Benefits of Breaking the Cultural and Linguistic Barriers Internal Benefits External Benefits
Handling the Persistent Critic
There are many valid reasons for studying a second language. Second- language teachers should be "ready, willing, and able" to expound on any and/or all of them to fellow teachers, guidance personnel, administrators, interested public, and students whenever the opportunity arises. In fact, they will hopefully be prepared to create the appropriate situations. All reasons may not be valid for all groups, and the teacher should be cognizant of the varying needs. Too, the advantages cited may be presented in different terms to the different groups involved. Individually and collectively, second-language teachers should be able to outline clearly and forcefully why they believe in second-language study and to explain how any given classroom activity contributes to the accomplishment of these goals. The focus of this chapter is on this "why" of second-language teaching.
One day a mother mouse was taking her children for a walk. As the unsuspecting family rounded the corner of a building, they suddenly found themselves confronting the twitching whiskers of a hungry cat delighted to find such a tantalizing and unprotected delicacy within striking distance. Surveying the dangerous situation instantly, the quick-witted and learned mother raised herself to her greatest height, drew in a huge breath of air, and
barked, "Wuff! Wuff!" at the top of her voice. As the startled cat disappeared down the street, she turned to her darlings and said knowingly, "See how it pays to know a second language."
Nothing could change the complexion of second-language teaching more than a clientele committed to the study and learning of second languages. In this respect, second-language teachers in many other countries are more fortunate than those in the United States. While we in this country discuss ways and means of justifying the inclusion of second languages in our curriculum, the UNESCO-FIPLV Survey of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning Today (1975) reveals two principle concerns in other parts of the world: (1) at what age to begin the second language, and (2) at what age to begin the third language. It would be wonderful if the public and students could be imbued with a sense of need for language study. It would be marvelous if the profession could demonstrate to them the relevance of language learning as easily as the mother mouse did to her offspring.
The need to formulate a list of rationales acceptable to our various clientele is one of the highest priorities, if not the highest, in second-language education in the United States. In order to affirm the value of second-language study we must believe in ourselves and what we are trying to do. Otherwise, no one will take our discipline seriously, and our worst nightmares will become an unfortunate reality. Jarvis (1974) refers to this possibility as a "self-fulfilling" prophesy in which "we feel worthless and thereby become useless." Belief in ourselves and what we are attempting to accomplish must become a reality. Only then will we be capable of establishing a supporting base of operations among the public, the administrators, and, last but not least, the students. The good will and encouragement of each of these groups must be cultivated carefully and constantly if second-language study is to flourish. Public good will must be earned and maintained. We must become conscious of and sensitive to our public image, and we must adopt positive public relations practices.
This pressing need for appropriate and acceptable justifications for second-language study is characterized by two basic implications. First, the reasons for language study may be, and likely will be, different for the varied and varying clientele; and second, we must be prepared to deliver the skills, or the knowledge, or the abilities, or the sensitivity, or the values that we profess.
The urge to know and to grow intellectually, to push one's knowledge into new areas, is so strong and so universal that one of the most severe punishments known to man is stimulus deprivation. Almost before children are
entirely aware of their beds, they are eager to explore their rooms. The individual's learning is a process of liberation, of freeing oneself from the confines of present circumstances in order to gain a greater comprehension of the world.
As we grow out of the confines of our immediate environment, we find other limitations—our cultural and linguistic heritage. The outer boundaries of the growing awareness of each individual is determined to a large extent by language experience, including first- as well as second-language experience. The same statement can be made of the third language and even beyond, but the liberating hurdle is the second. An acquaintanceship in breadth with the contemporary, interdependent world can be expanded considerably by one's linguistic and cultural abilities to benefit from the accumulated knowledge in languages and cultures other than one's own.
One acceptable manner in which to break through these cultural cocoons is the experience of becoming familiar with and gaining insights from another language and another culture through the study of a second language. The liberating value of stepping outside one's own language and one's own culture explains why language study has traditionally been a cornerstone in a liberal education. Language study is the only satisfactory way of gaining these cultural and linguistic insights. Substitutes may be more palatable, but they are likely to be less rewarding.
