DEFINITIONS
p. 91
4. cognition, p. 74
5. cognitive style, p. 75
6. discovery learning, p. 78
1. advance organizers, p. 79
2. affective variables, p. 68
3. aptitude-treatment interaction,
7. feedback vs. reinforcement, p. 82
8. intelligence, p. 74
9. meaningful learning, p. 77
10. overt vs. covert responses, p. 80
11. self-concept, p. 69
12. subsumption, p. 79
13. transfer, p. 85
DISCUSSION
1. How did you feel when you first started learning a second language? How did your friends feel? Did any of you have problems with shattered self-concepts?
2. What are the basic student personality characteristics? Which are most important in second-language learning?
3. What motivates students? Which are internal and which are external motivators?
4. What are the various components of the affective-social and cognitive domains?
5. Discuss the individual differences in the affective-social and cognitive domains. Include any others discussed in other classes.
6. Summarize in three or four sentences the general trend of research relating to learning in each of the following: meaningful learning; practice; feedback and reinforcement; acquisition, retention, and recall; and transfer.
7. Is it better to start second-language learning with the written word or with the spoken language?
8. What is the objective of aptitude-treatment interaction? What are some of the findings to date?
9. What additions would you add to the list of suggested emphases in future research?
ACTIVITIES
1. Survey some of the journal articles listed in the Selected References section of this chapter to determine what new research information has been uncovered since the publication of this text.
2. Identify and examine some prepared materials for determining and assessing individual cognitive, affective, and social differences. Discuss how each might be used as a basis for developing teaching-learning strategies.
3. List existing problems in second-language teaching and learning that need to be researched.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Agard, F. B., and Dunkel, H. B. (1948) An Investigation of Second-Language Teaching. Boston: Ginn.
Alegre, C., and Murray, E. J. (1974) Locus of Control, Behavioral Intention, and Verbal Conditioning. Journal of Personality, 42:668-81.
Allen, G. J., et al. (1974) Locus of Control, Test Anxiety, and Student Performance
in a Personalized Instruction Course. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66: 968-73.
Alvord, D. J., and Glass, L. W. (1974) Relationships Between Academic Achievement and Self-Concept. Science Education, 58:175-79.
Anderson, R. C. (1970) Control of Student Mediating Processes During Verbal Learning and Instruction. Review of Educational Research, 40:349-69.
Asher, J. J. (1964) Vision and Audition in Language Learning. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 19:255-300.
Ausubel, D. P. (1968) Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Pp. 137, 276, 291, 316, 319, 497, 504.
Ausubel, D. P., and Fitzgerald, D. (1961) The Role of Discriminability in Meaningful Verbal Learning and Retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 52:266-74.
Ausubel, D. P., and Robinson, F. G. (1969) School Learning: An Introduction to Educational Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Pp. 216, 251, 357-59.
Baker, P. J.; Bakshis, R.; and Tolone, W. (1974) Diversifying Learning Opportunities: A Response to the Problems of Mass Education. Research in Higher Education, 2:255-57.
Bernstein, B. E. (1974) Tailoring Teaching to Learning Styles. Independent School Bulletin, 34:50-52.
Birkmaier, E. M. (1960) Modern Languages. In C. W. Harris (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research. New York: Macmillan. Pp. 861-88.
Birkmaier, E. M. (1973) Research on Teaching Foreign Languages. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. Pp. 1280-1302.
Blumenthal, A. L. (1967) Promoted Recall of Sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6:203-6.
Blumenthal, A. L., and Boakes, R. (1967) Prompted Recall of Sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6:674-76.
Borden, R., and Hendrick, C. (1973) Internal-External Locus of Control and Self-Perception Theory. Journal of Personality, 41:32-41.
Briggs, L. J., and Hamilton, N. R. (1964) Meaningful Learning and Retention: Practice and Feedback Variables. Review of Educational Research, 34:546.
Brinkman, E. H. (1973) Personality Correlates of Educational Set in the Classroom. Journal of Educational Research, 66:221.
