NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:1 Introduction. The double title in this superscription for the book is unique in the OT: oracle (Hb. massa’) denotes a prophetic utterance or proclamation (see note on Hab. 1:1), and vision (Hb. khazon) indicates how God communicated the contents of the book to Nahum. In Nahum, the name Nineveh occurs again only in 2:8 and 3:7.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:2–8 A Psalm Descriptively Praising the Lord. This praise is general in nature, describing God as he has been and will be throughout world history.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:2–3a The Lord Takes Vengeance on His Guilty Adversaries. The Lord is jealous with regard to his own honor and those in covenant fellowship with him. avenging. God’s holy anger is righteous and just, in defense of his word and his people. keeps wrath. God holds back the venting of his anger until an appropriate time (cf. Ps. 103:9). slow to anger (Ex. 34:6). God’s patience explains why the wicked often do not immediately receive the judgment they deserve (cf. Ezek. 33:11). great in power. The delay in deserved judgment is not due to a lack of power or control on God’s part. will by no means clear the guilty (cf. Ex. 34:7). That the wicked seemingly prosper does not mean God regards them as innocent or has forgotten their iniquity.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:3b whirlwind and storm. A possible polemic against the storm-god(s) theology of many ancient Near Eastern religions.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:3b–6 The Lord Rules Creation in Majesty, and No One Can Stand before His Wrath. God’s interaction with, and his effect on, nature and the natural world is described in figurative language illustrating God’s awesome majesty and omnipotence.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:4–5 rebukes the sea … dries up … rivers. Cf. the exodus (Exodus 14) and conquest (Joshua 3–4). Bashan, a northern Transjordanian region, was famous for its rich pasturelands. Carmel, a mountain next to the Mediterranean Sea and close to Lower Galilee, was well known for its beauty and luxuriant countryside. Lebanon, a mountainous region just to the north of Israel, was noted for its forests. For a similar reference to these three regions, see Isa. 33:9. Hills and mountains are symbols of permanence and immovability, but even they cannot stand before God.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:6 wrath. See v. 2. Fire is a frequent image used in the OT to emphasize God’s fierce and all-consuming wrath (e.g., Gen. 19:24; Ps. 11:6; Amos 5:6). Rocks represent the hardest objects in nature, easily shattered by the Lord.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:7 The Lord Delivers Those Who Take Refuge in Him. In contrast to his anger, God is good to his people, blessing those who trust in him. stronghold. The Lord is the never-failing protector of his people. He will keep them safe and rescue them from human and spiritual enemies (e.g., Ps. 27:1; 37:39; Isa. 17:10; Jer. 16:19). God knows his people with love and affection, which results in his benevolent actions.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:8 The Lord Destroys His Adversaries. A striking contrast to v. 7. This alternation at the end of the first major section (vv. 2–8) sets the pattern for a similar alternation in the next section (vv. 9–15). The description in v. 8 of God dealing with his “enemies” echoes v. 2. Like an overflowing flood, God’s judgment is overwhelming; Nineveh was to be destroyed by a flood (see 2:6, 8). complete end … darkness. God’s judgment will culminate with removal from this life and everlasting damnation.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:9–15 The Lord’s Coming Judgment on Nineveh and Deliverance of Judah. The preceding section (vv. 2–8) presented in a general way the omnipotent cosmic monarch’s attitude toward, and action with, his enemies and his people. In this section (vv. 9–15) the focus turns to Nineveh and Judah, alternating between the Lord’s coming judgment on Nineveh and his deliverance of Judah.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:9–12a The Destruction of Wicked, Plotting Nineveh. God addresses Nineveh, saying that in spite of her plots and might, she will fall.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:9 You is masculine plural in Hebrew, presumably addressing the Assyrians (cf. the superscription in v. 1, “concerning Nineveh,” the capital of Assyria). plot. Plots to harm God’s people are ultimately against the LORD himself. complete end. See v. 8; here it is specifically applied to Nineveh. Trouble (cf. v. 7) is what Judah experienced because of oppressive Assyria.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:10 Entangled thorns can be thrown en masse into the fire, just as the Assyrians as a whole will be wiped out. Like drunkards, the Assyrians will be unable to defend themselves successfully against their attackers. The image of burning dry stubble, a frequent one in the OT, conveys the sense of quick extermination.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:11 You is feminine singular in Hebrew and thus refers to the city of Nineveh (see v. 9). one who … worthless counselor. Either a reference to a particular wicked Assyrian king or to the series of evil Assyrian kings who reigned in Nineveh after Sennacherib made that city the capital (see Introduction: Purpose, Occasion, and Background).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:12a they. The Assyrians. full strength. Assyria was likely at the height of its power when Nahum wrote (see Introduction: Date). many. The Assyrian army was large enough to manage a number of extensive conquests (e.g., 2 Kings 19:35) and maintain control of the empire for lengthy periods of time. will be cut down and pass away. God would end the military dominance of the Assyrians, and they would pass from the pages of history (see Introduction: Purpose, Occasion, and Background).
