References

1 Southall, A., The Other Side of ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Exposed and Explained. 2007, Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing.

2 Baron, I.S., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: new challenges for definition, diagnosis, and treatment. Neuropsychology Review, 2007. V17(1): 1–3.

3 Ghanizadeh, A., M.J. Bahredar, and S.R. Moeini, Knowledge and attitudes towards attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among elementary school teachers. Patient Education and Counseling, 2006. 63(1–2): 84–8.

4 Bussing, R., N.E. Schoenberg, and A.R. Perwien, Knowledge and information about ADHD: evidence of cultural differences among African-American and white parents. Social Science & Medicine, 1998. 46(7): 919–28.

5 Ghanizadeh, A., Educating and counseling of parents of children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Patient Education and Counseling, 2007. 68(1): 23–8.

6 DeGrandpre, R., Ritalin Nation. 2000, New York, London: W.W. Norton.

7 Faraone, S.V. and J. Biederman, Neurobiology of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 1998. 44(10): 951–8.

8 Williams, J. and E. Taylor, The evolution of hyperactivity, impulsivity and cognitive diversity. J R Soc Interface, 2006. 3(8): 399–413.

9 Kessler, R.C., et al., The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry, 2006. 163(4): 716–23.

10 Teive, H.A., et al., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and the behavior of “Che” Guevara. J Clin Neurosci, 2009. 16(9): 1136–8.

11 Cross, C.R., Heavier Than Heaven: The Biography of Kurt Cobain. 2001, London: Hodder and Stoughton.

12 Rettew, D.C., et al., Associations between temperament and DSM-IV externalizing disorders in children and adolescents. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 2004. 25(6): 383–91.

13 Gallichan, D.J. and C. Curle, Fitting square pegs into round holes: the challenge of coping with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2008. 13(3): 343–63.

14 Barkley, R., K.R. Murphy, and M. Fischer, ADHD in Adults: What the Science Says. 2008, New York: Guilford Press.

15 Taylor, A.F. and F.E. Kuo, Children with attention deficits concentrate better after walk in the park. J Atten Disord, 2009. 12(5): 402–9.

16 Barkley, R.A., et al., Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: adaptive functioning in major life activities. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2006. 45(2): 192–202.

17 Wallerstein, J.S. and J.R. Johnston, Children of divorce: recent findings regarding long-term effects and recent studies of joint and sole custody. Pediatr Rev, 1990. 11(7): 197–204.

18 Long, N. and R. Forehand, The effects of parental divorce and parental conflict on children: an overview. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 1987. 8(5): 292–6.

19 Thompson, M. and E. Sonuga-Barke, ADHD in Preschool Children, in People with Hyperactivity: Understanding and Managing Their Problems, E. Taylor, Editor. 2007, London: Mac Keith Press, pp. 194–201.

20 Phelan, T., 1-2-3 Magic: Effective Discipline for Children 2–12, 3rd rev. edn. 2003, Glen Ellyn, IL: Child Management Inc.

21 Monahan, J., Statistical literacy: a prerequisite for evidence-based medicine. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2007. 8(2): i–ii.

22 Gigerenzer, G., et al., Helping doctors and patients make sense of health statistics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2007. 8(2): 53–96.

23 Everitt, B. and S. Wessley, Clinical Trials in Psychiary. 2004, Oxford: OUP.

24 Cumming, G., Replication and p intervals: p values predict the future only vaguely, but confidence intervals do much better. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2008. 3(4): 286–300.

25 Freeman, C. and P. Tyrer, Research Methods in Psychiatry, 3rd edn. 2006, London: Gaskell.

26 Benedetti, F., Placebo Effects: Understanding the Mechanisms in Health and Disease. 2008, Oxford: OUP.

27 Klosterhalfen, S. and P. Enck, Psychobiology of the placebo response. Autonomic Neuroscience, 2006. 125(1–2): 94–9.

28 Crow, R., et al., The role of expectancies in the placebo effect and their use in the delivery of health care: a systematic review. Health Technol Assess, 1999. 3(3): 1–96.

29 Price, D.D., D.G. Finniss, and F. Benedetti, A comprehensive review of the placebo effect: recent advances and current thought. Annu Rev Psychol, 2008. 59: 565–90.

30 Popper, K.R., The Logic of Scientific Discovery, new edn. 2002, London: Routledge.

31 Johnson, K.A., J.R. Wiersema, and J. Kuntsi, What would Karl Popper say? Are current psychological theories of ADHD falsifiable? Behav Brain Funct, 2009. 5: 15.

32 Timimi, S., Naughty Boys: Anti-Social Behaviour, ADHD and the Role of Culture. 2005, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

33 Bolton, D., What is Mental Disorder? An Essay in Philosophy, Science, and Values. International Perspectives in Philosophy and Psychiatry. 2008, Oxford: OUP.

34 Sharkey, L. and M. Fitzgerald, The History of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., pp. 3–12.

35 Dykman, R.A., Historical Aspects of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders, in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: From Genes to Patients, D. Gozal and D.L. Molfese, Editors. 2005, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc., pp. 1–40.

36 Still, G., Some abnormal psychical conditions in children:. the Goulstonian lectures. Lancet, 1902. i: 1008–12, 1077–82, 1163–8.

37 Barkley, R.A., History, in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, R.A. Barkley, Editor. 2006, New York: Guilford Press, pp. 3–75.

38 Levin, P.M., Restlessness in children. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 1938. 39: 764–70.

39 Strother, C.R., Minimal cerebral dysfunction: a historical overview. Ann NY Acad Sci, 1973. 205: 6–17.

40 Feuillet, L., H. Dufour, and J. Pelletier, Brain of a white-collar worker. Lancet, 2007. 370(9583): 262.

41 Clements, S.D., Minimal Brain Dysfunction in Children: Terminology and Identification. 1966, Washington, DC: US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare.

42 Douglas, V.I., Stop, look and listen: the problem of sustained attention and impulse control in hyperactive and normal children. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 1972. 4: 259–82.

43 Sykes, D.H., V.I. Douglas, and G. Morgenstern, The effect of methylphenidate (Ritalin) on sustained attention in hyperactive children. Psycho­pharmacologia, 1972. 25(3): 262–74.

44 Sykes, D.H., V.I. Douglas, and G. Morgenstern, Sustained attention in hyperactive children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1973. 14(3): 213–20.

45 Sykes, D.H., et al., Attention in hyperactive children and the effect of methylphenidate (Ritalin). J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1971. 12(2): 129–39.

46 Douglas, V.I. and K.G. Peters, Toward a Clearer Definition of the Attention Deficit of Hyperactive Children, in Attention and the Development of Cognitive Skills, G.A. Hale and M. Lewis, Editors. 1979, New York: Plenum Press, pp. 173–248.

47 Stefanatos, G.A. and I.S. Baron, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a neuropsychological perspective towards DSM-V. Neuropsychology Review, 2007. 17(1): 5–38.

48 Barkley, R.A., ADHD and the Nature of Self-Control. 2005, New York: Guilford Press.

49 Cabral, P., Attention deficit disorders: are we barking up the wrong tree? Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2006. 10(2): 66–77.

50 Marsh, P.J. and L.M. Williams, An investigation of individual typologies of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder using cluster analysis of DSM–IV criteria. Personality and Individual Differences, 2004. 36: 1187–95.

51 Frith, U., Autism: Explaining the Enigma, 2nd edn. 2003, Oxford: Blackwell.

52 Pearl, P.L., R.E. Weiss, and M.A. Stein, Medical mimics: medical and neurological conditions simulating ADHD. Ann NY Acad Sci, 2001. 931: 97–112.

53 WHO, ICD-10: The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines. 1992, Geneva: World Health Organization.

54 APA., Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn, text revision edn. 2000, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

55 Lahey, B.B., et al., Dimensions and types of Attention Deficit Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1988. 27(3): 330-5.

56 Lahey, B.B., et al., Predictive validity of ICD-10 Hyperkinetic Disorder relative to DSM-IV Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder among younger children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2006. 47(5): 472–9.

57 Santosh, P.J., et al., Refining the diagnoses of inattention and overactivity syndromes: a reanalysis of the Multimodal Treatment study of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) based on ICD-10 criteria for Hyperkinetic Disorder. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 2005. 5(5–6): 307–14.

58 Biederman, J. and S.V. Faraone, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Lancet, 2005. 366(9481): 237–48.

59 Jensen, P.S., et al., Cost-effectiveness of ADHD treatments: findings from the multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry, 2005. 162(9): 1628–36.

60 Tripp, G., et al., DSM-IV and ICD-10: a comparison of the correlates of ADHD and Hyperkinetic Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1999. 38(2): 156–64.

61 Polanczyk, G., et al., The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry, 2007. 164(6): 942–8.

62 Polanczyk, G. and P. Jensen, Epidemiologic considerations in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a review and update. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 2008. 17(2): 245–60.