Brown, J. A., and MacDougall, M. A. (1973) Teacher Consultation for Improved Feelings of Self-Adequacy in Children. Psychology in the Schools, 10:320-26.
Brown, R. K., and Richard, W. C. (1972) Social Responsibility and Its Correlates Among Normal and Behaviorally Disordered Children. Psychology in the Schools, 9:52-55.
Bruch, C. B. (1971) The Gifted Child. In D. W. Allen and E. Seifman (Eds.), The Teacher's Handbook. Chicago: Scott Foresman. Pp. 119-30.
Carroll, J. B. (1963) Research on Teaching Foreign Languages. In N. L. Gage (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. Pp. 1060-1100.
Carroll, J. B. (1966) Research in Foreign Language Teaching: The Last Five Years. In R. G. Mead, Jr. (Ed.), Language Teaching: Broader Contexts. Modern Language Association of America. Pp. 12^42.
Carroll, J. B. (1969) Modern Languages. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research. (4th ed.) New York: Macmillan. Pp. 866-78.
Carroll, J. B. (1974) Learning Theory for the Classroom Teacher. In G. A. Jarvis (Ed.), The Challenge of Communication. Skokie, III.: National Textbook. Pp. 113-49.
Chalmers, D. K., and Rosenbaum, M. E. (1974) Learning by Observing Versus Learning by Doing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66:216-24.
Chastain, K. (1969) Prediction of Success in Audio-Lingual and Cognitive Classes. Language Learning, 19:27-39.
Chastain, K. (1975) Affective and Ability Factors in Second-Language Learning. Language Learning, 25:153-61.
Chastain, K., and Woerdehoff, F. J. (1968) A Methodological Study Comparing the Audio-Lingual Habit Theory and the Cognitive Code-Learning Theory. Modern Language Journal, 52:268-79.
Clark, L. L., et al. (1960) Repetition and Associative Learning. American Journal of Psychology, 73:22-40.
Clouse, B. B. (1969) The Effect of Selected Cues in the Acquisition and Retention of Four Meaningful C-V-C Trigrams. Dissertation Abstracts, 29:3867-A.
Cofer, C. N., and Appley, M. H. (1964) Motivation: Theory and Research. New York: Wiley. P. 808.
Cook, H. R. (1965) Pre-Speech Auditory Training: Its Contribution to Second Language Teaching and Motivation for Continuous Broadcasting. Ph.D. diss., Indiana University.
Crum, B. C., Jr. (1969) The Effects of Set, Awareness, and Reinforcement on the Acquisition and Extinction of a Conditioned Response. Dissertation Abstracts, 29:3479-B.
Davis, W. L., and Davis, D. E. (1972) Internal-External Control and Attribution of Responsibility for Success and Failure. Journal of Personality, 40:123-36.
Dawson, M. E. (1967) Human GSR Classical Conditioning and Awareness of the CS-UCS Relation. Dissertation Abstracts, 28:1705-B.
Della-Piana, G. M., and Endo, G. T. (1973) Reading Research. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. Pp. 908-9.
Denny, D. R. (1974) Relationship of Three Cognitive Style Dimensions to Elementary Reading Abilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66:702-9.
Dowality, F. J., and Schumer, H. (1973) Teacher-Centered Versus Student- Centered Mode of Classroom Instruction as Related to Manifest Anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 64:125-32.
Dubois, E. A. C. (1967) Induction and Deduction. Dissertation Abstracts, 28: 492-A.
Dunkel, H. B. (1948) Second Language Learning. Boston: Ginn. P. 119.
Egan, D. E., and Greeno, J. G. (1973) Acquiring Cognitive Structure by Discovery and Rule Learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 64:85-97.
English, R. A., and Kinzer, J. R. (1966) The Effect of Immediate and Delayed Feed¬
back on Retention of Subject Matter. Psychology in the Schools, 3:143-47.
Estarellas, J., and Regan, T. F., Jr. (1966) Effects of Teaching Sounds as Letters Simultaneously at the Very Beginning of a Basic Foreign Language Course. Language Learning, 16:173-82.
