How the task of the second-language teacher has changed! In the "good old days" teaching grammar and correcting a few translations were deemed sufficient. Teachers explained, and the students absorbed. The work became harder as the goal changed to one of drilling language habits into the students. Teachers expended huge amounts of energy orchestrating the class in choral, group, and individual drill. Now the ideal has shifted to teaching the "whole" person. Suddenly, the teachers' obligations have multiplied enormously. In response to the exigencies of the times, teachers are being asked to deal with the students' emotional as well as their mental growth.
The teacher's expanding role would be difficult enough if all she had to consider was a greater responsibility for the students' attitudes and feelings. At the same time, however, the more recent theories of learning and language support models that make her tasks of choosing objectives, selecting appropriate teaching-learning activities, and evaluating student achievement even more complex than that of her predecessors in second-language teaching. The second-language teacher now faces the assignment of teaching the whole spectrum of language skills to the whole student.
The overall goal of part 2 of this text has been to deal with these new emphases in second-language teaching. The complexities of the task are tremendous, but so is the potential for improving second-language teaching. As means are sought to accommodate their increased responsibilities, teachers must consider their students' psychomotor, cognitive, and affective-social characteristics. Their conception of the student must encompass the students' psychomotor and mental capabilities, attitudes, and social relationships.
As the teacher prepares objectives and selects teaching-learning activities for the students, he can conceive of learning as being either internally or externally directed. For example, he can view learning as being under his direction in that he controls the stimuli and the reinforcers, or he can think of learning as being under the control of the learner in that learning is internally activated and directed. He can think of the learner as needing to be conditioned and reinforced, or he can think of the learner as needing to be guided and assisted. He can think of learners as being shaped or as shaping their own learning. The indications are that the teacher will encounter both types of learners in his classes. Based on research findings and the need to promote internally directed learners, the approach taken in this text has been to outline cognitive procedures best suited for internally directed learners and to recommend supplementary conditioning drills for those students who require additional habit-formation practice.
The order in which second-language skills are taught seems to vary depending upon the objectives involved and the second-language learner's level of proficiency. In teaching the sound system and sound-symbol association, the teacher proceeds in the following fashion: listening, speaking,
reading, and writing. However, in developing competence, i.e., in learning vocabulary and structural patterns, and in initial stages of productive performance, the written skills should realistically precede the other skills. This is due to the fact that they can be processed at slower speeds and therefore can serve as a preliminary step toward the high-speed, mental processing necessary in the oral skills. At intermediate and advanced levels many students would seem to have the requisite base to go from any of the four language skills to any other provided the linguistic and semantic level of the content is not beyond their level of learning. At any level any language skill can reinforce content learned in any of the other skills.
During the entire language-learning sequence the teacher must be constantly concerned with student reaction and attitude. Attitude affects achievement, and achievement in turn affects attitude. In order to promote positive attitudes, the teacher tries to maintain a sensitivity to the class atmosphere and to be responsive to changes occurring from time to time. She wants the students to do well, and she lets them know it. She is ready to support her interest in them with positive actions. She realizes that the students must be willing to do the work to gain an elementary competence in the language and that they must be interested in participating in real language activities in the class. She is especially mindful of the fact that communicative competence involves affective as well as cognitive and behavioral components and that productive skills must be generated internally by the students.
As the class progresses through the year, the teacher's major concern is with "maximizing." First, he needs to maximize student satisfaction and confidence. Second, he needs to maximize the percentage of students who are actively participating at any one time in the class. Third, he needs to maximize the amount of class time that is spent productively in real language activities. And fourth, he needs to maximize student familiarity with the second- language culture.