The Neo-Assyrian period (935–609 B.C.) brought renewed threats from the Assyrians. God used the Assyrians to chasten wayward Israel. In Nah. 1:12 the Lord tells Judah that “Though I have afflicted you [through the Assyrians], I will afflict you no longer.”
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c117
| Assyrian Ruler | Reign | Affliction | Significance and Biblical References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shalmaneser III | 858–824 B.C. | Exacted tribute from “Jehu, son of Omri” according to the Black Obelisk | Defeated at Qarqar in 853 B.C. by a Syrian coalition that included “Ahab the Israelite” |
| Adad-nirari III | 811–783 | Exacted tribute from Jehoash of Israel | His attacks on Damascus enabled Jehoash to recover Israelite cities lost previously to Hazael (2 Kings 13:25) |
| Tiglath-pileser III (Pul) | 745–727 | Invaded the land and exacted tribute | To avoid deportation, Menahem paid tribute to Tiglath-pileser III (Pul) (2 Kings 15:19–20); Pul deported the Transjordanian tribes (2 Kings 15:29; 1 Chron. 5:26); Pul aided Ahaz of Judah against Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Israel (2 Kings 16:5–10; 2 Chron. 28:16–21) |
| Shalmaneser V | 727–722 | Exacted tribute from Hoshea of Israel; took the northern kingdom (Israel) into exile | Hoshea refused to pay tribute and sought Egypt for help, the Assyrians besieged Samaria (2 Kings 17:3–6; 18:9–12) |
| Sargon II | 722–705 | Took credit for the invasion and exile of the northern kingdom (Israel) that began under Shalmaneser V | Sargon II may be the unnamed king of Assyria in 2 Kings 17:6 |
| Sennacherib | 705–681 | Invaded Judah | Sennacherib besieged Lachish and forced tribute from Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:13–16); he besieged Jerusalem and demanded Hezekiah’s surrender (2 Kings 18:17–19:9); the Lord delivered Jerusalem from Sennacherib (2 Kings 19:10–37). See also 2 Chronicles 32; Isaiah 36–37 |
| Esarhaddon | 681–669 | Exacted tribute from Manasseh of Judah | Mentioned at 2 Kings 19:37 as successor to Sennacherib (see also Ezra 4:2) |
| Ashurbanipal | 669–627 | Exacted tribute | Increasing tensions from Babylonia required Assyria’s direct attention. The increased political freedom of the western city-states is reflected in the reforms instituted by Josiah |
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:12b–13 Judah, Having Been Afflicted by the Lord, Is Freed from Assyrian Bondage. The Assyrian yoke was only temporary, for God’s purposes.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:12b Though I have afflicted you. Suddenly God addresses Judah (see v. 15). This dramatic change in the flow of v. 12, the direct address, and the initial anonymity of the addressee were attention-getting devices emphasizing the announcement of good news that follows. God had used the Assyrians to chasten wayward Judah. I will afflict you no more. Since God would overthrow Nineveh, the Assyrians would never again be Judah’s scourge.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:13 His yoke refers to the burdensome rule of the Assyrian monarchs (cf. v. 11) over Judah. About 734/733 B.C., during the reign of Ahaz (2 Kings 16:7–8), the southern kingdom had become a vassal state of Assyria. This involved paying heavy tribute to the Assyrians (cf. 2 Kings 18:13–16) and other oppressive measures. When Judah revolted under Hezekiah, the Assyrians in 701 B.C. devastated the land (2 Kings 18:13; Isa. 7:18–25; 8:5–8) and took away many people and much plunder. break … burst. The vassalage of Judah lasted until the reign of Josiah (640–609 B.C.), when Assyria began to decline rapidly and finally ceased to be a nation (see Introduction: Date).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:14 The Termination of Vile, Idolatrous Nineveh. You is masculine singular in Hebrew. Nahum suddenly switches to directly addressing the Assyrian king(s) (see v. 11): the Assyrian monarchy would come to a decisive end. This implies the total conquest of Assyria and the irreversible fall of Nineveh. the house of your gods I will cut off. Complete defeat of the Assyrian ruler would also be marked by the desecration of his temple and the destruction or removal of his idols, which represented the gods who he believed gave him power, wealth, and descendants. Archaeologists have noted the complete destruction that Nineveh’s temples underwent.