Estes, W. K. (1960) Learning Theory and the New "Mental Chemistry." Psychological Review, 67:207-23.
Farnham-Diggory, S. (1972) Cognitive Processes in Education: A Psychological Preparation for Teaching and Curriculum Development. New York: Harper & Row. Pp. 256-85.
Flanders, J. P. (1968) A Review of Research on Imitative Behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 69:316-37.
Francis, E. W. (1975) Grade Level and Task Difficulty in Learning by Discovery and Verbal Reception Methods. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67:146-50.
Frederick, W. C., and Klausmeier, H. J. (1970) Cognitive Styles: A Description. Educational Leadership, 27:668-72.
Gage, N. L., and Berliner, D. C. (1975) Educational Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally. Pp. 183-87.
Gagne, R. M. (1970) Some New Views of Learning and Instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 51:470-71.
Gellman, E. S. (1969) Clustering as a Factor in Recall. Dissertation Abstracts, 29:3504-B.
Getzels, J. W., and Dillon, J. T. (1973) The Nature of Giftedness and the Education of the Child. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. P. 696.
Glaser, R., and Cooley, W. M. (1973) Instrumentation For Teaching and Instructional Management. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. P. 837.
Goor, A. (1974) Problem Solving Processes of Creative and Non-Creative Students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35:3517-A.
Gordon, I. J. (1969) Social and Emotional Development. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research. (4th ed.) New York: Macmillan. Pp. 1221-30.
Guthrie, J. T. (1967) Expository Instruction Versus a Discovery Method. Journal of Educational Psychology , 58:45^49.
Hancock, R. R. (1975) Cognitive Factors and Their Interaction with Instructional Mode. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education , 6:37-50.
Hauptman, P. C. (1971) A Structural Approach vs. A Situational Approach to Foreign-Language Teaching. Language Learning , 21: 235^44.
Henning, W. A. (1966) Discrimination Training and Self-Evaluation in the Teaching of Pronunciation. International Review of Applied Linguistics , 4:7-17.
Hosenfeld, C. (1973 and 1974) Learning about Learning: Discovering Our Students' Strategies. Revised and expanded version of a paper presented at the 1973 and 1974 ACTFL Conventions.
Jarvis, G. A. (1970) A Comparison of Contextualized Practice with Particularized Referents vs. Practice with Generic Meaning in the Teaching of Beginning College French. Ph.D. diss., Purdue University.
Johnson, D. W., and Johnson, R. T. (1974) Instructional Goal Structure: Cooperative, Competitive, or Individualistic. Review of Educational Research , 44:214.
Johnson, M. C. (1968) The Distribution Aspects of Meaning Interaction in A- Grammatical Verbal Contexts. Dissertation Abstracts, 29:1859-B.
Johnson, N. F. (1965) The Psychological Reality of Phrase-Structure Rules. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior , 4:469-75.
Johnston, M. C. (1961) Foreign Language Instruction. Review of Educational Research , 31:188-96.
Kagan, J. (1971) Controversies in Intelligence: The Meaning of Intelligence. In D. W. Allen and E. Seifman (Eds.), The Teacher's Handbook. Glenview, III.: Scott Foresman. Pp. 655-57.
Kelly, L. (1965) A Comparison of the Monostructural and Polystructural Approaches to the Teaching of College French. Ph.D. diss., Purdue University.
Kiess, H. O. (1968) The Effects of Natural Language Mediation on Short- Term Memory. Dissertation Abstracts, 28:3494-B.
Kirkpatrick, D. A. (1974) The Relationship of Personality Structure and Methods of Instruction to Academic Achievement. Dissertation Abstracts International , 35:3483-A.
Klausmeier, H. J., and Davis, J. K. (1969) Transfer of Learning. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research. (4th ed.) New York: Macmillan. Pp. 1483-93.
