And when the ranks closed, it was impossible to tell the coward from the brave, the bold from the slow, because all of them were pressed together, as if in some tangle.

The mêlée at Aljubarrota in 1385 was fierce. Here, men fight hand-to-hand, as well as with bow and lance. (British Library, London)

This sort of fighting can offer opportunities for heroism. James Audley vowed to be in the front line in any battle involving Edward III or his son, and carried this out at Poitiers in 1356, as Froissart described:

He was severely wounded in the body, head and face; and as long as his strength and breath permitted him, he maintained the fight, and advanced forward; he continued to do so until he was covered with blood; then, towards the close of the engagement, his four squires who were his bodyguard, took him, and led him out of the engagement, very weak and wounded.

Audley survived, and was praised by the Black Prince as the bravest knight in the battle. His example, however, would be dangerous to follow.

Sword from the end of the 14th century. (From A. Parmentier, Album Historique, Paris 1895)

OF BATTLES

Bannockburn, with two days of fighting, was the longest battle to take place in the 14th century.

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At Crécy Edward III did not get involved in the fighting directly, but stayed by a windmill from where he could observe the battle.

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Muslim armies make the most noise before battle, with drums, trumpets, cymbals and fifes.

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Remarkably, the English knight Maurice Berkeley succeeded in getting himself captured by the French, during the English victory at Poitiers.

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At the battle of Tannenberg the Polish king, fearing what would happen if his men got drunk, ordered the destruction of the wine-barrels found in the German baggage train.

Do not try to be a hero

Of course knights should be valorous and brave, but don’t take this to excesses in the way that some have done. One man cannot defeat an army.

•On the first day at the battle of Bannockburn William Deyncourt, ‘bold of heart and hand’, galloped all alone into the lines of Scottish footsoldiers. He was brought down and killed, without thought of the ransom he would have been worth.

•On the second day at Bannockburn the young earl of Gloucester charged single-handed into the Scottish lines; the knights of his retinue had more sense than to follow him. He was duly slain.

•At the end of the battle of Bannockburn, Giles of Argentein could not bear to leave the battlefield in defeat, but committed himself to one last suicidal charge. ‘Assuredly I never yet fled, and I choose to stay here and die, rather than live in shame by flight.’ His reputation survived, but he did not.

•On the Nájera campaign in 1367 William Felton ‘boldly and bravely threw himself on horseback into the enemy like a madman’. He killed a Spaniard with his lance, drew his sword and dealt with another, but then his horse was slain under him, and he was himself killed.

Such chivalrous feats may be magnificent, but they are not war.

Do not underestimate your foe

When Boucicaut fought his first battle, at Roosebeke in 1382, he was just 16. He found himself engaging a large Flemish man-at-arms. The Fleming knocked Boucicaut’s axe from his hand, saying ‘Go and suck, go, child. Now I can see that the French have no men, since their children fight in battles.’ Boucicaut, very upset at the loss of his axe, promptly drew his dagger, and stabbed the man under his armpit, saying, as he killed him, ‘Do the children in your country play games like these?’

In practice, you probably won’t find yourself faced by many children in battle, but watch out for the unexpected. It is common in the later stages of a battle for the infantry to enter the mêlée to do their worst. That apparently insignificant footsoldier, lacking armour and proper equipment, may have a dagger or knife with which to give you a nasty injury.

You may think, if you are on crusade, that you are superior to your foes, because God is on your side. This is a dangerous view, as the events at Nicopolis showed. If you are facing Turks, they are just as confident as you are that God is supporting them, and if you have Lithuanians against you, they believe that there is a whole host of gods backing their cause.

Gunpowder weapons

Do not worry about these; they are hopeless on the battlefield, and surely will remain so. The English had some guns at the battle of Crécy. They made a big noise, and produced a lot of smoke, but achieved little. One problem is that it takes far too long to load a gun. The Italians have tried to do something about this, and developed a weapon in the form of a cart with no fewer than 12 dozen guns mounted on it, so as to deliver a fearful volley. The Veronese tried this out at Castagnaro in 1387; it did not work.

Forget your vows

It is very likely that you have made vows to perform valiant deeds. It is particularly dangerous if these relate to battle, as James Audley found out. It is said, for example, that the 89 knights of the Company of the Star who died in Brittany at the battle of Mauron in 1352 did so because they had sworn never to flee from the battlefield. It is very possible that the determination of the blind king of Bohemia, John of Luxembourg, to enter the fray at Crécy was because of a vow that he had made. It will be possible for you to obtain absolution from your vows; it is not worth putting yourself in unnecessary danger because of a foolish promise you made when you were probably drunk.

What happens if you lose?

Men get wounded and killed in battles, and there is no easy way to keep yourself safe. There are no reliable counts, but large numbers of fatalities are often reported. The chronicler Jean le Bel was exaggerating when he claimed that at Crécy the total of dead came to nine princes and about 12,000 knights, with 15,000 or 16,000 common soldiers, but it is clear that the death toll was horrendous.

If you find yourself on the wrong side in a rout, remember that is when most casualties occur. Rivers are a particular hazard, for they often block escape routes; when people cannot cross them, they drown. The scene after Bannockburn, described in Barbour’s life of Robert Bruce, was truly horrific:

Truth to tell, they were so terrified, and they fled in fear so fast, that a very great part of them fled to the River Forth and there most of them were drowned; Bannockburn between its banks was so filled with men and horses that men could then pass dry-foot over it on drowned horses and men.

It is said that after the battle of Nájera in Spain in 1367, many of the defeated chose to jump in the river and drown, rather than be slaughtered. If you do not fancy a watery grave, instead of fleeing when defeat threatens, the best thing to do is to find an enemy knight and surrender to him. You will have to pay your captor a ransom, but that’s a small price to pay for your life. If that does not appeal to you, get rid of your armour and hide; you might be able to make your escape eventually. What you must not do is panic and flee; that is a sure way to get yourself killed.