As teachers seek to maximize positive student attitudes, participation, and achievement, they first attempt to present all new material in a way that is meaningful to the students. From this cognitive base, they assist the students in gaining an internalized competence in the language system and afterwards provide opportunities for receiving and producing meaning-carrying messages in the second language both individually and in social interaction situations. They attend to all components of language and all stages of the second- language learning sequence, and they sequence the material to facilitate student progress. During the entire process, they are watchful for those students having difficulties and are prepared to help them overcome their problems. The procedures for achieving competence and/or for correcting deficiencies depend upon the needs of the particular student.
Conclusion to Part Two 51?
In order to use the available class time as efficiently as possible, the teacher is ever alert to ways in which to diminish the percentage of the class devoted to the production and manipulation of language forms. Two promising techniques for accomplishing this objective at the moment are to: (1) ask the students to learn to produce and manipulate forms in take-home cognitive writing exercises, and (2) combine the practice of forms and communication in meaningful exercises and activities.
Given the current state of knowledge concerning language learning, delineating all the specific characteristics of language learning is not possible. However, the assumption can be made that two factors are always involved in language learning. First, from the point of view of the learner and his internalized language system, all language learning is meaningful. Second, all real language exchanges involve the exchange of meaning. In this sense, the vital components of any language situation are that they be meaningful and that they convey meaning from one speaker of the language to another.
The greatest need in second-language teaching is to develop additional ways and means of relating the language to the students and of practicing real language skills in real situations within the classroom context. More activities that could occur in the second-language situation with which the students can identify and in which they are interested are needed. The learner must be given many opportunities to "play with" the creative construction of language. He must be put into situations in which language becomes thought and vice versa.
The challenge presently facing second-language educators is to make language learning in the classroom come alive for the students. What is needed is greater insight into and an expanded vision of how this reality and vitality can be best achieved for each student. Following the general sequence and procedures suggested in part 2 of this text is a beginning, but the author's desire is that each teacher will add his personal contribution to improving the science of our art and the art of our science.
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APPENDIX 1
The first day is the most important day in any given class. From this first encounter with a second language and with the teacher, the students form their initial impressions of what the class is going to be like. From the teacher's point of view, the first class, especially for a first-year teacher, may be quite nerve-racking. The new teacher is not only nervous; often she is concerned about a plan to follow on the first day. The more experienced teachers need to reconsider each year what they do on this all-important day. In general, there are several subjects to be included on the first day of class.
7. Greeting. First, the teacher should manage a warm, sincere smile as he welcomes the students to his class. The greeting can be in the second language. Whether they understand exactly is not important. They will get the message that in this class they are going to learn to speak and use the second language.
2. Administrative chores. As quickly as possible, the administrative details, such as the completion of enrollment forms, seating charts, or whatever, should be dispensed with.
3. Getting acquainted. Give the students cards asking them to write such personal information as name, address, phone number, etc. on the front. On the back of the card they can write a short autobiography and a summary of their major interests and activities. (This information can be a most valuable source of information during the course of the semester.) As the teacher checks the names, she is presented with an excellent opportunity for the class to begin to get acquainted. She asks the students to introduce themselves and to tell something about themselves. As soon as they have introduced themselves, she should give them a short summary of her background, so they can begin to feel acquainted with her.
4. Rules and regulations. The rules and regulations to be followed in the class should be outlined to the students. At no time should the students be surprised when disciplined. They should know exactly what is expected. In general, the fewer rules the better. (In setting up his rules, the teacher should stress that these rules are intended to help the class run more smoothly and to help them learn more in the class. The teacher may well reinforce this positive emphasis by dwelling a few minutes on the importance of rules in all aspects of life. Rules help people rather than hinder them. As an example, he can mention such a commonly understood practice as always driving on the right-hand side of the road. Driving on the highways would be quite nerve- racking if all drivers did not accept this rule.) For most classes, four rules seem to be sufficient, (a) In order for the class to proceed, everyone is expected to be ready to begin work when the bell rings. Nor is anyone free to leave until dismissed at the end of the hour, (b) In order to be able to pronounce the new sounds they will be learning and to avoid the "mess" of gum improperly disposed of, gum is prohibited except on days of written tests. The teacher can foster a cooperative spirit in the class by telling the students that no penalties are involved and that he will remind them if they forget, (c) In order to learn the maximum amount possible, each person, including the teacher, should pay attention to whoever is talking, (d) Each student is expected to be courteous at all times, courtesy being defined as having the most fun one possibly can without bothering someone else. An alternative practiced by some teachers is to involve the students in the selection of rules that would be most beneficial to their learning for the semester.