Klausmeier, H. J., and Ripple, R. E. (1971) Learning and Human Abilities: Educational Psychology. (3rd ed.) New York: Harper & Row. Pp. 50, 445, 591, 594-99, 610-12.
Kohn, M., and Rosman, B. L. (1974) Social-Emotional, Cognitive, and Demographic Determinants of Poor School Achievement: Implications for a Strategy of Intervention. Journal of Educational Psychology , 66:267-76.
Krovetz, M. L. (1974) Explaining Success or Failure as a Function of One's Locus of Control. Journal of Personality , 42:159- 74.
Lambert, W. E. (1963) Psychological Approaches to the Study of Language Part 11: On Second Language Learning and Bilingualism. Modern Language Journal , 47:114.
Lambert, W. E., and Jakobovits, L. A. (1960) Verbal Satiation and Changes in the Intensity of Meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60:376-83.
Lampron, D. R. (1967) Cognitive Qualities of the Reinforcing Features of Response Contingent Stimuli. Dissertation Abstracts, 8:1709-B.
Landry, R. G. (1973) The Relationship of Second Language Learning and Verbal Creativity. Modern Language Journal, 57:110-13.
Lange, D. L. (1966) An Evaluation of Pre- Reading Instruction in Beginning French in Secondary Schools. Dissertation Abstracts, 27:1710-A.
Laughlin, P. R. (1969) Selection Versus Reception Concept Attainment Paradigms as a Function of Memory, Concept Rule, and Concept Universe. Journal of Educational Psychology; 60:267-73.
Lawler, J., and Selinker, L. (1971) On Paradoxes, Rules, and Research in Second-Language Learning. Language Learning, 21:27-43.
Levenson, FI., and LeUnes, A. (1974) Students' Evaluation of an Instructor: Effects of Similarity of Attitudes. Psychological Reports, 34:1074.
Levie, W. H., and Dickie, K. E. (1973) The Analysis and Application of Media. In R.
M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. Pp. 876-77.
Lim, K-B. (1968) Prompting vs. Confirmation, Pictures vs. Translations, and Other Variables in Children's Learning of Grammar in a Second Language. Princeton,
N. J.: Educational Testing Service.
Lipe, D., and Jung, S. M. (1971) Manipulating Incentives to Enhance School Learning. Review of Educational Research, 41:253.
McClelland, D. C., and Watson, R. I., Jr. (1973) Power Motivation and Risk Taking Behavior. Journal of Personality, 41:121- 31.
Machr, M. L., and Sjogren, D. D. (1971) Atkinson's Theory of Achievement Motivation: First Step Toward a Theory of Academic Motivation? Review of Educational Research, 41:155.
McKinnon, K. (1965) An Experimental Study of the Learning of Syntax in Second Language Learning. Ph.D. diss., Harvard University.
Mahmoudi, H. M., and Snibbe, J. R. (1974) Manipulating Expectancy in the Affective Domain and its Effects on Achievement, Intelligence, and Personality. Psychology in the Schools, 11:449-57.
Mascolo, R. P. (1967) Key Conceptual Schemes and Inquiry Training: Some Ef¬
fects upon New Learning. Dissertation Abstracts, 28:1345-A.
Meinke, D. L.; George, C. S.; and Wilkinson, J. M. (1975) Concrete and Abstract Thinkers at Three Grade Levels and Their Performance with Complex Concepts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66:154-58.
More, A. J. (1969) Delay of Feedback and the Acquisition and Retention of Verbal Materials in the Classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60:339-42.
Mouly, G. J. (1973) Psychology for Effective Teaching. (3rd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Pp. 166-67, 222, 257, 312-13, 338.
Mueller, T. (1971a) Could the New Key be a Wrong Key? French Review, 44:1085-93.
Mueller, T. (1971b) The Effectiveness of Two Learning Models: The Audio-Lingual Habit Theory and the Cognitive Code- Learning Theory. In P. Pimsleur and T. Quinn (Eds.), The Psychology of Second Language Learning. London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 113-22.