63 Taylor, E., Clinical and Epidemiological Foundations, in People with Hyperactivity: Undersatnding and Managing Their Problems. 2007, London: Mac Keith Press, pp. 1–26.

64 McKenzie, I. and C. Wurr, Diagnosing and treating attentional difficulties: a nationwide survey. Arch Dis Child, 2004. 89(10): 913–16.

65 Ustun, T.B., Using the international classification of functioning, disease and health in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: separating the disease from its epiphenomena. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 2007. 7(1, Supplement 1): 132–9.

66 Faraone, S.V., The scientific foundation for understanding Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder as a valid psychiatric disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2005. 14(1): 1–10.

67 Willcutt, E.G. and C.L. Carlson, The diagnostic validity of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 2005. 5(5–6): 219–32.

68 McKinstry, L., Not ill – just naughty. The Spectator, 2005.

69 Timimi, S., et al., A critique of the international consensus statement on ADHD. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev, 2004. 7(1): 59–63; discussion 65–9.

70 Szasz, T., The Manufacture of Madness: Comparative Study of the Inquisition and the Mental Health Movement. 1997, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

71 Wakefield, J.C., The concept of mental disorder: on the boundary between biological facts and social values. Am Psychol, 1992. 47(3): 373–88.

72 Lee, S.I., et al., Predictive validity of DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria for ADHD and Hyperkinetic Disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2008. 49(1): 70–8.

73 Menkes, M.M., J.S. Rowe, and J.H. Menkes, A twenty-five year follow-up study on the hyperkinetic child with minimal brain dysfunction. Pediatrics, 1967. 39(3): 393–9.

74 Arnold, L.E., D. Strobl, and A. Weisenberg, Hyperkinetic adult: study of the “paradoxical” amphetamine response. Jama, 1972. 222(6): 693–4.

75 Barkley, R.A., et al., The persistence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol, 2002. 111(2): 279–89.

76 Polanczyk, G. and L.A. Rohde, Epidemiology of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder across the lifespan. Curr Opin Psychiatry, 2007. 20(4): 386–92.

77 Faraone, S.V., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adults: an overview. Biol Psychiatry, 2000. 48(1): 9–20.

78 Young, S., et al., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and critical incidents in a Scottish prison population. Personality and Individual Differences, 2009. 46(3): 265–9.

79 Asherson, P., et al., Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: recognition and treatment in general adult psychiatry. Br J Psychiatry, 2007. 190: 4–5.

80 Ward, M.F., P.H. Wender, and F.W. Reimherr, The Wender Utah Rating Scale: an aid in the retrospective diagnosis of childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 1993. 150(6): 885–90.

81 Wender, P.H., ADHD: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children, Adolescents, and Adults. 2000, Oxford: OUP.

82 Wender, P.H., L.E. Wolf, and J. Wasserstein, Adults with ADHD: an overview. Ann NY Acad Sci, 2001. 931: 1–16.

83 Faraone, S.V., et al., Assessing symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adults: which is more valid? J Consult Clin Psychol, 2000. 68(5): 830–42.

84 Spencer, T., et al., Is Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adults a valid disorder? Harv Rev Psychiatry, 1994. 1(6): 326–35.

85 Spencer, T., et al., Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a controversial diagnosis. J Clin Psychiatry, 1998. 59(Suppl 7): 59–68.

86 Harrison, A.G., M.J. Edwards, and K.C. Parker, Identifying students faking ADHD: preliminary findings and strategies for detection. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2007. 22(5): 577–88.

87 Roy-Byrne, P., et al., Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: assessment guidelines based on clinical presentation to a specialty clinic. Compr Psychiatry, 1997. 38(3): 133–40.

88 Lahey, B.B., et al., Instability of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD from preschool through elementary school. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2005. 62(8): 896–902.

89 Spencer, T.J., J. Biederman, and E. Mick, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: diagnosis, lifespan, comorbidities, and neurobiology. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 2007. 7(1, Supplement 1): 73–81.

90 Gershon, J., A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. J Atten Disord, 2002. 5(3): 143–54.

91 Applegate, B., et al., Validity of the age-of-onset criterion for ADHD: a report from the DSM-IV field trials. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1997. 36(9): 1211–21.

92 Barkley, R.A. and J. Biederman, Toward a broader definition of the age-of-onset criterion for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1997. 36(9): 1204–10.

93 Barkley, R.A., Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, 3rd edn. 2006, New York: Guilford Press.

94 Mannuzza, S., et al., Accuracy of adult recall of childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 2002. 159(11): 1882–8.

95 Moffitt, T.E. and M. Melchior, Why does the worldwide prevalence of childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder matter? Am J Psychiatry, 2007. 164(6): 856–8.

96 Gray, J.R. and J. Kagan, The challenge of predicting which children with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder will respond positively to methylphenidate. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2000. 21(5): 471–89.

97 Sleator, E.K. and R.K. Ullmann, Can the physician diagnose hyperactivity in the office? Pediatrics, 1981. 67(1): 13–17.

98 Rapport, M.D., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, in Handbook of Psychological Assessment, Case Conceptualization and Treatment, M. Hersen and D. Reitman, Editors. 2007, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons, pp. 349–404.

99 Pelham, W.E., Jr, G.A. Fabiano, and G.M. Massetti, Evidence-based assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adolescents. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 2005. 34(3): 449–76.

100 Biederman, J., et al., Family-genetic and psychosocial risk factors in DSM-III Attention Deficit Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1990. 29(4): 526–33.

101 Rapport, M.D., et al., Upgrading the science and technology of assessment and diagnosis: laboratory and clinic-based assessment of children with ADHD. J Clin Child Psychol, 2000. 29(4): 555–68.

102 Chaytor, N. and M. Schmitter-Edgecombe, The ecological validity of neuropsychological tests: a review of the literature on everyday cognitive skills. Neuropsychol Rev, 2003. 13(4): 181–97.

103 Chaytor, N., M. Schmitter-Edgecombe, and R. Burr, Improving the ecological validity of executive functioning assessment. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2006. 21(3): 217–27.

104 Bush, G., Neuroimaging of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: can new imaging findings be integrated in clinical practice? Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 2008. 17(2): 385–404.

105 Bush, G., E.M. Valera, and L.J. Seidman, Functional neuroimaging of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a review and suggested future directions. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1273–84.

106 Vul, E., et al., Puzzlingly high correlations in fMRI studies of emotion, personality, and social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2009. 4(3): 274–90.

107 Swanson, J.M., et al., Methylphenidate hydrochloride given with or before breakfast: I. Behavioral, cognitive, and electrophysiologic effects. Pediatrics, 1983. 72(1): 49–55.

108 Pliska, S.R., C.L. Carlson, and J.M. Swanson, ADHD with Comorbid Disorders. 1999, New York: Guilford Press.

109 Swanson, J., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Symptom Domains, Cognitive Processes, and Neural Networks, in The Attentive Brain, R. Parasuraman, Editor. 1998, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 445–60.

110 Swanson, J.M., et al., Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2001. 40(2): 168–79.

111 Sharkey, L. and M. Fitzgerald, Diagnosis and Classification of ADHD in Childhood, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., pp. 13–36.

112 Collett, B.R., J.L. Ohan, and K.M. Myers, Ten-year review of rating scales. V: scales assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2003. 42(9): 1015–37.

113 Swanson, J., et al. Over identification of Extreme Behavior in the Evaluation and Diagnosis of ADHD/HKD. 2002. http://www.adhd.net/SWAN_Paper.pdf.

114 Swanson, J., et al. Categorical and Dimensional Definitions and Evaluations of Symptoms of ADHD:The SNAP and he SWAN Ratings Scales. 2005. http://www.adhd.net/SNAP_SWAN.pdf.

115 Reid, R., et al., Assessing culturally different students for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder using behavior rating scales. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1998. 26(3): 187–98.

116 Arnold, L.E., et al., National Institute of Mental Health Collaborative Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (the MTA): design challenges and choices. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1997. 54(9): 865–70.

117 Lahey, B.B., et al., Three-year predictive validity of DSM-IV Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children diagnosed at 4–6 years of age. Am J Psychiatry, 2004. 161(11): 2014–20.

118 Wolraich, M.L., Vanderbilt ADHD Teacher Rating Scale (VADTRS) and the Vanderbilt ADHD Parent Rating Scale (VADPRS). 2003. http://www.nichq.org.

119 Sonuga-Barke, E.J., et al., AD/HD and the capture of attention by briefly exposed delay-related cues: evidence from a conditioning paradigm. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2004. 45(2): 274–83.

120 McCarney, S.B., The Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale, Home Version, Technical Manual, 2nd edn. 1995, Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Service.

121 McCarney, S.B., The Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale, School Version, Technical Manual, 2nd edn. 1995, Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Service.

122 Brown, R.T., et al., Prevalence and assessment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in primary care settings. Pediatrics, 2001. 107(3): E43.