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 1:15 Peace and Deliverance for Judah. This verse concludes the second major portion of the book (vv. 9–15). Nahum returns to addressing Judah. What he has foretold with regard to Nineveh, the Assyrian monarchy, and the Assyrians he now considers as good as accomplished. upon the mountains. The imagery is that of a messenger bearing the good news of the fall and devastation of Nineveh. The people first catch sight of him running along the Judean mountains (cf. Isa. 52:7). peace. Judah does not have to be afraid of any more military action and oppression coming from Assyria (on peace in the OT and NT, cf. note on John 14:27). Keep your feasts. These festivals would remind the people of the Lord’s past acts of deliverance and the future hope of the coming Messiah. At the feasts they would also, as a nation, worship the Lord and give him proper thanks and praise. fulfill your vows. Some in Judah voluntarily made vows to the Lord to give him thank offerings. the worthless. I.e., the Assyrians (cf. Nah. 1:11).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:1–13 Focus on Nineveh: The Lord’s Coming Judgment. In this next major section of the book, the focus falls on Nineveh. Nahum’s prediction reads like an eyewitness account of the city being attacked, overrun by the enemy, and plundered.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:1 The Beginning of the Attack on Nineveh. scatterer. This word for the enemy (viewed here as a collective whole) foretells the outcome of the siege. Nineveh will be taken, and any Ninevites not slaughtered will flee before the conquerors (see 3:17–18) or be taken into exile. Ultimately, it is God who “scatters.” has come up. A technical phrase signifying impending hostile military action (e.g., Judg. 1:1; 1 Sam. 7:7; 1 Kings 15:17; 2 Kings 18:13). Man the ramparts. Nineveh is told to get ready for battle. Nahum writes as if he were at Nineveh in 612 B.C., speaking to the Ninevites (with underlying sarcasm).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:2 Reasons for Judgment: The Assyrians’ Plundering of Judah, Though Judah’s Restoration by God Is Planned. Here Nahum gives one reason for the fall of Nineveh: God had used the Assyrians as his scourge of discipline on unfaithful Judah, but this scourge would no longer be needed because the LORD is restoring the majesty of Jacob. The true majesty of Judah, basically what was left of the nation Israel (the northern tribes having been “lost” in the Assyrian exile), was spiritual, not secular or political. God separated Israel from the nations to be devoted to him; with them he made his covenants; from them would come the Messiah (Rom. 9:4–5). This majesty, then, involved having a covenant relationship with the Lord and giving evidence of that relationship in godly living. plunderers. The Assyrians plundered Judah (see Nah. 2:13). Their branches are the individual clans, families, or members of the southern kingdom, likened to a vineyard (cf. Isa. 5:1–7).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:3–5 Attacking Soldiers and Military Action at Nineveh. Nahum describes how the invading army closes in on the city.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:3–4 shield … red. Either their shields were painted red, or they were permanently stained with the blood of defeated foes from previous military campaigns. His … he is a reference to the scatterer mentioned in v. 1. The attacking army was a coalition made up of Medes and Babylonians, and possibly Scythians. Cyaxares (625–585 B.C.) was the leader of the Medes (who played the dominant role in the destruction of Nineveh), and Nabopolassar (626–605) led the Babylonians. The streets and squares are those of the suburbs surrounding Nineveh, the first areas to be overrun by the attacking army. flashing metal … gleam like torches. The sunlight reflects off of the metal pieces of the chariots. dart like lightning. This could refer again to the light reflecting, or indicate the swift movement of the chariots.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:5 The attacking army now reaches the wall of Nineveh proper. He remembers. “He” (see v. 3) may be so eager to be involved in the attack that he almost forgets to delegate parts of the operation to his officers. These officers, eager both to join in the attack themselves and to please their superior(s), so rush into the action that they practically stumble over one another. Or, as they move toward Nineveh’s wall, they may stumble over the wreckage in the devastated suburbs. siege tower. This could also be rendered “mantelet” (see esv footnote), a covering that protects the attacking soldiers from arrows, spears, and other objects thrown down on them by the defenders on the wall.