Mueller, T. H., and Harris, R. (1966) The Effect of an Audio-Lingual Program on Drop-Out Rate. Modern Language Journal, 50:133-37.
Mueller, T. H., and Leutenegger, R. R. (1964) Some Inferences About an Intensified Oral Approach to the Teaching of French Based on a Study of Course Drop-Outs. Modern Language Journal, 48:91-94.
Muller, D. H. (1964) A Study of the Effects on Pronunciation and Intonation of Accompanying Audio-Lingual Drill with Exposure to the Written Word. Dissertation Abstracts, 24:5414.
Murdock, B. B., Jr., and Babick, A. J. (1961) The Effect of Repetition on the Retention of Individual Words. American Journal of Psychology, 74:596-601.
Noar, G. (1972) Individualized Instruction: Every Child A Winner. New York: Wiley. P. 3.
Norland, F. H.; Lawson, A. E.; Kahle, J. B. (1974) A Study of Levels of Concrete and Formal Reasoning Ability in Disadvantaged Junior and Senior High School Sci-
ence Students. Science Education, 58:569-75.
Nostrand, H. L., et al. (1962) Research on Language Teaching: An Annotated International Bibliography for 1945-1961. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Oiler, j. W., Jr., and Obrecht, D. H. (1968) Pattern Drill and Communicative Activity: A Psycholinguistic Experiment. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 6:165-74.
Oiler, J. W., Jr., and Obrecht, D. H. (1969) The Psycholinguistic Principle of Informational Sequence. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 7:117-23.
Ornstein, J., and Lado, R. (1967) Research in Foreign Language Teaching Methodology. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5:11-25.
Overing, R. L. R., and Travers, R. M. W. (1966) Effect upon Transfer of Variations in Training Conditions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 57:179-88.
Pimsleur, P., et al. (1964) Further Study of the Transfer of Verbal Materials Across Sense Modalities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 55:96-102.
Pines, H. A., and Julian, J. W. (1972) Effects of Task and Social Demands on Locus of Control Differences in Information Processing. Journal of Personality, 40:407-16.
Posner, M. I., and Keele, S. W. (1973) Skill Learning. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. Pp. 805-25.
Prawer, F. H. (1974) The Self-Concept as Related to Achievement in Foreign Language Study. American Foreign Language Teacher, 4:7-10.
Ramey, C. T., and Piper, V. (1974) Creativity in Open and Traditional Classrooms. Child Development, 45:557-60.
Ramirez, M., Jr., and Price-Williams, D. R. (1974) Cognitive Styles of Children of Three Ethnic Croups in the United States. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 5:212-19.
Rest, J. R. (1973) The Hierarchical Nature of Moral Judgment: A Study of Patterns
of Comprehension and Preference of Moral Stages. Journal of Personality, 41:86- 109.
Rhetts, J. E. (1974) Task, Learner and Treatment Variables on Instructional Design. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66:339 -47.
Richards, S. E., and Appel, J. E. (1956) Effects of Written Words in Beginning Spanish. Modern Language Journal, 40:129-33.
Rock, I. (1957) The Role of Repetition in Associative Learning. American Journal of Psychology, 70:186-93.
Rohrman, N. L. (1968) The Role of Syntactic Structure in the Recall of Sentences. Dissertation Abstracts, 28:3905-B.
Rosenfield, J. B. (1968) Information Processing: Encoding and Decoding. Dissertation Abstracts, 28:3065-B.
Rosenthal, T. L., and Zimmerman, B. J. (1973) Organization, Observation, and Guided Practice in Concept Attainment and Generalization. Child Development, 44:606-13.
Rutherford, W. E. (1968) Deep and Surface Structure, and the Language Drill. Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages: 71-79.
Rychlak, J. F.; Tuan, N. D.; and Schneider, W. E. (1974) Formal Discipline Revisited: Affective Assessment and Nonspecific Transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66:139-51.
Salomon, G. (1972) Heuristic Models for the Generation of Aptitude-Treatment Interaction Hypotheses. Review of Educational Research, 42:329.