Of course, the individual, and society in general for that matter, is under no obligation to pursue an education in breadth. Chastain (1974, p. 374) says:
The concept of education in breadth can be abandoned, but such action in no wise eliminates the need. It only ignores that basic need and eventually leads to a sad state of unrealized shallowness and myopia, a condition usually not correctable by the victim himself, because he is unlikely to be aware of his vacuity. The condition is not painful, of course, and it may even be characterized by a state of light-hearted euphoric bliss, i.e., ignorance is bliss.
The lack of concern among some segments of the public and of the student body merely serves to place an even greater responsibility upon the members of the profession to make the students and public aware of these needs and to meet them.
The image problem facing second-language education is serious, as the following table well illustrates:
Table 1.1: Percent Growth (Second-Language Study) Between Surveys
(Major Languages)
1960-65 59.9
Source: Brod (1973, p. 59)
1965-68
9.2
1968-70
- 1.8
1970-72
- 11.5
Surveys indicate, however, that second-language study is supported by a much higher percentage of students, even among those who are fulfilling a language requirement, than commonly held opinion would lead us to believe. (See chapter 2, "Perspectives," for additional information.) Too, we should not lose sight of the fact that other traditional academic subjects, such as English, mathematics, and science, are suffering from some of the same problems of image and enrollment as second languages.
One of the basic components of growth and expansion of awareness is comparison. As one becomes acquainted with other people, he learns more about himself by comparison. Knowing other people makes it possible for individuals to develop a greater understanding of themselves, just as exploring the variations in another culture presents the necessary contrasts needed to enable individuals to see more fully into the complexities of their own society. The same fundamental principle applies to language study as well. Studying a second language provides a comprehension of the connotations of words and the building blocks of expression that is unimagined prior to the study of a second language. Can there be any doubt that a more complete knowledge of oneself, of one's culture, and of one's language is a valid and worthwhile goal of any educational program?
One word of caution at this point. None of the desirable outcomes of second-language study presented in the preceding paragraph are automatically attained in a second-language classroom. The teacher must present opportunities for the students to learn about the lives, the social patterns, and the values of people in other countries, and to become acquainted with the phonological, semantic, and syntactical system of the language they are studying. The profession must not only sell the product, but the teachers must see to it that the goods are delivered.
Internal benefits refer to the changes that occur within the individual during second-language study. These benefits are primary. Other related benefits are secondary and depend upon the internal pluses for their validity and practical importance. This is not to say that the student, or even society, will stress the internal benefits. They may well stress the external, practical possibilities to a much greater extent. As second-language teachers we may even have to emphasize the external in order to accomplish the internal.
This section deals with internal benefits only. The discussion treats the following internal benefits of second-language study: insight into life, tolerance, knowledge of the complexities of language, flexibility, discipline, and the acquisition of new learning skills. One internal benefit that students can acquire through second-language study is an insight into life and life styles that enables them to appreciate more fully their own situation both personally and culturally. This insight helps them to begin to answer the questions "Who am I?" and "How do I fit in?" As they gain a more complete understanding of themselves and their environment, they are more capable of directing their own activities and of relating to surrounding circumstances.
As students become more familiar with other cultural and societal patterns, they can develop tolerance for different life styles. The word can is used because individual reaction depends upon the manner in which this information is presented and studied. Certainly, in the modern world and in modern pluralistic societies, the goal of tolerance is an important one, and the second-language teacher should be conscious of the need to strive for positive reactions toward others and other cultural systems without alienating the students or without attempting to denigrate their own cultural values. The acquisition of this ability to operate comfortably in the presence of dissimilar attitudes and values will spare the individuals a great deal of psychological discomfort.