123 Brown, T.E., Attention Deficit Disorder: The Unfocused Mind in Children and Adults. 2005, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

124 Zuddas, A., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a neuropsychiatric disorder with childhood onset. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2000. 4(2): 53–62.

125 Achenbach, T.E., The Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. 1991, Burlington: ASEBA.

126 Ivanova, M.Y., et al., Testing the 8-syndrome structure of the child behavior checklist in 30 societies. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 2007. 36(3): 405–17.

127 Goodman, R., The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1997. 38(5): 581–6.

128 Goodman, R. and S. Scott, Comparing the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Child Behavior Checklist: is small beautiful? J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1999. 27(1): 17–24.

129 Bourdon, K.H., et al., The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: US normative data and psychometric properties. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2005. 44(6): 557–64.

130 Goodman, R., Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2001. 40(11): 1337–45.

131 Alyahri, A. and R. Goodman, Validation of the Arabic Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and the Development and Well-Being Assessment. East Mediterr Health J, 2006. 12(Suppl 2): S138–46.

132 Mullick, M.S. and R. Goodman, Questionnaire screening for mental health problems in Bangladeshi children: a preliminary study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol, 2001. 36(2): 94–9.

133 van Widenfelt, B.M., et al., Dutch version of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2003. 12(6): 281–9.

134 Taylor, E., et al., Conduct disorder and hyperactivity: II. A cluster analytic approach to the identification of a behavioural syndrome. Br J Psychiatry, 1986. 149: 768–77.

135 Taylor, E., et al., Conduct disorder and hyperactivity: I. Separation of hyperactivity and antisocial conduct in British child psychiatric patients. Br J Psychiatry, 1986. 149: 760–7.

136 Sayal, K., Diagnosis and Assessment, in People with Hyperactivity: Understanding and Managing Their Problems, E. Taylor, Editor. 2007, London: Mac Keith Press, pp. 53–70.

137 Chen, W. and E. Taylor, Parental Account of Children’s Symptoms (PACS) and the ADHD Phenotype: Relevance for Quantitative Trait Locus Studies, in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (Ad/Hd) and the Hyperkinetic Syndrome (Hks): Current Ideas and Ways Forward, R.D. Oades, Editor. 2005, New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc., pp. 3–20.

138 Murphy, K.R. and L.A. Adler, Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adults: focus on rating scales. J Clin Psychiatry, 2004. 65(Suppl 3): 12–17.

139 McCann, B.S. and P. Roy-Byrne, Screening and diagnostic utility of self-report Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder scales in adults. Compr Psychiatry, 2004. 45(3): 175–83.

140 Stein, M.A., et al., Psychometric characteristics of the Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS): reliability and factor structure for men and women. Psychopharmacol Bull, 1995. 31(2): 425–33.

141 Rossini, E.D. and M.A. O’Connor, Retrospective self-reported symptoms of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: reliability of the Wender Utah Rating Scale. Psychol Rep, 1995. 77(3 Pt 1): 751–4.

142 Wierzbicki, M., Reliability and validity of the Wender Utah Rating Scale for college students. Psychol Rep, 2005. 96(3 Pt 1): 833–9.

143 McCann, B.S., et al., Discriminant validity of the Wender Utah Rating Scale for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adults. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 2000. 12(2): 240–5.

144 McGough, J.J. and R.A. Barkley, Diagnostic controversies in adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 2004. 161(11): 1948–56.

145 Mackin, R.S. and M.D. Horner, Relationship of the Wender Utah Rating Scale to objective measures of attention. Compr Psychiatry, 2005. 46(6): 468–71.

146 Conners, C.K., et al., Self-ratings of ADHD symptoms in adults I: Factor structure and normative data. J Atten Disord, 1999. 3(3): 141–51.

147 Erhardt, D., et al., Self-ratings of ADHD symptomas in adults II: Reliability, validity, and diagnostic sensitivity. J Atten Disord, 1999. 3(3): 153–8.

148 Epstein, J.N. and S.H. Kollins, Psychometric properties of an adult ADHD diagnostic interview. J Atten Disord, 2006. 9(3): 504–14.

149 Gallagher, R. and J. Blader, The diagnosis and neuropsychological assessment of adult Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: scientific study and practical guidelines. Ann NY Acad Sci, 2001. 931: 148–71.

150 Adler, L.A., R.C. Kessler, and T. Spencer, Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale-v1.1 (ASRS-v1.1) Symptom Checklist. 2003, New York: World Health Organization.

151 Collett, B.R., J.L. Ohan, and K.M. Myers, Ten-year review of rating scales: VI. Scales assessing externalizing behaviors. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2003. 42(10): 1143–70.

152 Myers, K. and N.C. Winters, Ten-year review of rating scales: II. Scales for internalizing disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2002. 41(6): 634–59.

153 Myers, K. and N.C. Winters, Ten-year review of rating scales: I. Overview of scale functioning, psychometric properties, and selection. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2002. 41(2): 114–22.

154 Ohan, J.L., K. Myers, and B.R. Collett, Ten-year review of rating scales: IV. Scales assessing trauma and its effects. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2002. 41(12): 1401–22.

155 Winters, N.C., B.R. Collett, and K.M. Myers, Ten-year review of rating scales: VII. Scales assessing functional impairment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2005. 44(4): 309–38; discussion 339–42.

156 Winters, N.C., K. Myers, and L. Proud, Ten-year review of rating scales: III. Scales assessing suicidality, cognitive style, and self-esteem. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2002. 41(10): 1150–81.

157 Hansson, S.L., et al., Psychiatric telephone interview with parents for screening of childhood autism – tics, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and other comorbidities (A-TAC): preliminary reliability and validity. Br J Psychiatry, 2005. 187: 262–7.

158 Holmes, J., et al., The Child Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Teacher Telephone Interview (CHATTI): reliability and validity. Br J Psychiatry, 2004. 184: 74–8.

159 Faraone, S.V., et al., The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition? World Psychiatry, 2003. 2(2): 104–13.

160 Guardiola, A., F.D. Fuchs, and N.T. Rotta, Prevalence of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders in students: comparison between DSM-IV and neuropsychological criteria. Arq Neuropsiquiatr, 2000. 58(2B): 401–7.

161 Grether, J.K., Epidemiology of autism: current controversies and research directions. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 2006. 6(3–4): 119–26.

162 Robertson, M.M., Tourette syndrome. Psychiatry, 2005. 4(8): 92–7.

163 Swanson, J.M., et al., Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Hyperkinetic Disorder. Lancet, 1998. 351(9100): 429–33.

164 Jick, H., J.A. Kaye, and C. Black, Incidence and prevalence of drug-treated Attention Deficit Disorder among boys in the UK. Br J Gen Pract, 2004. 54(502): 345–7.

165 Taylor, E., Clinical and Epidemiological Foundations, in People with Hyperactivity: Understanding and Managing Their Problems, E. Taylor, Editor. 2007, London: Mac Keith Press, pp. 1–26.

166 Sayal, K., et al., Pathways to care in children at risk of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 2002. 181: 43–8.

167 Sayal, K. and E. Taylor, Detection of child mental health disorders by general practitioners. Br J Gen Pract, 2004. 54(502): 348–52.

168 Neuman, R.J., et al., Estimation of prevalence of DSM-IV and latent class-defined ADHD subtypes in a population-based sample of child and adolescent twins. Twin Res Hum Genet, 2005. 8(4): 392–401.

169 Fayyad, J., et al., Cross-national prevalence and correlates of adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 2007. 190: 402–9.

170 Wittchen, H.-U. and F. Jacobi, Size and burden of mental disorders in Europe – a critical review and appraisal of 27 studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 2005. 15(4): 357–76.

171 Rousseau, C., T. Measham, and M. Bathiche-Suidan, DSM IV, culture and child psychiatry. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 17(2): 69–75.

172 James, A. and E. Taylor, Sex differences in the hyperkinetic syndrome of childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1990. 31(3): 437–46.

173 Heptinstall, E. and E. Taylor, Sex Differences and Their Significance, in Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders of Childhood, S. Sandberg, Editor. 2002, Cambridge: CUP, pp. 99–125.

174 El-Sayed, E., et al., “Maturational lag” hypothesis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: an update. Acta Paediatr, 2003. 92(7): 776–84.

175 Faraone, S.V., J. Biederman, and E. Mick, The age-dependent decline of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a meta-analysis of follow-up studies. Psychol Med, 2006. 36(2): 159–65.

176 Biederman, J., et al., Young adult outcome of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychol Med, 2006. 36(2): 167–79.

177 Mannuzza, S. and R.G. Klein, Long-term prognosis in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am, 2000. 9(3): 711–26.

178 Babinski, L.M., C.S. Hartsough, and N.M. Lambert, Childhood conduct problems, hyperactivity-impulsivity, and inattention as predictors of adult criminal activity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1999. 40(3): 347–55.