Sassenrath, J. M., and Yonge, C. D. (1969) Effects of Delayed Information Feedback and Feedback Cues in Learning on Delayed Retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60:174-77.
Savignon, S. J. (1972) Communicative Competence: An Experiment in Foreign- Language Teaching. Philadelphia: Center for Curriculum Development.
Sawyer, J. (1964) Foreign Language Instruction. Review of Educational Research, 34:203-10.
Sawyer, J., et al. (1963) The Utility of Translation and Written Symbols During the First Thirty Hours of Language Study. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 1:157-92.
Sax, C. (1969) Concept Formation. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan. P. 198.
Schwartz, L. L. (1972) Educational Psychology: Focus on the Learner. Boston: Holbrook Press.
Scott, N. C., Jr. (1973) Cognitive Style and Inquiry Strategy: A Five-Year Study. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 10:323.
Shuell, T. J., and Keppel, C. (1970) Learning Ability and Retention. Journal of Educational Psychology, 61:59-65.
Shulman, L. S., and Tamir, P. (1973) Research on Teaching in the Natural Sciences. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally. Pp. 1098-1148.
Skanes, C. R., et al. (1974) Intelligence and Transfer: Aptitude by Treatment Interaction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66:563-68.
Slock, J. A. (1975) Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Advance Organizers in a Medical Microbiology Course. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35:4274-A.
Smith, F. J. (1968) Rule Learning in a Miniature Linguistic System. Dissertation Abstracts. 28:4784-B.
Stiles, J. A., and McCandless, B. (1969) Child Development. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan. P. 121.
Temple, J. G. (1974) Information Processing Preference and the Learning of Motor Tasks. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35:3496-A.
Tezza, J. S. (1962) The Effects of Listening Training on Audio-Lingual Learning. Dissertation Abstracts, 23:2035.
Thorsland, M. N., and Novak, J. D. (1974) The Identification and Significance of Intuitive and Analytic Problem Solving Approaches Among College Physics Students. Science Education, 58:245-64.
Torrey, J. W. (1965) The Learning of Grammar: An Experimental Study. Washington, D. C.: Public Health Service Research Grant No. 07167.
Walker, H. M., and Buckley, N. K. (1972) Effects of Reinforcement, Punishment, and Feedback Upon Academic Response Rate. Psychology in the Schools, 9:186- 93.
Walters, L., and Sieben, G. (1974) Cognitive Style and Learning Science in Elementary Schools. Science Education, 58:66, 73.
Weiner, B. (1969) Motivation. In R. L. Ebel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Research (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan. Pp. 878-88.
Weiner, B. (1972) Attribution Theory, Achievement Motivation, and the Educational Process. Review of Educational Research, 42:335.
Wertheimer, M., and Gillis, W. M. (1958) Satiation and the Rate of Lapse of Verbal Meaning. Journal of General Psychology, 59:79-85.
Wheeler, R., and Ryan, F. L. (1973) Effects of Cooperative and Competitive Classroom Environments on the Attitudes and Achievement of Elementary School Students Engaged in Social Studies Inquiry Activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 65:402-7.
Witkin, B. R. (1969) Auditory Perception—Implications for Language Development. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 3:53.
Wittrock, M. C. (1963) Verbal Stimuli in Concept Formation: Learning by Discovery. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54:183-90.
Wolk, S., and DuCette, J. (1973) The Moderating Effect of Locus of Control in Relation to Achievement Motivation. Journal of Personality, 41:59-70.
Wood, F. H., and McCurdy, D. W. (1974) An Analysis of Characteristics of Self-Directedness as Related to Success in an Individualized Continuous Progress Course in Chemistry and Physics. School Science and Mathematics, 74: 382-88.
Research 101
Young, L. C. (1975) The Effects of Advance and Post Organization on the Learning and Retention of Prose Material. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35:4269-A.
Zimmerman, B. J., and Rosenthal, T. L. (1974) Observational Learning of Rule- Governed Behavior by Children. Psychological Bulletin, 81: 29^42.