The word discipline has been misused and abused to the point at which the mere mention of it conjures up frightening images of unruly students and methodical repressive measures on the part of the teacher and the administration. In the minds of many, discipline is synonymous with punishment of some type. As used here, the word discipline refers to those rules and measures that promote and maintain "learning-appropriate behavior" in the classroom specifically and to those rules and measures that promote and maintain appropriate behavior in society in general (Cnagey, 1971, p. 193). Ideally, this behavior is self-directed. Whenever self-control is lacking, however, external measures and regulations must be imposed. An internal approach to discipline results in inner growth and self-discipline. On the other hand, inappropriate use of external measures results in dependency on authority, coercion, restraint, and punishment (Carnot, 1973).
The acquisition of disciplined behavior is an absolute essential in the educational process both in and out of the classroom. In the first place, discipline is necessary if the individual is to learn the social group's cultural standards of conduct. Second, without discipline the individual cannot develop such adult personality characteristics as dependability, self-reliance, self- control, persistence, and the ability to tolerate frustration. Third, discipline is the basis for the development of conscience. Fourth, discipline is an important factor in promoting children's emotional security (Ausubel & Robinson, 1969). Fifth, social order is dependent upon mutually accepted rules of social relationships. And sixth, intellectual growth cannot rise to its maximum potential in the absence of mental discipline. Spock (1974, p. xi), often accused of being the father of the permissive generation, says, ". . . that parents should stick by their ethical convictions and feel no hesitation in showing them to their children; that they should ask their children for cooperation and respect; that children who are held up to high ideals and considerate behavior are not only a lot pleasanter to live with but they are happier themselves." There is no reason to expect a different reaction in the classroom. Discipline is indispensable in learning, personality development, and productive social interaction.
Classroom discipline patterns Based on his philosophy, the teacher may adopt one of the following general approaches to discipline. If he chooses to go in to class with the tough guy attitude to show the students who is boss, he is following the authoritarian approach. If he assumes the philosophy that kids will be kids and that anything goes, he is assuming the permissive approach. If he prefers to establish a classroom organization in which the students help formulate and enforce the rules and regulations, he is taking a democratic approach. What are the effects of each? The authoritarian approach tends to produce outward quiet, acquiescence, and conformity, but may lead to inner resentment and rebellion. A permissive atmosphere not only disrupts learning-appropriate behavior for many students in many instances, it also may create feelings of insecurity and resentment toward the class and the teacher. The goal of the democratic approach is to cultivate internal self-discipline (Carnot, 1973).
Approaches to discipline As is true in learning, language, and motivation, teachers may take one of two basic approaches to establishing a disciplined, productive atmosphere in their classrooms. They may take the internal approach, in which students are responsible for their behavior. Or they may take the external approach, in which teachers are responsible for student behavior. With the internal approach, teachers outline the ground rules to be followed in class along with why each is desirable. Both teachers and students may work together, however, to select the rules and regulations they feel necessary to establish a learning atmosphere in class.
With the external approach, teachers decide what behaviors they want in the classroom and attempt to condition those behaviors in the students by means of selective reinforcement. This approach, called behavior modification or contingency management, is highly recommended by Skinnerian psychologists and others, and it is appropriate at this point to describe the basic procedures employed by its proponents. Using behavior modification techniques, teachers first choose an example of desired behavior. Second, they determine how common the behavior is. Third, they choose a system for reinforcing this behavior. Fourth, they plan how to administer the reward or reinforcement. Fifth, they begin to reinforce any actions in the direction of the desired behavior. This procedure consists of reinforcing actions closer and closer to the goal until desired behavior has been conditioned to insure proper student actions. Reinforcement may be any type of reward from a nod of approval to some tangible token such as a candy bar or a package of gum. Behavior modification practitioners believe that permanent changes in behavior are best induced by positive reinforcers. Undesired actions are ignored, within reason, and goal behavior is obtained by means of positive reinforcers
(George, 1973). Mouly (1973) feels that behavior modification techniques are promising with students who do not have behavior patterns suited for learning behavior in the classroom and who are accustomed to immediate and tangible rewards.
Types of behavior problems Gage and Berliner (1975) divide behavior problems into two major categories: those involving too much undesirable behavior and those involving too little desirable behavior. Too much undesirable behavior includes physical aggression, being overly friendly during the class period with other members of the class, attention seeking, challenging the teacher's authority, and critical dissension. Too little desirable behavior includes failure to pay attention, failure to show interest in work or to prepare assignments, failure to become a member of the class social group, failure to follow rules about attendance and promptness, and failure to develop independent behavior. The authors recommend following a behavior modification pattern in order to eliminate or reduce too much undesirable behavior. The teacher is advised to ignore the behavior, to get the other students to ignore it, to promote desirable behavior through reinforcement, to avoid those situations that seem to encourage such behavior, and as a last resort to punish the offending student. The opposite approach is taken to encourage and stimulate increased instances of desirable behavior.