179 Sobanski, E., et al., Subtype differences in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with regard to ADHD-symptoms, psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial adjustment. Eur Psychiatry, 2008. 23(2): 142–9.

180 Brown, T.E., Attention-Deficit Disorders and Comorbidities in Children, Adolescents, and Adults. 2000, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press Inc.

181 Kutcher, S., et al., International consensus statement on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and disruptive behaviour disorders (DBDs): clinical implications and treatment practice suggestions. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 2004. 14(1): 11–28.

182 Pliszka, S.R., C.L. Carlson, and J. Swanson, ADHD with Comorbid Disorders. 1999, New York: Guilford Press.

183 Williams, L.M., et al., Using brain-based cognitive measures to support clinical decisions in ADHD. Pediatric Neurology, 2010. 42(2): 118–26.

184 Nigg, J.T., What Causes ADHD? New York: Guilford Press,

185 Lopez-Munoz, F., et al., Psychiatry and political-institutional abuse from the historical perspective: the ethical lessons of the Nuremberg Trial on their 60th anniversary. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 31(4): 791–806.

186 Hoopman, K., All Dogs Have ADHD. 2008. London: Jessica Kingsley.

187 Bradshaw, J.L. and D.M. Sheppard, The neurodevelopmental frontostriatal disorders: evolutionary adaptiveness and anomalous lateralization. Brain Lang, 2000. 73(2): 297–320.

188 Willner, P., ed. Behavioural Models in Psychopharmacology: Theoretical, Industrial and Clinical Perspectives. 1991, Cambridge: CUP.

189 Willner, P., The validity of animal models of depression. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1984. 83(1): 1–16.

190 Papp, M., E. Moryl, and P. Willner, Pharmacological validation of the chronic mild stress model of depression. Eur J Pharmacol, 1996. 296(2): 129–36.

191 Sagvolden, T., The Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat as a Model of ADHD, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP. pp. 221–38.

192 Puumala, T., et al., Behavioral and pharmacological studies on the validation of a new animal model for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurobiol Learn Mem, 1996. 66(2): 198–211.

193 Robbins, T.W., G.H. Jones, and B.J. Sahakian, Central Stimulants, Transmitters and Attentional Disorder: A Perspective from Animal Studies, in Attention Deficit Disorder: Clinical and Basic Research, T. Sagvolden and T. Archer, Editors. 1989, Hillsdale, NJ: LEA, pp. 199–222.

194 Holene, E., et al., Behavioural hyperactivity in rats following postnatal exposure to sub-toxic doses of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners 153 and 126. Behav Brain Res, 1998. 94(1): 213–24.

195 Dell’Anna, M.E., et al., Neonatal anoxia induces transitory hyperactivity, permanent spatial memory deficits and CA1 cell density reduction in developing rats. Behav Brain Res, 1991. 45(2): 125–34.

196 Alpert, J.E., et al., Animal models and childhood behavioral disturbances: dopamine depletion in the newborn rat pup. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry, 1978. 17(2): 239–51.

197 Shaywitz, B.A., J.H. Klopper, and J.W. Gordon, Methylphenidate in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated developing rat pups: effects on activity and maze performance. Arch Neurol, 1978. 35(7): 463–9.

198 Shaywitz, B.A., et al., Paradoxical response to amphetamine in developing rats treated with 6-hydroxydopamine. Nature, 1976. 261(5556): 153–5.

199 Shaywitz, B.A., et al., Animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders and their relevance for Tourette syndrome. Adv Neurol, 1982. 35: 199–202.

200 Shaywitz, B.A., R.D. Yager, and J.H. Klopper, Selective brain dopamine depletion in developing rats: an experimental model of minimal brain dysfunction. Science, 1976. 191(4224): 305–8.

201 Russell, V.A., Neurobiology of animal models of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 2007. 161(2): 185–98.

202 Spencer, T., et al., An open-label, dose-ranging study of atomoxetine in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2001. 11(3): 251–65.

203 Balkenius, C. and P. Bjorne, Toward a Robot Model of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), in Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Epigenetic Robotics: Modeling Cognitive Development in Robotic Systems, C. Balkenius et al., Editors. 2001, Lund: Lund University Cognitive Studies, pp. 61–7.

204 Sagvolden, T., Behavioral validation of the Spontaneously Hypertensive Rat (SHR) as an animal model of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD). Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2000. 24(1): 31–9.

205 Russell, V.A., The SHR as a Model of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: From Genes to Patients, D. Gozal and D.L. Molfese, Editors. 2005, Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc., pp. 79–96.

206 van den Hazel, P., et al., Today’s epidemics in children: possible relations to environmental pollution and suggested preventive measures. Acta Paediatr Suppl, 2006. 95(453): 18–25.

207 Pineda, D.A., et al., Environmental influences that affect Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: study of a genetic isolate. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2007. 16(5): 337–46.

208 Kodituwakku, P.W., Defining the behavioral phenotype in children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum disorders: A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2007. 31(2): 192–201.

209 Claycomb, C.D., et al., Relationships among Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, induced labor, and selected physiological and demographic variables. J Clin Psychol, 2004. 60(6): 689–93.

210 Hartsough, C.S. and N.M. Lambert, Medical factors in hyperactive and normal children: prenatal, developmental, and health history findings. Am J Orthopsychiatry, 1985. 55(2): 190–201.

211 Barkley, R.A., G.J. DuPaul, and MB. McMurray, Comprehensive evaluation of Attention Deficit Disorder with and without hyperactivity as defined by research criteria. J Consult Clin Psychol, 1990. 58(6): 775–89.

212 St Sauver, J.L., et al., Early life risk factors for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a population-based cohort study. Mayo Clin Proc, 2004. 79(9): 1124–31.

213 Pauc, R. and A. Young, Foetal distress and birth interventions in children with developmental delay syndromes: a prospective controlled trial. Clinical Chiropractic, 2006. 9(4): 182–5.

214 Martin, R.P., J. Wisenbaker, and M.O. Huttunen, Nausea during pregnancy: relation to early childhood temperament and behavior problems at twelve years. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1999. 27(4): 323–9.

215 Sharp, W.S., et al., Monozygotic twins discordant for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: ascertainment and clinical characteristics. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2003. 42(1): 93–7.

216 Milberger, S., et al., Pregnancy, delivery and infancy complications and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: issues of gene–environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry, 1997. 41(1): 65–75.

217 Banerjee, T.D., F. Middleton, and S.V. Faraone, Environmental risk factors for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Acta Paediatr, 2007. 96(9): 1269–74.

218 Ben Amor, L., et al., Perinatal complications in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and their unaffected siblings. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 2005. 30(2): 120–6.

219 Kadziela-Olech, H. and J. Piotrowska-Jastrzebska, The duration of breastfeeding and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Rocz Akad Med Bialymst, 2005. 50: 302–6.

220 Chandola, C.A., et al., Pre- and perinatal factors and the risk of subsequent referral for hyperactivity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1992. 33(6): 1077–90.

221 Wagner, A.I., et al., The limited effects of obstetrical and neonatal complications on conduct and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in middle childhood. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 2009. 30(3): 217–25.

222 Johnson, S., Cognitive and behavioural outcomes following very preterm birth. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med, 2007. 12(5): 363–73.

223 Salt, A. and M. Redshaw, Neurodevelopmental follow-up after preterm birth: follow up after two years. Early Hum Dev, 2006. 82(3): 185–97.

224 Breslau, N., et al., Psychiatric sequelae of low birth weight at 6 years of age. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1996. 24(3): 385–400.

225 Schothorst, P.F. and H. van Engeland, Long-term behavioral sequelae of prematurity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1996. 35(2): 175–83.

226 Sykes, D.H., et al., Behavioural adjustment in school of very low birthweight children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1997. 38(3): 315–25.

227 Hayes, B. and F. Sharif, Behavioural and emotional outcome of very low birth weight infants – literature review. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 2009: 1–8.

228 Hack, M., et al., Behavioral outcomes of extremely low birth weight children at age 8 years. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 2009. 30(2): 122–30.

229 Mick, E., et al., Impact of low birth weight on Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 2002. 23(1): 16–22.

230 Rodriguez, A., et al., Maternal adiposity prior to pregnancy is associated with ADHD symptoms in offspring: evidence from three prospective pregnancy cohorts. Int J Obes (Lond), 2008. 32(3): 550–7.

231 Cortese, S., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and obesity: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2008. 48(6): 524–37.

232 Liu, L.L., et al., Does dopaminergic reward system contribute to explaining comorbidity obesity and ADHD? Med Hypotheses, 2008. 70(6): 1118–20.

233 Cortese, S., et al., Does excessive daytime sleepiness contribute to explaining the association between obesity and ADHD symptoms? Med Hypotheses, 2008. 70(1): 12–16.

