Review and Application Selected References			461 462
17. Classroom Activities			463
Introduction				463
Preview Activities				464
Dialog/464	Reading/466	Drills/468	Exercises/469
View Activities				470
Dialog/471	Reading/472	Drills/472	Exercises/473
Review Activities				473
Dialog/475	Reading/478	Drills/478	Exercises/47 c
Conclusion				480
Review and Application Selected References			480 480

18. Evaluation	481
Introduction	481
Types of Evaluation	482
Subjective Evaluation/483 Objective Evaluation/484
Types of Tests	485
Guidelines for Classroom Testing	489
Concepts of Testing	497
Sample Objective Test Items/499
Testing Procedures	502
Testing Competence/503 Testing Performance
Skills/504 Testing Speaking/506 Testing Culture/509
Type?ot Grading Systems"	509
Grading and Recording Grades	510
Conclusion	511
Review and Application	512
Selected References	513
Conclusion to Part Two	515

Appendix 1 The First Day of Class

- - r

Appendix 2	Selecting a Basic Text	523
Appendix 3	Sources of New Ideas	531
Appendix 4	The Language Lab	535
Appendix 5	Professional Organizations and Journals	542
Index		547

Part One: Theory

In each era certain problems receive more attention and recognition than others. Similarly, proposed solutions vary according to the prevailing attitudes favored during that particular period. These tidelike movements of action and reaction, however, are not representative of the entire pool of ideas available to the "educational engineers," who make use of all available resources, combining them into the most propitious mixture given their own individuality and that of their students. Only in the classroom at the scene of the action and in concert with all the individuals involved can the most appropriate and productive decisions be made. These decisions are not spontaneous and extemporaneous, because they are based on knowledge and experience.

Neither can they be prepackaged and shipped to the anxious teacher like some convenience food in the supermarket, because the truly germane proposals must be geared to the exigencies of the situation and the participating students within the realistic limits of the teacher's own capabilities.

During the fifties and sixties, methodology was the guiding light that was to lead second-language teachers along paths to increased student achievement and fluency. When the expected bilingual products failed to materialize, many of the leaders in second-language education turned away from methodology and began to seek new solutions to old problems. Currently, the emphasis is on curricular organization of classroom instruction as a means of diminishing the undesirable attrition rate in second-language classes, of increasing enrollment in second-language classes, and of responding to the needs of individual students.

As was true at the time when the first edition was prepared, teachers and/or prospective teachers are faced with several important dichotomies in the field of second-language teaching. Do they favor a mechanistic or a mentalistic approach to teaching? Do they believe in inductive or deductive explanations of new material? Do they plan to utilize conditioning drills or reasoning exercises? Should they be "educational broadcasters" or "facilitators of learning"? Do they intend to promote extrinsic or intrinsic motivation? Do they hope to establish a teacher-centered class or a student- centered class?

All the questions in the preceding paragraph condense to a single issue, the external versus internal control of learning. Is the learning process to be controlled and shaped externally by the teacher and other agents of the educational system, or are the learners to be granted an important role in their education? Is the student to be viewed as a piece of clay to be molded or as an active participant in the learning process? This is not to imply that the teacher must choose one or the other. All teachers have the option to position themselves at any point on the continuum between the two extremes, and they do not have to remain in the same position indefinitely. They may change from year to year, from class to class, from student to student, from one type of

learning situation to another, and from one type of learning task to another, as circumstances warrant. Too, it must be recognized that seating arrangements and curricular organization are no guarantee that a particular stress is indeed being put into practice. An individualized class may be characterized as teacher-centered and externally controlled just as the traditional classroom setup may emphasize student-centered, internally focused learning activities.

The question of position on the continuum is not so important as whether or not the stance taken by the teacher is the most facilitative one for maximum student achievement given student background, cognitive style, personality, self-concept, interests, goals, and needs; available school facilities; and teacher personality and capabilities. In order to make intelligent choices, the teacher needs to be familiar with contemporary, and past, currents in society, education, linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. as well as methodological and curricular trends. It is doubtful that any teacher ever acquires all the information needed in all possible situations, but it is this responsibility for continuing to learn, to evaluate, to reconsider, and to create that constitutes one of the most exciting aspects of a teaching career.

Since no single text can incorporate all topics, a decision must be made as to those areas that are most important in the formation of a knowledgeable base from which to develop an intelligent personal teaching style. The present text is seen as a springboard to further reading plus additional examination, discussion, expansion, extrapolation, and practice of the contained concepts. The reader is urged to grow beyond what has been presented here.

This book has been prepared keeping in mind the aforementioned teachers' needs to make intelligent choices. The purpose of part I is to examine theoretical and research support for each extreme of the external-internal continuum. Chapter 1 summarizes support for second-language study. Chapter 2 provides a historical perspective to the current situation. Chapter 3 surveys differing viewpoints of first-language learning. Chapter 4 presents results of research studies in both the cognitive and affective domains. Chapter 5 outlines the audio-lingual method, giving its principal theoretical bases, its basic classroom practice, and the major research studies supporting it. Chapter 6 does the same for the cognitive approach. Chapter 7 stresses student individuality. Chapter 8 deals with the diversification of instruction to provide for student individuality. The Conclusion summarizes Part I.

Breaking the Barrier