5. Grading system. The students are always justifiably interested in grades, and the teacher should outline on the first day how the grades are determined and how they are converted into the final grade for the six weeks or for the semester. For example, the class will have a test over each chapter. There will be no quizzes. At the end of each grading period, there will be a major examination over the entire grading period. Each six weeks, a class grade will be given. For the grade on the report card, the class grade will count one fourth, the chapter tests will be half, and the examination one fourth. Those
Appendix 1
521
grades will be graded on the following scale: A—95-100, B—85-94, C—75-84, and D—65-74. Any similar outline enables them to keep track of their grade for the course. There should be few, if any, surprises when the grade cards are distributed.
6. Why study a second language? At the beginning of the course, and thereafter, the teacher should try to interest and motivate the students to learn a language. The first day of class is a good time to give them some reasons for studying a language just in case they do not have any.
7. How to study a second language. For those students who have no prior experience studying a second language, the teacher should give some idea of the ways in which they can approach second-language study. The following hints should help students to learn a second language:
a. Attend class regularly and participate in all class activities.
b. Respond to every problem your instructor poses in class, no matter who is called on to answer. You can respond mentally and then check your accuracy when the answer is given. If you do this regularly, you will have hundreds more practice opportunities than if you merely sit and wait your turn.
c. Complete every assignment on time. The programs in many assignments are designed to prepare you specifically for the class session that follows.
1. Experiment to discover how you learn best. You may do the assignment first and use the summary to review and check what you have learned. In reverse, you may study the summary first and use the assignment to find out whether you understand the details.
e. Keep a vocabulary list and study it for two to four minutes every day. . . .
f. Read aloud in Spanish for two or three minutes every day to improve your pronunciation and fluency.
g. From the very beginning of the course, think and talk to yourself in Spanish, using whatever Spanish you have learned. This can be done at any time when you do not need to use your mind for other things, e.g., while brushing your teeth, waiting for a bus, eating alone. 1
h. Know what the objectives are for each chapter and organize your study and practice around these goals.
i. Be prepared to give an oral or written summary of all the dialogs and/or readings.
j. Be prepared to talk or write about the content of the chapter.
k. Participate in all the class activities, so that you can get feedback as to hov/ you are teaching.
l. Do not get discouraged by errors or the failure to achieve language skilL
^amadrid, E. E., et al. (1974) Communicating in Spanish. Level One. Boston: Houghton Miffli Pp. vii-viii.
immediately. Everyone who learns a language makes mistakes, and skills must be developed over a period of time.
8. Course goals. The teacher should outline for the students in exact terms what he would like for the class (both the teacher and the students) to accomplish in the course. He should describe both language skills and culture as well as specific sounds, vocabulary, and grammar to be covered. Most important of all, he should pledge his commitment to the students to do his best to help each and every one of them to be a successful second-language student. (A pledge he should remember to honor throughout the year!)
9. Acquaint the students with the book. The teacher should spend a few moments discussing her objectives and the book. She can point out the important features of the text, and she should explain to the students how the class is going to proceed through the book. For example, she can tell them approximately how much time she plans to spend on each chapter and what types of homework they will be expected to do.
10. Assign names in the language. An extra element in establishing a second-language atmosphere can be added by giving the students names in the second language. These names become their real names in the classroom.
11. Introduce the first assignment. Toward the end of the hour, the next day's lesson should be previewed and the homework assigned.