234 Bazar, K.A., et al., Obesity and ADHD may represent different manifestations of a common environmental oversampling syndrome: a model for revealing mechanistic overlap among cognitive, metabolic, and inflammatory disorders. Med Hypotheses, 2006. 66(2): 263–9.

235 Szatmari, P., et al., Psychiatric disorders at five years among children with birthweights less than 1000 g: a regional perspective. Dev Med Child Neurol, 1990. 32(11): 954–62.

236 Strang-Karlsson, S., et al., Very low birth weight and behavioral symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in young adulthood: the Helsinki study of very-low-birth-weight adults. Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(10): 1345–53.

237 Hultman, C.M., et al., Birth weight and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity symptoms in childhood and early adolescence: a prospective Swedish twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2007. 46(3): 370–7.

238 Ernst, M., E.T. Moolchan, and M.L. Robinson, Behavioral and neural consequences of prenatal exposure to nicotine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2001. 40(6): 630–41.

239 Mick, E., et al., Case-control study of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and maternal smoking, alcohol use, and drug use during pregnancy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2002. 41(4): 378–85.

240 Milberger, S., et al., Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children? Am J Psychiatry, 1996. 153(9): 1138–42.

241 Milberger, S., et al., Further evidence of an association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: findings from a high-risk sample of siblings. J Clin Child Psychol, 1998. 27(3): 352–8.

242 Thapar, A., et al., Maternal smoking during pregnancy and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in offspring. Am J Psychiatry, 2003. 160(11): 1985–9.

243 Obel, C., et al., Smoking during pregnancy and hyperactivity-inattention in the offspring – comparing results from three Nordic cohorts. Int J Epidemiol, 2009. 38(3): 698–705.

244 Linnet, K.M., et al., Smoking during pregnancy and the risk for Hyperkinetic Disorder in offspring. Pediatrics, 2005. 116(2): 462–7.

245 Thapar, A., et al., Prenatal smoking might not cause Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: evidence from a novel design. Biol Psychiatry, 2009. 66(8): 722–7.

246 Haustein, K.O., Cigarette smoking, nicotine and pregnancy. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther, 1999. 37(9): 417–27.

247 Lou, H.C., Etiology and pathogenesis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): significance of prematurity and perinatal hypoxic- haemodynamic encephalopathy. Acta Paediatr, 1996. 85(11): 1266–71.

248 Toft, P.B., Prenatal and perinatal striatal injury: a hypothetical cause of Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder? Pediatr Neurol, 1999. 21(3): 602–10.

249 Rennie, J.M., C.F. Hagmann, and N.J. Robertson, Outcome after intrapartum hypoxic ischaemia at term. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med, 2007. 12(5): 398–407.

250 Decker, M.J., et al., Reduced extracellular dopamine and increased responsiveness to novelty: neurochemical and behavioral sequelae of intermittent hypoxia. Sleep, 2005. 28(2): 169–76.

251 Decker, M.J., et al., Episodic neonatal hypoxia evokes executive dysfunction and regionally specific alterations in markers of dopamine signaling. Neuroscience, 2003. 117(2): 417–25.

252 Decker, M.J. and D.B. Rye, Neonatal intermittent hypoxia impairs dopamine signaling and executive functioning. Sleep Breath, 2002. 6(4): 205–10.

253 Oorschot, D.E., et al., ADHD-like hyperactivity, with no attention deficit, in adult rats after repeated hypoxia during the equivalent of extreme prematurity. J Neurosci Methods, 2007. 166(2): 315–22.

254 Paz, R., et al., Behavioral teratogenicity induced by nonforced maternal nicotine consumption. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2007. 32(3): 693–9.

255 Newman, M.B., R.D. Shytle, and P.R. Sanberg, Locomotor behavioral effects of prenatal and postnatal nicotine exposure in rat offspring. Behav Pharmacol, 1999. 10(6–7): 699–706.

256 Tizabi, Y., et al., Prenatal nicotine exposure: effects on locomotor activity and central [125I]alpha-BT binding in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2000. 66(3): 495–500.

257 Tizabi, Y., et al., Hyperactivity induced by prenatal nicotine exposure is associated with an increase in cortical nicotinic receptors. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 1997. 58(1): 141–6.

258 Thomas, J.D., et al., Nicotine exposure during the neonatal brain growth spurt produces hyperactivity in preweanling rats. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 2000. 22(5): 695–701.

259 Vaglenova, J., et al., Long-lasting teratogenic effects of nicotine on cognition: gender specificity and role of AMPA receptor function. Neurobiol Learn Mem, 2008. 90(3): 527–36.

260 Vaglenova, J., et al., An assessment of the long-term developmental and behavioral teratogenicity of prenatal nicotine exposure. Behav Brain Res, 2004. 150(1–2): 159–70.

261 Sobrian, S.K., L. Marr, and K. Ressman, Prenatal cocaine and/or nicotine exposure produces depression and anxiety in aging rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2003. 27(3): 501–18.

262 Mansvelder, H.D. and L.W. Role, Neuronal Receptors for Nicotine: Functional Diversity and Developmental Changes, in Brain Development: Normal Processes and the Effects of Alcohol and Nicotine, M.W. Miller, Editor. 2006, Oxford: OUP, pp. 341–62.

263 Leslie, F.M., et al., Nicotine Receptor Regulation of Developing Catecholamine Systems, in Brain Development: Normal Processes and the Effects of Alcohol and Nicotine, M.W. Miller, Editor. 2006, Oxford: OUP, pp. 381–98.

264 Rodriguez, A., Impact of prenatal risk factors in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders: potential for gene–environment interactions. Psychiatry, 2008. 7(12): 516–19.

265 Neuman, R.J., et al., Prenatal smoking exposure and dopaminergic genotypes interact to cause a severe ADHD subtype. Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 61(12): 1320–8.

266 Linnet, K.M., et al., Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and associated behaviors: review of the current evidence. Am J Psychiatry, 2003. 160(6): 1028–40.

267 Coles, C.D., Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Human Development, in Brain Development: Normal Processes and the Effects of Alcohol and Nicotine, M.W. Miller, Editor. 2006, Oxford: OUP, pp. 123–42.

268 Fryer, S.L., et al., Influnce of Alcohol on the Structure of the Developing Human Brain, in Brain Development: Normal Processes and the Effects of Alcohol and Nicotine, M.W. Miller, Editor. 2006, Oxford: OUP, pp. 143–52.

269 Knopik, V.S., et al., Maternal alcohol use disorder and offspring ADHD: disentangling genetic and environmental effects using a children-of-twins design. Psychol Med, 2006. 36(10): 1461–71.

270 Rodriguez, A., et al., Is prenatal alcohol exposure related to inattention and hyperactivity symptoms in children? Disentangling the effects of social adversity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2009. 50(9): 1073–83.

271 D’Onofrio, B.M., et al., Causal inferences regarding prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood externalizing problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2007. 64(11): 1296–304.

272 Fryer, S.L., et al., Evaluation of psychopathological conditions in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Pediatrics, 2007. 119(3): e733–41.

273 Bhatara, V., R. Loudenberg, and R. Ellis, Association of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and gestational alcohol exposure: an exploratory study. J Atten Disord, 2006. 9(3): 515–22.

274 O’Malley, K.D. and J. Nanson, Clinical implications of a link between Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Can J Psychiatry, 2002. 47(4): 349–54.

275 Hausknecht, K.A., et al., Prenatal alcohol exposure causes attention deficits in male rats. Behav Neurosci, 2005. 119(1): 302–10.

276 Ulug, S. and E.P. Riley, The effect of methylphenidate on overactivity in rats prenatally exposed to alcohol. Neurobehav Toxicol Teratol, 1983. 5(1): 35–9.

277 Shen, R.Y., J.H. Hannigan, and G. Kapatos, Prenatal ethanol reduces the activity of adult midbrain dopamine neurons. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 1999. 23(11): 1801–7.

278 Botting, N., et al., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders and other psychiatric outcomes in very low birthweight children at 12 years. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1997. 38(8): 931–41.

279 Kulseng, S., et al., Very-low-birthweight and term small-for-gestational-age adolescents: attention revisited. Acta Paediatr, 2006. 95(2): 224–30.

280 Indredavik, M.S., et al., Psychiatric symptoms and disorders in adolescents with low birth weight. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed, 2004. 89(5): F445–50.

281 Kraemer, S., The fragile male. BMJ, 2000. 321(7276): 1609–12.

282 Mizuno, R., The male/female ratio of fetal deaths and births in Japan. Lancet, 2000. 356(9231): 738–9.

283 Gualtieri, T. and R. Hicks, An immunoreactive theory of selective male affliction. Brain and Behavioural Sciences, 1985. 8: 427–41.

284 Flannery, K.A. and J. Liederman, A test of the immunoreactive theory for the origin of neurodevelopmental disorders in the offspring of women with immune disorder. Cortex, 1994. 30(4): 635–46.

285 Millichap, J.G., Etiologic classification of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 2008. 121(2): e358–65.