Discipline in the classroom Good discipline is not synonymous with absolute quiet. Often students, especially those in a second-language class, must be actively involved in using the language to be learned. Nor should the teacher expect the staid, stilted atmosphere of the Latin grammar schools. Although she may not be interfering with the progress of the class, a quiet student may not be learning anything. In fact, the quiet student may be mentally miles or hours away from the classroom. Good discipline may or may not be related to the noise level in the classroom. The classroom is a place to learn. Any study behavior that disrupts the learning process, her own or that of other students, can be considered a discipline problem. This behavior may be quiet or noisy; it may be malicious and sly or open and unintentional. In either case, the teacher's job is to reestablish and maintain the learning situation.
Before the prospective teacher enters the classroom, he should realize that rapport is not a matter of being able to entertain the students or of being their "buddy." In spite of what they may say, students need a teacher they respect rather than an overgrown adolescent with whom to clown around. Rapport implies a classroom atmosphere in which learning is taking place. It is this establishment of learning situations that is the teacher's prime task. Unless he can assume that responsibility, he should not become a teacher. He may sympathize and empathize with the students but always from his position as a teacher. Crossing the line to become, in effect, a student again destroys his
image as a teacher and neutralizes his potential effectiveness. The teacher must admit that, in the words of Thomas Wolfe, "You can't go home again."
Before entering the classroom, the prospective teacher should also determine to expect courtesy at all times in the classroom. Much undisciplined behavior is simply a matter of bad manners, and the teacher should emphasize respect for the rights and feelings of others. In addition to courtesy, he should also determine to establish and maintain certain standards of work and behavior in the classroom that will encourage the students to be and do their best at all times. Permissiveness and lowered standards aggravate and magnify discipline problems rather than solve them. The students may forget all the language they learn, but they should remember the importance of courtesy, self-discipline, and sincere effort to do one's best.
The first order of business with regard to discipline is to make the rules clear to everyone in the class. Establishing the guidelines for the class to follow is not a matter of "laying down the law," but one of making concise statements comprehensible to all. However, stating the rule is only the beginning. After this comes the process of establishing the validity and applicability of the rules. Within a short period of time the teacher can expect to face the first test case. The classroom is a social situation, and the students must determine in practice the limits of behavior (Ausubel & Robinson, 1969). Stenhouse (1967, p. 52) describes this process in the following fashion:
The class explores the situation by a process which might be called "testing the limits." There are inevitably areas of uncertainty in their relationships with a new teacher, areas in which the practice of teachers diverges. The class sets about clearing up these uncertainties by confronting the teacher with test cases. One might say that the class experiments with the teacher. It may not do this consciously and in planned fashion, but every experienced teacher will recognize the process we have in mind. It is almost as if the teacher were the subject of an experiment in social psychology in which the class plays the role of the experimenter, seeking to discover the laws which will help them to predict, and perhaps even to control, their teacher's behavior. Only in the light of these laws can they shape their own reaction. Thus the class seeks to discover, for example, under what circumstances the teacher is prepared to allow them to talk to one another, to walk about the room, or to read their own books. It may also try to find out whether it can seduce him from his purpose by introducing red herrings, whether it can embarrass him by introducing sexually loaded questions, or whether it can make him lose the thread of a mathematical explanation by interrupting him with questions.
By its very nature this experiment turns into an attempt to discover the limits to which the class can go: the lowest standards of work the teacher will accept, the extremes of disorder which he will tolerate. The class "tries to get away with things," because this is the only way in which it is possible to trace the boundary line between what is acceptable and what is unacceptable. 2
In addition to these natural testings of teacher authority there may be threats to the teacher's self-esteem. These threats can come in many forms. For example, they may be positive comments about other classes and other teachers with the direct implication that the class of the teacher in question falls far short of the others. They may be direct and cutting remarks about the class or the teacher, or a nickname designed to embarrass the teacher. As shattering as these may be to the teacher's ego, the teacher has no adequate means at her disposal for combatting these tactics. In fact, overt reaction can only worsen the situation. The best approach is to ignore the remarks and assume that they are of a temporary nature, which they likely are (Ausubel & Robinson, 1969).
The first few weeks of the school year are especially important in establishing the classroom atmosphere that the teacher desires. During this period, the teacher should eliminate all possible discipline problems before they become established habits. The teacher may relax somewhat her strict discipline later in the year if she so desires, but "cracking down" is almost impossible. Students can accept a teacher who expects proper discipline in the classroom, but they resent a teacher who turns out to be a lion in sheep's clothing. The opposite situation, i.e., a teacher who eases up once the desired classroom discipline pattern has been established, creates no problems for the pleasantly surprised students, but the teacher has to suffer the consequences if she relinquishes control to the students.