12. Give them something to take away. Whether or not the needed expressions occur in the lesson previewed, the students should be able to say something in the second language by the time they leave class. At least, they should be able to say, "Hi, how are you?" and to answer, "I'm fine, thanks. And you?" One possibility to help the students to get acquainted more quickly and to teach them something to say by the end of the first class is to use the activity suggested in the chapter on speaking, in which the students move about the class asking and giving each other their names (see page 348).
APPENDIX 2
How many teachers of Spanish are satisfied with the text adopted for use in their classes? If conversations heard and overheard at meetings of the faithful are a reliable indication, many teachers are critical of the texts that they are presently using. Coupled with this discontent is a perpetual optimism with regard to the promise of new materials. Apparently, most teachers are somewhat like voters, who are said to vote against rather than for. Part of this dissatisfaction is due, of course, to the fact that many teachers find themselves in the situation of having to teach from materials which they have not chosen.
But the question arises as to whether they would be any happier after a year or two with materials which they themselves had selected. What criteria would they have used?
The following comments are directed toward the problem of selecting a basic language text. The author is well aware that his ideas do not correspond to many of those reflected in the evaluation lists currently available. The criteria now used by most teachers are aimed toward some objective means of evaluating the text or series of materials. However, with these lists it is quite possible to become so busy examining trees that the forest is lost in a maze of branches, i.e., of minor aspects of the text. In this writer's opinion, a general,
subjective evaluation would be more satisfactory. After all, the acid test of any materials is the compatibility between these materials and the personality and teaching practices of the teacher. Teaching is a subjective interpretation of textual materials to and with the students. The long lists of criteria can be shortened and simplified, thus allowing a more satisfactory personal opinion of the proposed text.
Another reason for abandoning current guidelines for use in textbook selection is that many are obviously biased toward a particular method of language teaching, generally the audio-lingual approach. 1 Such a built-in preference is not justifiable from the point of view of our present state of knowledge about language teaching and language learning. Although Barrutia (1966) and Ney (1968) have defended audio-lingual practices in recent articles, even they have been more moderate in their claims and much more lenient in their receptiveness to a variety of teaching practices within the audio-lingual context than were early proponents of the method. Other writers have been more critical. Wolfe (1967) objects to the artificiality of dialog memorization and pattern drill repetition. Belasco (1969) asserts, "When problems of sentence embedding are considered, the prospect of a dialog-drill saturated grammar becomes utterly impossible." Saporta (1966) seconds the above statement and summarizes the theoretical objection to audio-lingual practices when he states, "All models of learning based exclusively on imitation and reinforcement fail to account for the ability of anyone who has mastered a language to produce and understand novel utterances."
Carroll (1965) has observed that, at the present time, language teachers seem to be divided into two groups with regard to theories of language learning: (1) the audio-lingual habit theory and (2) the cognitive code-learning theory. He continues by stating that neither theory has an appreciable amount of research evidence to support its position. It is his feeling that a synthesis incorporating the most effective practices of each method "will yield a dramatic change in effectiveness."
Each of the two predominant methods of language teaching has its adherents. Neither has solid theoretical support, although recently the trend seems to be more toward placing an emphasis upon the importance of cognition in language learning (Chastain, 1969). Lacking definite theories upon which to base his teaching procedures, the language teacher is forced to rely upon his own assumptions about language, language learning, and the language learner. The following assumptions are those which seem most logical in the mind of this writer and are those upon which he would base his criteria for selecting a text.
'Although fhe current trend seems to be to distinguish between method and approach e the two terms are used interchangeably in this paper.
Assumption 1: A student learns to do what he does. If he devotes most of his time to reading, he learns to read. If he spends the major portion of the hour doing pattern drills, he learns to speak what one investigator has termed patternese (Briere, 1968). If he is given the opportunity to express himself in the language, he learns to communicate.