286 Biederman, J., et al., Family-environment risk factors for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a test of Rutter’s indicators of adversity. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1995. 52(6): 464–70.

287 Biederman, J., S.V. Faraone, and M.C. Monuteaux, Differential effect of environmental adversity by gender: Rutter’s index of adversity in a group of boys and girls with and without ADHD. Am J Psychiatry, 2002. 159(9): 1556–62.

288 Krummel, D.A., F.H. Seligson, and H.A. Guthrie, Hyperactivity: is candy causal? Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 1996. 36(1–2): 31–47.

289 Wolraich, M.L., D.B. Wilson, and J.W. White, The effect of sugar on behavior or cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Jama, 1995. 274(20): 1617–21.

290 Conners, C.K., C.H. Goyette, and E.B. Newman, Dose-time effect of artificial colors in hyperactive children. J Learn Disabil, 1980. 13(9): 512–16.

291 Pelham, W.E., R. Milich, and J.L. Walker, Effects of continuous and partial reinforcement and methylphenidate on learning in children with Attention Deficit Disorder. J Abnorm Psychol, 1986. 95(4): 319–25.

292 Bateman, B., et al., The effects of a double blind, placebo controlled, artificial food colourings and benzoate preservative challenge on hyperactivity in a general population sample of preschool children. Arch Dis Child, 2004. 89(6): 506–11.

293 Boris, M. and F.S. Mandel, Foods and additives are common causes of the Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder in children. Ann Allergy, 1994. 72(5): 462–8.

294 Schab, D.W. and N.H. Trinh, Do artificial food colors promote hyperactivity in children with hyperactive syndromes? A meta-analysis of double-blind placebo-controlled trials. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 2004. 25(6): 423–34.

295 McCann, D., et al., Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet, 2007. 370(9598): 1560–7.

296 Schnoll, R., D. Burshteyn, and J. Cea-Aravena, Nutrition in the treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a neglected but important aspect. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 2003. 28(1): 63–75.

297 Ross, B.M., J. Seguin, and L.E. Sieswerda, Omega-3 fatty acids as treatments for mental illness: which disorder and which fatty acid? Lipids Health Dis, 2007. 6: 21.

298 Richardson, A.J. and M.A. Ross, Fatty acid metabolism in neurodevelopmental disorder: a new perspective on associations between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2000. 63(1–2): 1–9.

299 Burgess, J.R., et al., Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Clin Nutr, 2000. 71 (Suppl 1): 327S–30S.

300 Wainwright, P.E., Dietary essential fatty acids and brain function: a developmental perspective on mechanisms. Proc Nutr Soc, 2002. 61(1): 61–9.

301 Joshi, K., et al., Supplementation with flax oil and vitamin C improves the outcome of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2006. 74(1): 17–21.

302 Aman, M.G., E.A. Mitchell, and S.H. Turbott, The effects of essential fatty acid supplementation by Efamol in hyperactive children. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1987. 15(1): 75–90.

303 Arnold, L.E., et al., Gamma-linolenic acid for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: placebo-controlled comparison to D-amphetamine. Biol Psychiatry, 1989. 25(2): 222–8.

304 Voigt, R.G., et al., A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Pediatr, 2001. 139(2): 189–96.

305 Hirayama, S., T. Hamazaki, and K. Terasawa, Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-containing food administration on symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder – a placebo-controlled double-blind study. Eur J Clin Nutr, 2004. 58(3): 467–73.

306 Innis, S.M., The role of dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids in the developing brain. Dev Neurosci, 2000. 22(5–6): 474–80.

307 Antalis, C.J., et al., Omega-3 fatty acid status in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2006. 75(4–5): 299– 308.

308 Chen, J.R., et al., Dietary patterns and blood fatty acid composition in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Taiwan. J Nutr Biochem, 2004. 15(8): 467–72.

309 Colquhoun, I. and S. Bunday, A lack of essential fatty acids as a possible cause of hyperactivity in children. Med Hypotheses, 1981. 7(5): 673–9.

310 Mitchell, E.A., et al., Clinical characteristics and serum essential fatty acid levels in hyperactive children. Clin Pediatr (Phila), 1987. 26(8): 406–11.

311 Young, G.S., J.A. Conquer, and R. Thomas, Effect of randomized supplementation with high dose olive, flax or fish oil on serum phospholipid fatty acid levels in adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Reprod Nutr Dev, 2005. 45(5): 549–58.

312 Young, G.S., N.J. Maharaj, and J.A. Conquer, Blood phospholipid fatty acid analysis of adults with and without Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Lipids, 2004. 39(2): 117-23.

313 Bekaroglu, M., et al., Relationships between serum free fatty acids and zinc, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a research note. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1996. 37(2): 225–7.

314 Bilici, M., et al., Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of zinc sulfate in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2004. 28(1): 181–90.

315 Richardson, A.J. and B.K. Puri, The potential role of fatty acids in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2000. 63(1–2): 79–87.

316 Stevens, L.J., et al., Essential fatty acid metabolism in boys with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Clin Nutr, 1995. 62(4): 761–8.

317 Sinn, N., Physical fatty acid deficiency signs in children with ADHD symptoms. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2007. 77(2): 109–15.

318 Sinn, N. and J. Bryan, Effect of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients on learning and behavior problems associated with child ADHD. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 2007. 28(2): 82–91.

319 Sinn, N., J. Bryan, and C. Wilson, Cognitive effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms: a randomised controlled trial. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2008. 78(4–5): 311–26.

320 Richardson, A.J. and B.K. Puri, A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2002. 26(2): 233–9.

321 Sorgi, P.J., et al., Effects of an open-label pilot study with high-dose EPA/DHA concentrates on plasma phospholipids and behavior in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Nutr J, 2007. 6: 16.

322 Johnson, M., et al., Omega-3/omega-6 fatty acids for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a randomized placebo-controlled trial in children and adolescents. J Atten Disord, 2009. 12(5): 394–401.

323 Innis, S.M., Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr, 2007. 137(4): 855–9.

324 Innis, S.M. and S. de La Presa Owens, Dietary fatty acid composition in pregnancy alters neurite membrane fatty acids and dopamine in newborn rat brain. J Nutr, 2001. 131(1): 118–22.

325 McNamara, R.K. and S.E. Carlson, Role of omega-3 fatty acids in brain development and function: potential implications for the pathogenesis and prevention of psychopathology. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2006. 75(4–5): 329–49.

326 Chalon, S., Omega-3 fatty acids and monoamine neurotransmission. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 2006. 75(4–5): 259–69.

327 Hunter, J.E., et al., Investigation of phenotypes associated with mood and anxiety among male and female fragile X premutation carriers. Behav Genet, 2008. 38(5): 493–502.

328 Brookes, K.J., et al., Association of fatty acid desaturase genes with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 60(10): 1053–61.

329 Ross, B.M., et al., Increased levels of ethane, a non-invasive marker of n-3 fatty acid oxidation, in breath of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Nutr Neurosci, 2003. 6(5): 277–81.

330 Andersen, S.L., Stimulants and the developing brain. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 2005. 26(5): 237–43.

331 Colter, A.L., C. Cutler, and K.A. Meckling, Fatty acid status and behavioural symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adolescents: a case-control study. Nutr J, 2008. 7: 8.

332 Curtis, L.T. and K. Patel, Nutritional and environmental approaches to preventing and treating autism and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): a review. J Altern Complement Med, 2008. 14(1): 79–85.

333 Mazza, M., et al., Omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants in neurological and psychiatric diseases: an overview. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 31(1): 12–26.

334 Konofal, E., et al., Iron deficiency in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 2004. 158(12): 1113–15.

335 Cortese, S., et al., ADHD and insomnia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2006. 45(4): 384–5.

336 Konofal, E., et al., Effects of iron supplementation on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children. Pediatr Neurol, 2008. 38(1): 20–6.

337 Beard, J., K.M. Erikson, and B.C. Jones, Neonatal iron deficiency results in irreversible changes in dopamine function in rats. J Nutr, 2003. 133(4): 1174–9.

338 Erikson, K.M., B.C. Jones, and J.L. Beard, Iron deficiency alters dopamine transporter functioning in rat striatum. J Nutr, 2000. 130(11): 2831–7.

339 Erikson, K.M., et al., Iron deficiency decreases dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in rat brain. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2001. 69(3–4): 409–18.

340 Grantham-McGregor, S. and C. Ani, A review of studies on the effect of iron deficiency on cognitive development in children. J Nutr, 2001. 131(2S–2): 649S–666S; discussion 666S–668S.

341 Grantham-McGregor, S., S.P. Walker, and S. Chang, Nutritional deficiencies and later behavioural development. Proc Nutr Soc, 2000. 59(1): 47–54.

342 Oner, O., O.Y. Alkar, and P. Oner, Relation of ferritin levels with symptom ratings and cognitive performance in children with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatr Int, 2008. 50(1): 40–4.