The best approach to discipline is to avoid circumstances that create discipline problems. The following suggestions concern ways of preventing the occurrence of discipline problems during the class hour:
1. Start the class promptly and with a spirit of enthusiasm and vigor.
2. Get everyone's attention before starting the recitation.
3. Have all possible material that may be needed written on the chalkboard before the bell rings.
4. Have your plan and all teaching aids ready.
5. Learn to "ride the class with your eyes." The teacher should be able to see all the students all the time.
6. Talk to all the students and ask them to talk to the entire class. The class recitation period is not appropriate for a series of private conversations between the students called upon and the teacher.
7. Call on those students who are beginning to lose interest.
8. Emphasize a "we" feeling of class responsibility for all that transpires.
9. Encourage all students to attempt to answer the questions silently whether they have been called on or not.
10. Study the seating arrangement of the students. Those who affect each other adversely may need to be moved.
11. Be businesslike.
12. Watch your voice. Be expressive, and speak loudly and clearly.
13. Stand in class and move around.
14. Keep the pace moving.
15. Learn to "feel the pulse" of the class, so that changes can be made as the class progresses. For example, there is no need to spend ten minutes on an activity if the students obviously do not need the practice. At other times, the teacher may need to spend ten minutes on some exercise that he had expected to do more quickly.
16. Hold every member of the class responsible for all that takes place during the period.
17. State the question before calling on the student.
18. Call on students in a random fashion rather than by rows.
19. Have a variety of activities.
20. Use examples in preference to abstract explanations.
21. Keep those students at their seats busy during chalkboard exercises.
22. And last, but certainly not least, know the material before attempting to teach it.
In addition to the positive practices presented in the preceding list the teacher should not do the following:
1. Use sarcasm.
2. Play favorites.
3. Insist on apologies.
4. Make threats.
5. Give overly difficult assignments.
6. Punish the entire class for the misbehavior of one or a few students.
7. Appeal to fear.
8. Get sidetracked by irrelevant questions.
9. Tie herself to the textbook.
10. Use vocabulary over the students' heads.
11. Talk too rapidly or nervously.
If discipline problems do occur, the teacher should first ask himself if his teaching merits the attention he expects. Second, he should try to find out more about the student causing the problem. Misconduct may have nothing at all to do with the class itself. Economic and social status, physical health and development, mental ability, problems at home, community conditions, group influence, emotional stability, etc.—all influence class conduct. A private conference with the student may help to determine the problem and to improve conduct in the class. If not, a counselor or a dean may be able to help in solving the problem.
If the student does not respond to a personal chat, the teacher may be
<.66 Part Two: Practice
forced to discipline him in front of the class. The teacher should attempt to do so in a dignified manner which will preserve the respect the students have for him. At the same time, he should be ever conscious of the student's own worth as a person and never do anything that may cause the student to lose his self-respect.
When correcting inappropriate behavior, the teacher should be conscious of the "ripple effect" her actions may have. For example, if she corrects one of the class leaders for some act or in such a way that the goodwill of the high-prestige student is lost, the ripple effect among the class members will be negative. Focusing on appropriate behavior rather than negative will have a positive ripple effect. A program so set up that any student can earn approval and privileges will have a positive ripple effect. Punishment that is restitution will have a positive ripple effect; punishment that is retribution will have a negative ripple effect. Reprimands that are clear have a positive ripple effect: for example, "John, please stop rattling that magazine and do your algebra problems." Reprimands that are unclear do not have a positive effect: for example, "Now you cut that out back there and get busy." Reprimands that are firm, delivered with an l-mean-it tone of voice, will have a positive ripple effect: for example, "It is time to start the homework now." Tentative reprimands will in all likelihood not accomplish the teacher's wishes: for example, "I wish we could be more quiet this morning" (Cnagey, 1971).
Continuous, conscious disruption of classroom activities cannot be permitted. Nor should the teacher ignore his responsibility to help each student develop productive behavior patterns. Glasser (1975) offers a plan of action to foster learning appropriate behavior to be used in those instances in which special attention is needed. First, the teacher makes friends with the student. Second, the questionable behavior is specified. Third, he and the student evaluate the results of the student's actions. Fourth, a plan to improve is formulated. Fifth, the teacher gets a commitment from the student to change his behavior. Sixth, the teacher accepts no excuses for not following the plan of action. Fie asks the student when he is going to do what he said, and he insists that the student take responsibility for his actions. Seventh, the teacher expects the student to continue following the rules. The student must learn that the rules and regulations are to be obeyed and that the teacher will not accept anything else. At no time does the teacher ridicule the student or make fun of him. He helps him formulate a definite plan and to make a commitment toward improved conduct. If progress is not demonstrated, the student is asked to spend some time alone in a teacher-designated area to think about taking steps to improve.
In conclusion, a productive learning atmosphere in the classroom requires a disciplined, responsive class. The teacher should not shrink from this responsibility of establishing a learning-oriented rapport with the students. Often those with whom he has the most difficulties later become his most ardent supporters. Far from resenting his standards and his efforts, they respect him for these very qualities.