Assumption 2: A student needs to feel successful. He initially comes to class excited about the prospect of being able to express himself in a different tongue. However, after serving a few times as an example to his classmates of the teacher's superior knowledge of Spanish, or after several frustrated attempts to do homework for which he has been inadequately prepared, he begins to find other more agreeable and attainable goals upon which to focus his interest and attention. The teacher's task, or perhaps obligation, is to develop confidence in the student in his ability to learn this strange sounding language.
Assumption 3: A student should be offered a variety of activities. (It is for this reason that students prefer a book with many chapters or lessons. They feel as if they are moving along faster and doing more things.) Most students sit forty to seventy minutes in each class for four or five classes a day listening to some teacher talk. Most teachers could not endure the very things they expect of the students. Teachers are obligated to change the pace in class as often as possible, and no teacher has more possibilities at his disposal than a foreign-language teacher.
Assumption 4: A student must be led through three steps in the acquisition of language, (a) He must understand the concept involved, (b) He must drill the structure in order to develop a certain facility in manipulating its sounds and forms and in order to promote its retention, (c) He must be given an opportunity to utilize previously drilled material to express himself on some topic with which he is acquainted.
Assumption 5: A student approaches language mastery. He does not suddenly acquire it. A great disservice has been done to language teaching by the idea that with three records and a short period of free time, one can learn to speak a foreign language. It is up to the text and the teacher to arrange the material sequentially in such a way that the student gradually approaches the mastery of each section of the text. Nor should the teacher expect too much. At the 1968 Kentucky Foreign Language Conference, Theodore Mueller said that after twenty years in this country he still understands only 60 percent of the dialog in a movie, 40 percent at the theater, and 10 percent of the jokes he hears. 2
Assumption 6: A student requires practice in all four language skills. This
2 Professor Mueller, a non-native speaker of English, is currently professor of French in the Department of French Language and Literature at the University of Kentucky.
separate attention to each of the four language skills is necessary for several reasons, (a) There is some evidence to indicate that students have a sense modality preference in learning (Pimsleur et al., 1963-64). A given student may feel more comfortable and learn more rapidly by using the book while another may prefer to depend upon oral presentations, (b) Each skill can complement and reinforce concepts learned in the other. (The connotation here refers to concept formation.) (c) Students are, in general, eye-oriented in academic subjects, (d) There is not as much carry-over from one skill to another as one might suppose. (The connotation here refers to skill formation.) (e) All four skills are necessary in the normal process of communicating with our fellow humans.
Assumption 7: A student wants to know about the people of the country. Language in the classroom often becomes so abstract that students have difficulty relating to the subject. The teacher should take advantage of all appropriate situations in which he has an opportunity to relate these funny sounds to real places, people, and events.
Assumption 8: A student is a normal human being , sometimes frightfully so. He does what he has to do in order 'To get by." Naturally, he attends class because it is compulsory, but getting him to do homework is another matter. Since teachers realize that he must be exposed to as much language as possible, it is the teacher's responsibility to provide definite homework assignments which are a necessary prerequisite to successful performance in the classroom the next day.
The following criteria for selecting a text all grow out of a consideration of the preceding assumptions. Many minor points will not be mentioned here. The attractiveness of the text, for example, is obviously noticed at first glance. Supplementary teaching aids such as tapes, records, evaluation materials, etc. are not given special mention here because the same basic criteria which apply to the text also apply to the teaching aids.
1. Vocabulary and content of the dialogs and/or reading materials. The crucial point in language teaching, the continually frustrating barrier in the classroom, is the jump from drills to self-expression. The student must be given the opportunity to express his ideas in the foreign tongue. He must be afforded the opportunity to transfer the knowledge learned in class to situations in which he talks about his own life. This chance to talk or write about himself is the most important aspect of language acquisition because it deals with actual communication. Kelly says in the introduction to Learning French the Modern Way, the second edition, "No one truly acquires language skills until he uses them to express himself—such self-expression is not only possible from the outset, it is essential" (Evans et al., 1967). Other writers use different terms (Belasco [1968] calls it liberated expression. Jarvis [1968] refers
to it as real language.) to designate this phase of language learning, but all agree that such practice is essential if the student is to acquire active language skills.