343 Oner, P. and O. Oner, Relationship of ferritin to symptom ratings children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: effect of comorbidity. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 2008. 39(3): 323–30.

344 Arnold, L.E., Alternative treatments for adults with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Ann NY Acad Sci, 2001. 931: 310–41.

345 Arnold, L.E. and R.A. DiSilvestro, Zinc in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2005. 15(4): 619–27.

346 Akhondzadeh, S., M.R. Mohammadi, and M. Khademi, Zinc sulfate as an adjunct to methylphenidate for the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children: a double blind and randomized trial [ISRCTN64132371]. BMC Psychiatry, 2004. 4: 9.

347 Yorbik, O., et al., Potential effects of zinc on information processing in boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2008. 32(3): 662–7.

348 Arnold, L.E., et al., Serum zinc correlates with parent- and teacher-rated inattention in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2005. 15(4): 628–36.

349 Arnold, L.E., S.M. Pinkham, and N. Votolato, Does zinc moderate essential fatty acid and amphetamine treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2000. 10(2): 111–17.

350 Arnold, L.E., et al., Does hair zinc predict amphetamine improvement of ADD/hyperactivity? Int J Neurosci, 1990. 50(1–2): 103–7.

351 Rice, D.C., Parallels between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and behavioral deficits produced by neurotoxic exposure in monkeys. Environ Health Perspect, 2000. 108(Suppl 3): 405–8.

352 Kahn, C.A., P.C. Kelly, and W.O. Walker, Jr, Lead screening in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and developmental delay. Clin Pediatr (Phila), 1995. 34(9): 498–501.

353 Wang, H.L., et al., Case-control study of blood lead levels and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Chinese children. Environ Health Perspect, 2008. 116(10): 1401–6.

354 Braun, J.M., et al., Exposures to environmental toxicants and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in US children. Environ Health Perspect, 2006. 114(12): 1904–9.

355 Nigg, J.T., et al., Low blood lead levels associated with clinically diagnosed Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and mediated by weak cognitive control. Biol Psychiatry, 2008. 63(3): 325–31.

356 Nigg, J.T., ADHD, lead exposure and prevention: how much lead or how much evidence is needed? Expert Rev Neurother, 2008. 8(4): 519–21.

357 Bustos, R.R. and S. Goldstein, Including blood lead levels of all immigrant children when evaluating for ADHD. J Atten Disord, 2008. 11(4): 425–6.

358 Konofal, E. and S. Cortese, Lead and neuroprotection by iron in ADHD. Environ Health Perspect, 2007. 115(8): A398–9; author reply A399.

359 Wang, Q., et al., Iron supplement prevents lead-induced disruption of the blood-brain barrier during rat development. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol, 2007. 219(1): 33–41.

360 Chan, P.A. and T. Rabinowitz, A cross-sectional analysis of video games and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in adolescents. Ann Gen Psychiatry, 2006. 5: 16.

361 Bioulac, S., L. Arfi, and M.P. Bouvard, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and video games: a comparative study of hyperactive and control children. Eur Psychiatry, 2008. 23(2): 134–41.

362 Yoo, H.J., et al., Attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms and Internet addiction. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 2004. 58(5): 487–94.

363 Cao, F., et al., The relationship between impulsivity and Internet addiction in a sample of Chinese adolescents. Eur Psychiatry, 2007. 22(7): 466–71.

364 Lawrence, V., et al., ADHD outside the laboratory: boys’ executive function performance on tasks in videogame play and on a visit to the zoo. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2002. 30(5): 447–62.

365 Lawrence, V., et al., Executive function and ADHD: a comparison of children’s performance during neuropsychological testing and real-world activities. J Atten Disord, 2004. 7(3): 137–49.

366 Clancy, T.A., J.J. Rucklidge, and D. Owen, Road-crossing safety in virtual reality: a comparison of adolescents with and without ADHD. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 2006. 35(2): 203–15.

367 Boot, W.R., et al., The effects of video game playing on attention, memory, and executive control. Acta Psychol (Amst), 2008. 129 (3): 387–98.

368 Castel, A.D., J. Pratt, and E. Drummond, The effects of action video game experience on the time course of inhibition of return and the efficiency of visual search. Acta Psychol (Amst), 2005. 119(2): 217–30.

369 Green, C.S. and D. Bavelier, Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 2003. 423(6939): 534–7.

370 Green, C.S. and D. Bavelier, Effect of action video games on the spatial distribution of visuospatial attention. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform, 2006. 32(6): 1465–78.

371 Green, C.S. and D. Bavelier, Enumeration versus multiple object tracking: the case of action video game players. Cognition, 2006. 101(1): 217–45.

372 Green, C.S. and D. Bavelier, Action-video-game experience alters the spatial resolution of vision. Psychol Sci, 2007. 18(1): 88–94.

373 Wilkinson, N., R.P. Ang, and D.H. Goh, Online video game therapy for mental health concerns: a review. Int J Soc Psychiatry, 2008. 54(4): 370–82.

374 Pope, A.T. and E.H. Bogart, Extended attention span training system: video game neurotherapy for Attention Deficit Disorder. Child Study Journal, 1996. 26: 39–50.

375 Christakis, D.A., et al., Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics, 2004. 113(4): 708–13.

376 Acevedo-Polakovich, I.D., et al., Disentangling the relation between television viewing and cognitive processes in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and comparison children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 2006. 160(4): 354–60.

377 Stevens, T. and M. Mulsow, There is no meaningful relationship between television exposure and symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 2006. 117(3): 665–72.

378 Miller, C.J., et al., Brief report: Television viewing and risk for attention problems in preschool children. J Pediatr Psychol, 2007. 32(4): 448–52.

379 Willcutt, E.G., et al., Validity of the executive function theory of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1336–46.

380 Sergeant, J.A., et al., The top and the bottom of ADHD: a neuropsychological perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2003. 27(7): 583–92.

381 Rafalovich, A., Psychodynamic and neurological perspectives on ADHD: exploring strategies for defining a phenomenon. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 2001. 31(4): 397–418.

382 Weiner, C., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as a Learned Behavioral Pattern. 2007, Lanham, MD: University Press of America Inc.

383 Pennington, B.F. and S. Ozonoff, Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1996. 37(1): 51–87.

384 Jurado, M.B. and M. Rosselli, The elusive nature of executive functions: a review of our current understanding. Neuropsychol Rev, 2007. 17(3): 213–33.

385 Seidman, L.J., Neuropsychological functioning in people with ADHD across the lifespan. Clin Psychol Rev, 2006. 26(4): 466–85.

386 Boonstra, A.M., et al., Executive functioning in adult ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Psychol Med, 2005. 35(8): 1097–108.

387 Doherty, M.J., Theory of Mind: How Children Understand Others’ Thoughts and Feelings. 2008, Hove: Psychology Press.

388 Perner, J., W. Kain, and P. Barchfeld, Executive control and higher-order theory of mind in children at risk of ADHD. Infant and Child Development, 2002. 11(2): 141–58.

389 Charman, T., F. Carroll, and C. Sturge, Theory of Mind, executive function and social competence in boys with ADHD. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 2001. 6(1): 31–49.

390 Sodian, B., C. Hulsken, and C. Thoermer, The self and action in theory of mind research. Conscious Cogn, 2003. 12(4): 777–82.

391 Speltz, M.L., et al., Neuropsychological characteristics and test behaviors of boys with early onset conduct problems. J Abnorm Psychol, 1999. 108(2): 315–25.

392 Happe, F. and U. Frith, Theory of mind and social impairment in children with conduct disorder. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1996. 14: 385–98.

393 Denney, C.B. and M.D. Rapport, The Cognitive Pharmacology of Stimulants in Children with ADHD, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP, pp. 283–302.

394 Geurts, H.M., et al., ADHD subtypes: do they differ in their executive functioning profile? Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2005. 20(4): 457–77.

395 Muir-Broaddus, J.E., et al., Neuropsychological test performance of children with ADHD relative to test norms and parent behavioral ratings. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2002. 17(7): 671–89.

396 Nichols, S.L. and D.A. Waschbusch, A review of the validity of laboratory cognitive tasks used to assess symptoms of ADHD. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 2004. 34(4): 297–315.

397 Riccio, C.A., et al., Differences in academic and executive function domains among children with ADHD Predominantly Inattentive and Combined Types. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2006. 21(7): 657–67.

398 Sugalski, T.D., A.J. Scott, and M.J. Cleary, Utilizing neuropsychological testing to inform ADHD diagnosis and treatment: the case of Phil. Clinical Case Studies, 2008. 7(5): 359–76.

399 Nigg, J.T., et al., Executive functions and ADHD in adults: evidence for selective effects on ADHD symptom domains. J Abnorm Psychol, 2005. 114(4): 706–17.