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:6–9 The Fall and Plundering of Nineveh. Now Nahum takes the reader into the city as it falls to the invaders.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:6 river gates. The Khoser River flowed through Nineveh; north of the city were dams, most likely with gates to regulate the flow of this river. The besieging coalition could easily have closed the gates (cutting off this water supply), waited until a considerable quantity of water collected, and then opened the gates. The resulting mass of water crashing against and through Nineveh would have done much damage to portions of the city’s wall, system of gates, and internal structures, thus greatly aiding the besiegers. Another river that probably flowed through Nineveh was the Tebiltu, which could have been used by the coalition in the same manner. The destruction caused by the waters no doubt was a factor contributing to the short length of the siege—only three months. The palace melts away because of the floodwaters.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:8 like a pool. See v. 6. Halt … they cry. Nahum places the reader in Nineveh as the city is being entered and overrun by the coalition forces. The reader “sees” the fleeing inhabitants and “hears” some of the Assyrian commanders crying out, “Halt! Stand and fight,” but none turns back to do so. The Assyrians had terrified many, but now they themselves are filled with terror.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:9 silver … gold. Nineveh was filled with tremendous wealth, due to the plunder seized during numerous military campaigns and the tribute received over the many years Assyria ruled the Near East.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:10–12 A Taunting Song Portraying Nineveh’s Destruction Because of the City’s Lust for Conquest. These verses figuratively portray the obliteration of Nineveh, the extinction of Assyrian nobility, and the termination of Assyrian power.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:10 Desolate … ruin is a description of Nineveh emptied of inhabitants (due to their fleeing, slaughter, or captivity) and destroyed by the victorious invaders (after they have finished their plundering). Hearts melt … pale. The Assyrians, who previously had been proud of how they terrorized other peoples, now experience extreme terror.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:11–12 lions. Members of the Assyrian royal house (and perhaps aristocracy), headed by the king. The lion was a symbol for kingship in the ancient Near East (cf. Gen. 49:9); the Assyrian kings exhibited ferocity in their attacking and “devouring” other lands, and called themselves lions. Reliefs on palace walls depicted lions being hunted by the Assyrian rulers. none to disturb. During the time of Assyrian might, no other nation dared to, or could, attack Nineveh. There was none to terrify those in the city, and particularly the household of the king. enough … prey … torn flesh. I.e., the vast amounts of plunder taken by the “ravenous” Assyrians from their brutal, bloody conquest of numerous lands.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 2:13 The Lord Speaks a Word of Judgment. Nahum closes the fourth major portion of the book (vv. 1–13) by quoting God’s proclamation of judgment against Nineveh. The city will fall because this is the will of the Lord. In vv. 1 and 13 Nineveh is addressed (“you,” “your”), and both verses express the thought “against you.” LORD of hosts. See note on 1 Sam. 1:3. burn your chariots. A striking contrast to the swift chariots of the conquering coalition (Nah. 2:3–4). sword shall devour. The devouring pride of lions (vv. 11–12) shall now be devoured by the enemy. voice … messengers … no longer be heard. The end of the Assyrian messengers brings about the messenger of peace coming to Judah (1:15).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:1–19 Again, Focus on Nineveh: More concerning the Lord’s Coming Judgment. This last major section of the book repeats most of the themes of the preceding section (2:1–13). Absent in ch. 3 is a reference to the plundering of Nineveh (2:9), and new in this section is the comparison of Nineveh’s downfall to the destruction of Thebes (3:8–11).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:1 Reasons for Judgment: The Violence, Lying, and Greed of Nineveh. bloody. The Assyrians were notorious for the atrocities they committed. lies. Second Kings 18:31–32 is an example of lying ultimately being traced back to the king who ruled from Nineveh (cf. 2 Chron. 