Having a greater insight into the complexities and the potentials of language is a definite plus to the individual who seeks to comprehend the world and to cope with it. Language, it must be remembered, controls not only one's speech, but one's thoughts and one's view of the world as well. For example, different cultural viewpoints are reflected in such an everyday occurrence as a mother's words of caution to a misbehaving child. In the English-, Italian-, and Greek-speaking worlds, the mother says, "Be good." The French-speaking mother says, "Be wise." The German-speaking mother says, "Get in line." In Scandinavia the mothers say, "Be kind." The Hopi Indian mother says, "That is not the Hopi way." (Goldschmidt).
It has been theorized that second-language study can enhance the individual's ability to cope with new situations. Forced by the nature of the discipline to deal with previously unencountered cultural ideas and linguistic structures, the learner acquires the flexibility needed in a fast changing world. Alter (1970) maintains that society has entered a stage of accelerated change and that the study of second languages can help the student adapt to a world in transition. She argues that second-language learning is the only subject in the curriculum that can serve this purpose since other subjects, such as mathematics, are not entirely new and strange to the student. Jarvis (1974) echoes these thoughts, saying that second-language study can prepare the student for the trauma of "future shock" in that "the ability to cope with the unfamiliar can be a powerful outcome of foreign language study." He chides second-language
educators, however, stating that "too often we have made our students victims of the unfamiliar ; rather than beneficiaries ."
Flexibility in this case relates principally to psychological factors. However, an intellectual flexibility, which enhances the individual's cognitive powers, is also a possible outcome of second-language study. Educational psychologists have been able to promote the development of certain aspects of creativity, especially in the area of divergent thinking, by means of selected learning activities (Treffinger & Cowan, 1971). Landry (1974) reported that scores of FLES students obtained from tests of divergent thinking, especially flexibility and originality, were higher than those of students who had not studied a second language. Potential investigators of the effects of second-language study would be well advised to attempt to replicate these findings with students at the junior high and high school levels.
Although the word discipline may be less than popular in some quarters at the present time, discipline is necessary for the successful completion of innumerable tasks. Language is one of those subjects in the curriculum that does require consistent effort and energy to progress successfully. The ability to persevere is a definite asset in school as well as out, and a certain persistence and "stick-to-itiveness" can be one of the positive outcomes of second-language study. Second-language study is one of the most beneficial content areas in this respect, because students are forced to learn the material rather than to rely on a base of information that they may already have. Too, it is a subject area that must be mastered in small segments as the students proceed through the course.
Few would argue with the statement that the study of a second language is different in many respects from the study of other subjects in the curriculum. As a result, the student needs to adopt different and varying approaches to learning when studying a second language. Since it is now rather widely and readily recognized that there is a variety of learning skills, the study of a second language can be an asset in the acquisition of new learning skills. One study conducted several years ago found that students who had studied a second language in high school had a higher grade-point average in their studies at the university than those students who had no second-language experience. These findings persisted even when the students from the same percentile ranges on intelligence were compared (Skelton, 1957).
Externa! benefits encompass what can be done with the knowledge, skills, insights, and sensitivities gained from second-language study. They may be beneficial in a practical, social way as people come into contact with persons
from other nations, cultures, and/or subcultures, in travel and other leisure activities, and/or as a primary or secondary skill in one's chosen profession.
After having experienced a second culture and its language, the individual has the potential for relating more fully and effectively with others. These possibilities apply in the case of other cultures and to other subcultures within one's own general culture. In this respect, one should not lose sight of the fact that to a certain extent culture has various levels and various components just as language does. Each individual speaks an ideolect of a dialect within his language group. In this sense each of us operates according to his own unique culture pattern as well as within a subculture group and in a general overall cultural, societal group. The recognition and comprehension of the diversity involved will enable the individual to participate in more meaningful, more satisfactory, and more productive relationships with others. These relationships give personal satisfaction to the individual who enjoys making friends with members of other cultures. A political benefit derived from the understanding of cultural diversity is the informed citizenship that results and that can form a base for promoting a smoother operating and more cooperative community and national spirit.