Although it is the most important, ''real" language is the phase of language teaching most often neglected. To a large extent transfer of structure and vocabulary to practice in meaningful context is the responsibility of the teacher. If he is able to use the vocabulary and situational content of the text to develop conversational situations about the student, his home, his school, his interest, etc., then he will be able to demonstrate to the student the importance of drill as a means toward the goal of language expression and the fun of being able to express oneself in another tongue. If he feels comfortable with the vocabulary, if he feels the student can use this vocabulary to talk about his life, then the teacher and the class can begin to bring language alive as together they go beyond the exercises included in the text. Of course, the more material of this nature provided in the text the better, but the content of any contextual, personalized practice depends upon the vocabulary of the text and its arrangement into meaningful units by the teacher. Caarder (1967), for instance, is talking about this very problem when he states, ". . . the drills and their follow-up exercises—and usually even the basic dialogs—are in effect so devoid of logical, consistent, situational reality that they do not provide the student with significant life experience in the foreign language— do not give him anything meaningful to talk about. ..."
2. Emphasis placed upon the three steps in language acquisition. In traditional texts, most of the content is devoted to grammatical explanation in order to insure student understanding of structure. Audio-lingual texts are filled mostly with dialogs to memorize and drills with which to practice basic structures to the point of automatic response. Neither type of text has in the past provided sufficient amounts of "real" language practice. Perhaps this is an aspect of language teaching which can be provided adequately only by the teacher himself in his own class, but at least the authors should indicate an awareness of this state of language acquisition. The question which a teacher must consider in evaluating a text is whether the authors develop an understanding of structure and whether sufficient amounts of understandable drill exercises are provided.
Before drill can be of any great value as far as structure is concerned, the student must be made aware of that structure. This presentation need not involve grammatical explanation, but the student's attention should be focused on the structural relationship to the rest of the sentence, its forms and changes, and its function in the sentence. The presentation may be made in a variety of ways. However, the use of English is not a plague which must be avoided in all cases. Presentation should be made in minimal, accomplishable steps in order to lead the students slowly and with a minimum of errors. It is by
528 Appendix 2
focusing on single, understandable aspects of the language that the text can help him bypass the pitfalls of language learning.
Once the students are aware of the structure, they should be given the opportunity to manipulate it. In pattern drills as well as in the presentation of structure, the text must be careful to lead the students with a minimum of error and a maximum of confidence. The sentences should be short and deal with only one aspect of the language at a time. Too many texts rush the students directly into a test situation by combining several elements at once. The drills should proceed from easy to difficult, from teaching drills to test drills in which the students can determine whether or not they have learned the material. All drills should involve some manipulation of structure rather than passive repetition. Along with this point, too many texts have drills which are too long. Six to eight sentences are enough. If more are added, the students tend to lose "consciousness" and are not actually aware of the manipulation which they are performing. Here is an example in Spanish which might be used in teaching direct object pronouns. Rather than have thirty sentences in which the students replace a noun direct object with a direct object pronoun, have drills of six sentences each in this order: (a) replacing a feminine noun with /a; (b) replacing a masculine noun with lo; (c) replacing singular nouns with singular pronouns (a test drill over a and b which were teaching drills); (d) replacing feminine plural nouns with las ; (e) replacing masculine plural nouns with los; (f) replacing plural nouns with plural direct object pronouns (a test drill over d and e which were teaching drills); and (g) a test drill over all of these forms.
3. The four language skills and culture. There is not as much transfer from one language skill to another as one might think. All the skills need to be practiced. Does the text include provisions for the practice of all four language skills? Many texts are not properly balanced to include all aspects of language learning. This is true of both traditional and audio-lingual texts.