28:20). plunder … prey. See Nah. 2:11–13.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:2–3 Military Action at Nineveh and the Ensuing Slaughter of the Assyrians. Nahum quickly flashes to a vivid picture of the coalition forces attacking and entering Nineveh and slaughtering the Assyrians (cf. 2:3–5). Again, the details seem to come from an eyewitness.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:4 Reasons for Judgment: The Wickedness of Nineveh. This verse uses figurative language to present reasons for the destruction of Nineveh. whorings. As the capital of idolatrous Assyria, Nineveh continually engaged in many violations of God’s will. graceful … deadly charms. Nineveh, with its power and wealth, exerted a corrupting influence throughout the Near East (cf. 2 Kings 16:18). betrays. The monarchy based in Nineveh did not hesitate to use treachery and deceit (see Nah. 3:1) to achieve its aims.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:5–7 The Lord Speaks a Word of Judgment. The seductive prostitute (i.e., Nineveh; see v. 4) will receive a punishment befitting her shameful trade. The figurative language dramatically conveys the message that God will bring Nineveh’s wicked activity to an end and utterly humiliate the city by having it conquered and devastated. Its disgrace would be internationally known.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:5 Behold, I am against you. Cf. 2:13. This repetition emphasizes the certainty of Nineveh’s doom.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:7 who will grieve for her? The answer to the rhetorical question is that no one will grieve or comfort, not even some of those who gave in to the enticements of the alluring prostitute (but had no real love for her). People will shrink back, or flee, in horror at the sight of what will happen to Nineveh.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:8–11 Comparison with the Conquest of Thebes. The prophet now recalls an event that was well known in the Near East, especially to the Assyrians, at the time of his writing: the capture and destruction of the Egyptian city of Thebes by the Assyrians in 664/663 B.C. To all who think it is impossible that Nineveh would fall, Nahum says, “Look at what happened to Thebes!”
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:8 Are you better than Thebes … ? Nineveh was not better fortified and did not appear more invincible than Thebes, a very important, powerful city located in southern Egypt (about 400 miles/644 km from the Mediterranean). Nile … water around her. This mighty river, along with canals and channels from the Nile that surrounded most of Thebes, was an aspect of the city’s strong defense system and its seeming invulnerability. Rampart a sea is a poetic reference to the Nile (cf. Isa. 19:5), which was about half a mile wide at Thebes. The Nile, canals, and channels formed a natural outer wall for the city. Nineveh did not have similar protection.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:9 Cush was the region just south of Egypt. Egypt refers to military aid coming from northern Egypt. The location of Put is not certain; perhaps it was situated along the north African coastline, just to the west of Libya, which was just to the west of the Nile delta region of Egypt. While Thebes could count on military assistance from these different areas, Assyria could not rely on help from any region.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:10 Despite these strategic advantages, Thebes was taken by the Assyrians, sacked, and destroyed, and its inhabitants either slaughtered or taken off as exiles. lots were cast. The Assyrian soldiers cast lots to determine who would get the more highly prized men (with their education and skills) as slaves.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:11 This verse directly applies vv. 8–10: “Nineveh, you can expect the same!” Just as a drunken man cannot effectively defend himself against an attacker, so Nineveh will not be able to turn back its enemies. hiding. Figuratively, Nineveh will be conquered and humiliated such that, if it could, the city would go into hiding from fear and shame. More literally, this could refer to the remnant band of Assyrians who fled to the west and temporarily had their base at Haran (see Introduction: Purpose, Occasion, and Background). Nineveh will find no refuge, unlike those who put their trust in the Lord (1:7).