The nation needs individuals capable of communicating to citizens of other countries in their own tongue. Such a capability is highly desirable in the State Department and foreign service, in commerce and business, and in relationships involving individual citizens having no other reason to communicate than to get acquainted and to share ideas. Nor can a country in the modern world ignore the effects of world opinion. Abandoning the study of second languages while most of the students in other countries are pursuing the study of one or more second languages for an extended period of time damages our image abroad.
Second-language skills are needed for maximum enjoyment and benefit during travel to foreign countries. Most second-language teachers would agree that one of the most educational experiences a person can have is to spend some time in a foreign country. However, the benefits that one derives from such an experience depend upon knowledge of the language and the culture. Exposure in and of itself in no way insures educational rewards as a result of being in the country. What is there must be recognized and experienced.
Dennis Gabor in his book Inventing the Future says modern society faces three grave dangers: (1) atomic annihilation, (2) overpopulation, and (3) too much leisure time. Science can find answers to the first two problems. The third presents more serious complications. At this time in the history of civilization, humanity is incapable of busying itself constructively during long periods of leisure. Second-language study can be a very enjoyable and beneficial leisure-time activity. In the first place, learning a second language
can be fun in itself. Secondly, people can use their leisure time to keep up with the language, travel, see foreign films, eat in ethnic restaurants, make new acquaintances, listen to shortwave, and read books, magazines, and newspapers in the second language.
Some students will use their second language as a primary skill in their careers, such as teaching, translating, and interpreting. In the teaching field there are positions available, but it must be admitted that currently there is a surplus of teachers. Both translating and interpreting are special skills that require a much greater familiarity with the second language than can be obtained in the typical undergraduate curriculum. At this point, encouraging large numbers of students to specialize in second-language study with the expectation of a career in teaching, translating, or interpreting is unrealistic. On the other hand, interested and capable students certainly should not be discouraged from majoring in a second language. Positions are and will continue to be available. However, the students should be made aware of the tight job market at the present time.
A more realistic and viable approach is to point out to the students the various possibilities for employing second-language skills as an extra asset that they can offer a prospective employer in fields such as social work, medicine, law, political science, and publishing.
When one considers the use of a second-language as an auxiliary skill, one's mind almost immediately turns to American firms that conduct business abroad, or foreign firms that conduct business in the United States. The international nature of business continues to grow at a phenomenal pace. Over 3,200 U.S. companies have branches or representatives overseas, and over 1,500 foreign firms have business connections in the U.S. The Modern Language Journal in March of 1974 quoted an article in the Wall Street Journal which reported that corporate requests for second-language training had risen ten times in two years, the Thunderbird Graduate School of International Management expected an increased enrollment of 50 percent over 1972, and the Berlrtz courses in second-language instruction for corporate executives were flourishing (Durette, 1974). One business executive is quoted as follows: "I have tried to establish Latin American business ties since 1959. I finally decided to learn Spanish around 1965, and after I became proficient in 1967, my business with Spanish-speaking countries soared from nothing to over 20 million dollars yearly" (Honig & Brod, 1974, p. 9).
The bleeding balance of payments, which plagues the economy of the United States, and the extent of American investment abroad and foreign investment in this country underscore the absolute necessity of elevating the nation's second-language skills. American investments abroad now total more than 86 billion dollars, which is an increase of over 600 percent in the last twenty years, and foreign investment has reached a mark of over 14 billion, which is more than three times the former amount (Honig & Brod, 1974).
In addition to foreign business in the United States, there are many needs for second-language skills in the United States itself. There are many speakers of languages other than English living in this country. Doctors, lawyers, public officials, media personnel, educators, service employees, and people engaged in business in areas with large concentrations of non-English speaking populations can make use of second-language skills to their advantage and to the advantage of the people involved. Also, the number of foreign visitors to the U.S. is increasing enormously. The U.S. has not yet begun to develop the vast potential of the international tourist trade. Even though the numbers of foreign visitors to the U. S. is gradually catching up to those going abroad "only 2percent oi America's hotels and motels have bilingual or multilingual staff in key guest-contact positions" (Honig & Brod, 1974, p. 5). The potential in this one area alone lies practically untapped.