Culture is another consideration. No text can be written without points of interest which are contained in the language. However, the text needs to give the students more information concerning the people about which they are studying. Preferably this should be presented in short, simple sections in the language as soon as the students' vocabulary is sufficiently developed.
4. Sequence of developing the language skills. The importance of the proper progression of difficulty in the materials has previously been alluded to in earlier criteria. There is no need to expound further except to re-emphasize the fact that the text and the teacher must begin where the student is and develop his skills over a period of time until the goals of the course have been reached.
5. Possibilities should be included in the text for some type of homework in preparation for the next class meeting. This material should be such that definite tasks can be assigned. The content of the assignment should be such
that diligence will be rewarded and rewarding. In other words, the student should be able to complete the assignment successfully without undue frustration, and he should acquire some skill or knowledge which will help him to participate more fully in the planned classroom activities, i.e., to learn the language better.
In summary, language teaching at the present time appears to be in a process of synthesis. Lacking clear-cut research evidence to guide his decisions, the language teacher must rely upon his past teaching experience. Although such a procedure is not very scientific, who can say assuredly that such is not a more valid approach as far as the individual teacher is concerned? The outgrowth of this same type of reasoning is that the teacher follows a simplified set of guidelines in evaluating available texts, a set of guidelines which he answers subjectively based upon his particular teaching techniques and past experience. By selecting a text with a content which can be personalized to the student's interests, the teacher can more readily provide opportunities for real language practice. By selecting a text which provides for all three steps in the acquisition of language and for all four language skills, the teacher can more easily provide a variety of activities in the classroom and at the same time give the students an opportunity to practice all four language skills. By selecting a text in which all three phases of language acquisition are emphasized and in which the building up of all language skills is carefully sequenced to avoid gaps in skill development, the teacher, demonstrating his awareness that language mastery is a slow process occurring over a period of time, can more easily maintain the shaky feeling of confidence with which the students comes to foreign-language class. By selecting a text which includes the people as well as the language, the teacher can more readily help his students to relate to the language. And by selecting a text in which provision is made for daily homework, the teacher can more easily expand the number of student contact hours with the language.
REFERENCES
Barrutia, R. (1966) Some Misconceptions about the Fundamental Skills Method. Hispania, 49:440-46.
Belasco, S. (1968) Developing Linguistic Competence. Modern Language Journal, 52:213.
Belasco, S. (1969) Toward the Acquisition of Linguistic Competence: From Contrived to Controlled Materials. Modern Language Journal, 53'' 87.
Briere, E. (1968) Testing ESL Among Navajo Children. Language Learning (August):16.
Carroll, J. B. (1965) The Contributions of Psychological Theory and Educational Research to the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Modern Language Journal, 49: 273-81.
Chastain, K. (1969) The Audio-Lingual Habit Theory Versus the Cognitive Code-Learning Theory: Some Theoretical Considerations. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 7/2:97-106.
Evans, J.; Baldwin, M.; and Kelly, L. L. (1967) Learning French the Modern Way. (2nd ed.) New York: McCraw Hill. P.1.
Caarder, A. B. (1967) Beyond Grammar and Beyond Drills. Foreign Language Annals, 1:110.
Jarvis, G. (1968) A Behavioral Observation System for Classroom Foreign Language Skill Acquisition Activities. Modern Language Journal, 52:336.
Ney, j. W. (1968) The Oral Approach: A Re-Appraisal. Language Learning, 17: 3-13.
Pimsleur, P.; Sundland, D. M.; and McIntyre, R. D. (1963-64) Under-Achievement in Foreign Language Learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 1-2: 124-26.
Saporta, S. (1966) Applied Linguistics and Generative Grammar. In Albert Valdman (Ed.), Trends in Language Teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pp. 81-92.
Wolfe, D. L. (1967) Some Theoretical Aspects of Language Learning and Language Teaching. Language Learning, 17:174-79.
APPENDIX 3