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:12–19 A Taunting Song Presenting Nineveh’s Inevitable Destruction Because of the City’s Incessant Evil. After finishing the analogy with Thebes, the book concludes with a taunting song presenting Nineveh’s total defeat because of the city’s ceaseless evil.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:12–13 The Assyrian fortresses surrounding Nineveh will be the first to encounter the advancing enemy army. The coalition forces will easily and quickly take these strongholds, with two results: First, the gates of Assyria will be wide open to the enemies since the fortresses which guarded those entrances have been destroyed. Second, the troops, i.e., the soldiers within Nineveh, will be demoralized and filled with fear so that they cannot acquit themselves as men in the coming siege. fire. See 2:13; 3:15. Your bars, that is, the bars or bolts of the gates, which had kept these entrances closed.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:14 As the enemy draws close, Nahum tells the city to get ready for the siege (see 2:1). However, any preparations they make will be useless. Draw water. The Ninevites can anticipate that the enemy will shut off the city’s water supply by closing the river gates (see 2:6) and blocking the aqueduct system built by Sennacherib. Water could be stored inside the city in vessels and cisterns. forts. The fortresses and other fortifications at the walls and within the city would be strengthened or repaired with bricks, which were made from clay, shaped by molds, and held together with mortar.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:15 No matter how well supplied and fortified Nineveh is, there the inhabitants will die. fire. Archaeologists have found evidence of a devastating fire at Nineveh. sword. Cf. 2:13. There will be mass extermination of the Ninevites, as when a locust plague strips the countryside of all vegetation (e.g., Joel 1:4–10). Multiply … locust … grasshopper. Nahum sarcastically tells the Ninevites, in preparation for the siege, to multiply themselves greatly and thus increase their strength.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:16 You increased your merchants. When Nineveh was the proud capital of a vast empire, her merchants brought enormous wealth to the city. Now, however, these merchants, and the huge treasure in Nineveh, will do the city no good. The locust … flies away. Cf. v. 15. The enemy, having devoured all that there was in Nineveh through plundering (and slaughter and destruction), will quickly leave the scene.
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:17 Like swarms of grasshoppers or locusts that quickly fly away and disappear, some of the leading men of Nineveh, who for a while had been very prominent, will flee at the appearance of the enemy overrunning the city. Scribes were probably a type of official, perhaps “secretaries.”
NAHUM—NOTE ON 3:18–19 king of Assyria. Cf. 1:11. Nahum, surveying the wreckage of Nineveh, addresses its monarchy with sarcastic language. Many of Nineveh’s shepherds (leaders and officials) and nobles are sleeping the slumber of death. Many of the people are forever dispersed. This verse may imply, since the king is alive to see the aftermath, that a shadow of the Assyrian monarchy would continue (briefly) after the fall of Nineveh (see Introduction: Purpose, Occasion, and Background). The wound that is grievous is a fatal injury. The Assyrian monarchy has received a mortal blow, and the absolute end is imminent. unceasing evil. The reign of the Assyrian emperors from Nineveh had continually caused terror and suffering. Nahum foretells that the Assyrian monarchy, and Nineveh, will experience this same evil that it meted out to other peoples of the Near East. Nahum ends his book with a rhetorical question, joining Jonah as the only other biblical writer to do so.