Is the world really shrinking? Here are some figures indicating the extent of interchange and interdependence among nations. In 1972, 7,700,000 Americans went abroad. That number was a 1,083 percent increase over 1950. The same year 3,800,000 foreigners came to the U. S., an increase of 1,219 percent. Trade between free-world nations was $371.1 billion, a rise of 565 percent since 1952. In 1971 Americans had $86 billion invested in other countries, an increase of 629 percent, and foreign investment in the U. S. had reached $13.7 billion, a rise of 303 percent. In 1972 Americans made or received 35,000,000 phone calls, an increase of 3,789 percent over 1950 (U.S. News and World Report , 1973).
One future consequence of the economic and political international interdependence among nations may be to relieve the second-language teachers in this country from having to defend the place of their subject in the curriculum. As the general public becomes aware of the economic possibilities of and the political and economic need for second languages as auxiliary skills in fields as diverse as social work and government service, the obvious, being obvious, will not need to be justified. Future prospects along with current needs should encourage those of us in the profession to do what we can to strengthen second-language learning at the present time.
HANDLING THE PERSISTENT CRITIC
What does the proponent of second-language learning do when, after presenting all the valid and relevant reasons for second-language study she can muster, the reaction she gets is just as negative as it was in the beginning? First, she can suggest that her unenlightened challenger consider what the world would be like if no one had ever learned a second language. (This would be a good exercise in creativity as well as an enlightening exercise for students!) She might also ask the critic to contemplate what the world would be like at the
present time if no one in the modern world could communicate in a second language.
In reply to the obdurate who claims, "Everything of any importance is available in English/' or complains, "I've forgotten all the French and German I ever learned, and I've done all right," the ultimate comeback is that of William Riley Parker (1971, p. 19) who put this type in his place saying, "Blind men get along, too, but the difference is that one can admire their triumph over handicap."
The complaint against the language requirement has been long and loud. Such a typical reaction is entirely comprehensible to this author who was forced into his first exposure to second-language learning during his sophomore year in college by an identical requirement. However, the resultant satisfaction arising from such an experience is by no means isolated. Here is how James Michener (1974, pp. 193-94) describes his fateful introduction to Spanish:
If Swarthmore College in 1925 had employed even a halfway decent guidance counselor, I would have spent my life as an assistant professor of education in some Midwestern university. Because when I reported to college, it must have been apparent to everyone that I was destined for some kind of academic career. Nevertheless, I was allowed to take Spanish, which leads to nothing, instead of French or German, which as everyone knows are important languages studied by serious students who wish to gain a Ph.D.
I cannot tell you how often I was penalized for having taken a frivolous language like Spanish instead of a decent, self-respecting tongue like French. In fact, it led to the sacrifice of my academic career.
Still, I continued to putter around with Spanish, eventually finding a deep affinity for it. In the end, I was able to write a book about Spain which will probably live longer than anything else I've done. In other words, I blindly backed into a minor masterpiece. ... It was Spanish that opened up for me a whole new universe of concepts and ideas. 1
Getting anyone who has not benefited from a profitable second-language experience to comprehend the limitations of his ethnocentric background and the liberating influence of attaining familiarity with a second language and a second culture constitutes a severe challenge to even the most persuasive. Perhaps Mark Twain through Huck and Jim can accomplish the task for us. Huck has been discussing French princes who come to the United States:
"Den he cain't git no situation. What he gwyne to do?"
"Well, I don't know. Some of them gets on the police, and some of them learns people how to talk French."
'Michener (1974, pp. 193-94). Reprinted by permission of the William Morris Agency, Inc., as Agent for James A. Michener.
"Why, Huck, doan' de French people talk de same way we does?"
"No, Jim; you couldn't understand a word they said—not a single word."
"Well, now, I be ding-busted! How do dat come?"
"/ don't know; but it's so. I got some of their jabber out of a book. S'pose a man was to come to you and say Polly-voo-franzy. What would you think?"
"I wouldn't think nuffn; I'd take en bust him over de head.". . .
"Shucks, it ain't calling you anything. I's only saying, do you know how to talk French?"
"Well, den, why couldn't he say it?"
"Why, he is a-saying it. That's a Frenchman's way of saying it."
"Well, it's a blame ridicklous way, en I doan' want to hear no mo' 'bout it. Dey ain' no sense in it."
"Looky here, Jim; does a cat talk like we do?"
"No, a cat ddn't."
"Well, does a cow?"
"No, a cow don't, nuther."
"Does a cat talk like a cow, or a cow talk like a cat?"
"No, dey don't."
"It's natural and right for 'em to talk different from each other, ain't it?"
"Course."
"And ain't it natural and right for a cat and a cow to talk different from
us?"
"Why, mos' sholy it is."
"Well, then, why ain't it natural and right for a Frenchman to talk different from us? You answer me that."
"Is a cat a man, Huck?"
"No."
"Well, den, dey ain't no sense in a cat talkin' like a man. Is a cow a man?—er is a cow a cat?"
"No, she ain't either of them."
"Well, den, she ain't got no business to talk like either one er the yuther of 'em. Is a Frenchman a man?"
"Yes."
"Well, den! Dad blame it, why doan' he talk like a man? You answer me dat\"
I see it warn't no use wasting words. ... So I quit.
Let's not quit. The validity of second-language learning has not diminished in the slightest. Our task is to make the public aware of the benefits to be gained from broadening their experience and amplifying their potential through second-language study.
DISCUSSION AND ACTIVITIES
1. Why did you decide to study a second language? Why did your friends?
2. Why did you decide to major, or minor, in a second language?
3. Which of the reasons for second-language study presented in this chapter do you support? What reasons would you add?
4. Discuss how you might justify the study of second languages to parents, administrators, counselors, students.
5. How can second-language study be made more relevant?
6. Role play an interview between a principal attempting to refute all justifications for second-language learning and a second-language teacher attempting to convince him that he can justify the subject to the public and to the students.
7. Examine the ramifications of how the world would be different if no one had ever learned to speak a second language and if no one did at the present time.
8. Outline ways and means of informing the public and the students of our goals in second-language teaching.
9. Present any ideas you have or any practices you are familiar with for establishing and maintaining good public relations between the modern- language department and the public.
10. What would you tell your students on the first day of class to inform them, and perhaps to convince them, of the reasons for second-language study?
SELECTED REFERENCES
Alter, M. P. (1970) A Modern Case for German. Philadelphia: American Association of Teachers of German. Pp. 18-19.
Bomse, M. D. (1973) Meeting the Needs and Interests of Students and the Community. ADFL Bulletin, 5: 40-41.
Brod, R. I. (1973) Foreign Language Enrollments in U.S. Colleges—Fall 1972. ADFL Bulletin, 5:59.
Brod, R. I. (1974) Careers and the Foreign Language Department. ADFL Bulletin , 6: 16-22.
Chastain, K. (1974) The Relevance of Requirements. Intellect, 103: 373-74.
Cormier, R. j. (1974) Foreign Languages and the Liberal Arts. ADFL Bulletin, 6: 23-25.
Durette, R. (1974) Notes and News. Modern Language journal, 58: 124-25.
Edgerton, M. F. (1971) A Philosophy for the Teacher of Foreign Languages. Modern Language journal, 55: 5-15.
Fuller, C. S. (1974) Language-Oriented Careers in the Federal Government. ADFL Bulletin, 6: 45-51.
Cold, P. J. (1973) Why Spanish? Canadian Modern Language Review, 29: 32-35.
Goldschmidt, W. A Word in Your Ear. A program in the series Ways of Mankind presented and distributed by the National Association of Educational Broadcasters.
Crittner, F. M. (1972) Behavioral Objectives, Skinnerian Rats, and Trojan Horses. Foreign Language Annals, 6: 52-60.
Hanzeli, V. E. (1971) Foreign Language Teachers and the “New" Student: A Re-
view Article. Modern Language Journal , 55: 15-21.
Harrison, A. T. (1973) What Can I Do With It?—Vocational Counseling for Language Students. ADFL Bulletin , 5: 37-39.
Harvey, W. (1974) Helping Guidance Counselors See the Value of Foreign Languages. ADFL Bulletin , 5: 5-6.
Honig, L. ]., and Brod, R. I. (1974) Foreign Languages and Careers. Modern Language Journal , 58: 157-85.
Jarvis, G. (1974) What Really Comes From Studying a Foreign Language. Keynote Address, ACTFL Convention.
Kimpton, J. R. (1975) What Is French For? French Review , 48: 735-40.
Kirylak, L. (1973) Foreign Language Career Preparation. ADFL Bulletin , 5: 42-47.
Landry, R. G. (1974) A Comparison of Second Language Learners and Monolingual on Divergent Thinking Tasks at the Elementary School Level. Modern Language Journal , 58: 10-15.
Liddy, C. R., et al. (1973) The Case for French in the Secondary School Program. Canadian Modern Language Review , 29: 14-18.
Lippman, J. N. (1974) Rationale for Language Study. In G. Jarvis (Ed.), The Challenge of Communication. Skokie, III.: National Textbook. Pp. 37-69.
Michener, J. (1974) On Wasting Time. Reader's Digest, 105: 193-96.
Parker, W. R. (1961) The National Interest and Foreign Languages. (3rd ed.) Washington, D.C.: Department of State.
Parker, W. R. (1971) Why a Foreign Language Requirement? The Case for Foreign-Language Study. New York: MLA/ACTFL Materials Center. P. 19.
Reinert, H. (1970) Student Attitudes Toward Foreign Language—No Sale! Modern Language Journal, 54: 107-12.
Reinert, H. (1972) Truth in Packaging . . . for Foreign Languages. Modern Language Journal, 56: 205-9.
Roeming, R. F. (1971) Bilingualism and National Interest. Modern Language Journal, 55: 73-81.
Ryder, F. G. (1973) A Matter of Image. ADFL Bulletin, 5: 5-11.
Sandrock, J. P. (1972) Languages and the Humanities: Our Roots and Responsibility. ADFL Bulletin, 4: 15-17.
Savaiano, E. (1974) The FL Requirement, a Liberal Education, and You. ADFL Bulletin, 5: 11-14.
Schaefer, W. D. (1973) Foreign Languages and the National Interest. Foreign Language Annals, 6: 460-64.
Shuman, R. B. (1971) Let's Get Foreign Language Teachers Out of Our Public High Schools. Modern Language Journal, 55: 21-26.
Skelton, R. B. (1957) High School Foreign Language Study and Freshman Performance. School and Society, 85: 203-5.
Steiner, F. (1974) Career Education and Its Implications at the National Level. Modern Language Journal, 58: 186-91.
Treffinger, D. J., and Gowan, J. C. (1971) An Updated Representative List of Methods and Educational Programs for Stimulating Creativity. Methods and Educational Programs for Stimulating Creativity, 5: 127-39.
Troyanovich, J. M. (1972) Foreign Languages and the Dodo Bird: A Lesson from Darwin. Foreign Language Annals, 5: 341-44.
Turner, P. R. (1974) Why Johnny Doesn't Want to Learn a Foreign Language. Modern Language Journal, 58: 191-96.
U.S. News and World Report (1973) It's a Shrinking World. Accent on ACTFL (September): 18-19. (Reprinted from U.S. News and World Report, June 11, 1973.)
Valdes, M. E. (1974) Toward a New Relevance in Language Teaching. Canadian Modern Language Review, 31: 50-54.
Yalden, J. (1973) A Case for Studying Spanish. Canadian Modern Language Review, 29: 36-42.