400 Stavro, G.M., M.L. Ettenhofer, and J.T. Nigg, Executive functions and adaptive functioning in young adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc, 2007. 13(2): 324–34.

401 Klein, C., et al., Intra-subject variability in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 60(10): 1088–97.

402 Shallice, T., et al., Executive function profile of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Dev Neuropsychol, 2002. 21(1): 43–71.

403 Clark, L., et al., Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology? Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 61(12): 1395–401.

404 Schoechlin, C. and R.R. Engel, Neuropsychological performance in adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: meta-analysis of empirical data. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2005. 20(6): 727–44.

405 Baddely, A., Working Memory, Thought, and Action. 2007, Oxford: OUP.

406 Shallice, T., From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure. 1988, Cambridge: CUP.

407 Gottesman, I.I. and T.D. Gould, The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. Am J Psychiatry, 2003. 160(4): 636–45.

408 Crosbie, J., et al., Validating psychiatric endophenotypes: inhibitory control and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2008. 32(1): 40–55.

409 Schachar, R., et al., Confirmation of an inhibitory control deficit in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2000. 28(3): 227–35.

410 Schachar, R., et al., Deficient inhibitory control in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1995. 23(4): 411–37.

411 Barkley, R.A., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, self-regulation, and time: toward a more comprehensive theory. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 1997. 18(4): 271–9.

412 Barkley, R.A., Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull, 1997. 121(1): 65–94.

413 Barkley, R.A., Primary Symptoms, Diagnostic Criteria, Prevalence, and Gender Differences, in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, R.A. Barkley, Editor. 2006, New York: Guilford Press, pp. 76–121.

414 Barkley, R.A., A Theory of ADHD, in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, R.A. Barkley, Editor. 2006, New York: Guilford Press, pp. 297–336.

415 Neef, N.A., D.F. Bicard, and S. Endo, Assessment of impulsivity and the development of self-control in students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Appl Behav Anal, 2001. 34(4): 397–408.

416 Neef, N.A., et al., Behavioral assessment of impulsivity: a comparison of children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Appl Behav Anal, 2005. 38(1): 23–37.

417 Winstanley, C.A., D.M. Eagle, and T.W. Robbins, Behavioral models of impulsivity in relation to ADHD: translation between clinical and preclinical studies. Clin Psychol Rev, 2006. 26(4): 379–95.

418 Evenden, J.L., Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1999. 146(4): 348–61.

419 Nigg, J.T., Response inhibition and disruptive behaviors: toward a multiprocess conception of etiological heterogeneity for ADHD combined type and conduct disorder early-onset type. Ann NY Acad Sci, 2003. 1008: 170–82.

420 Mathias, C.W., et al., The relationship of inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and psychopathy among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 2007. 43(6): 1333–43.

421 Rubia, K., A. Smith, and E. Taylor, Performance of children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) on a test battery of impulsiveness. Child Neuropsychology, 2007. 13(3): 276–304.

422 Dawe, S., M.J. Gullo, and N.J. Loxton, Reward drive and rash impulsiveness as dimensions of impulsivity: implications for substance misuse. Addict Behav, 2004. 29(7): 1389–405.

423 Dawe, S. and N.J. Loxton, The role of impulsivity in the development of substance use and eating disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2004. 28(3): 343–51.

424 Sternberg, R.J., J.C. Kaufman, and E. Grigorenko, Applied Intelligence. 2008, Cambridge: CUP.

425 Ersche, K.D. and B.J. Sahakian, The neuropsychology of amphetamine and opiate dependence: implications for treatment. Neuropsychol Rev, 2007. 17(3): 317–36.

426 Nigg, J.T., Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychol Bull, 2001. 127(5): 571–98.

427 Chamberlain, S.R. and B.J. Sahakian, The neuropsychiatry of impulsivity. Curr Opin Psychiatry, 2007. 20(3): 255–61.

428 Nigg, J.T., et al., Disinhibition and borderline personality disorder. Dev Psychopathol, 2005. 17(4): 1129–49.

429 Nigg, J.T., et al., Poor response inhibition as a predictor of problem drinking and illicit drug use in adolescents at risk for alcoholism and other substance use disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2006. 45(4): 468–75.

430 Schachar, R., et al., Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms and response inhibition after closed head injury in children: do preinjury behavior and injury severity predict outcome? Dev Neuropsychol, 2004. 25(1–2): 179–98.

431 Rubia, K., et al., Dissociated functional brain abnormalities of inhibition in boys with pure Conduct Disorder and in boys with pure Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(7): 889–97.

432 Bedard, A.C., et al., The development of selective inhibitory control across the life span. Dev Neuropsychol, 2002. 21(1): 93–111.

433 Williams, B.R., et al., Development of inhibitory control across the life span. Dev Psychol, 1999. 35(1): 205–13.

434 Mani, T.M., J.S. Bedwell, and L.S. Miller, Age-related decrements in performance on a brief continuous performance test. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2005. 20(5): 575–86.

435 Bekker, E.M., et al., Stopping and changing in adults with ADHD. Psychol Med, 2005. 35(6): 807–16.

436 Wodushek, T.R. and C.S. Neumann, Inhibitory capacity in adults with symptoms of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2003. 18(3): 317–30.

437 Pasini, A., et al., Attention and executive functions profile in drug naïve ADHD subtypes. Brain Dev, 2007. 29(7): 400–8.

438 Bekker, E.M., et al., Disentangling deficits in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2005. 62(10): 1129–36.

439 Rhodes, S.M., D.R. Coghill, and K. Matthews, Neuropsychological functioning in stimulant-naïve boys with Hyperkinetic Disorder. Psychol Med, 2005. 35(8): 1109–20.

440 Alderson, R., M. Rapport, and M. Kofler, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and behavioral inhibition: a meta-analytic review of the stop-signal paradigm. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2007. 35(5): 745–58.

441 Alderson, R., et al., ADHD and behavioral inhibition: a re-examination of the Stop-Signal Task. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2008. 36(7): 989–98.

442 Chamberlain, S.R., et al., Neuropharmacological modulation of cognition. Curr Opin Neurol, 2006. 19(6): 607–12.

443 Aron, A.R., The neural basis of inhibition in cognitive control. Neuroscientist, 2007. 13(3): 214–28.

444 Carr, L.A., J.T. Nigg, and J.M. Henderson, Attentional versus motor inhibition in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychology, 2006. 20(4): 430–41.

445 Wodka, E.L., et al., Evidence that response inhibition is a primary deficit in ADHD. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 2007. 29(4): 345–56.

446 Rommelse, N.N., et al., Are motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility dead ends in ADHD? J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2007. 35(6): 957–67.

447 Halperin, J.M. and K.P. Schulz, Revisiting the role of the prefrontal cortex in the pathophysiology of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychol Bull, 2006. 132(4): 560–81.

448 Banaschewski, T., et al., Questioning inhibitory control as the specific deficit of ADHD – evidence from brain electrical activity. J Neural Transm, 2004. 111(7): 841–64.

449 McLoughlin, G., et al., Electrophysiological parameters in psychiatric research: ADHD. Psychiatry, 2005. 4(12): 14–18.

450 Dimoska, A., et al., Inhibitory motor control in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: event-related potentials in the stop-signal paradigm. Biol Psychiatry, 2003. 54(12): 1345–54.

451 Lopez, V., et al., Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder involves differential cortical processing in a visual spatial attention paradigm. Clin Neurophysiol, 2006. 117(11): 2540–8.

452 Derefinko, K.J., et al., Response style differences in the inattentive and combined subtypes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2008. 36(5): 745–58.

453 Soubrié, P., Reconciling the role of central serotonin neurones in human and animal behaviour. Behav Brain Sci, 1986. 9: 319–64.

454 King, J.A., et al., Neural substrates underlying impulsivity. Ann NY Acad Sci, 2003. 1008: 160–9.

455 Eagle, D.M., A. Bari, and T.W. Robbins, The neuropsychopharmacology of action inhibition: cross-species translation of the stop-signal and go/no-go tasks. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2008. 199(3): 439–56.

456 Chamberlain, S.R., T.W. Robbins, and B.J. Sahakian, The neurobiology of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 61(12): 1317–19.

457 Chamberlain, S.R., et al., Neurochemical modulation of response inhibition and probabilistic learning in humans. Science, 2006. 311(5762): 861–3.

458 Saling, L.L. and J.G. Phillips, Automatic behaviour: efficient not mindless. Brain Res Bull, 2007. 73(1–3): 1–20.

459 Gray, J.A., The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Function of the Septo-Hippocampal System. 1982, Oxford: OUP.

460 Gray, J.A. and N. McNaughton, The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Function of the Septo-Hippocampal System, 2nd edn. 2003, Oxford: OUP.

461 Quay, H.C., Inhibition and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1997. 25(1): 7–13.

462 Quay, H.C., Attention Deficit Disorder and the Behavioral Inhibition System: The Relevance of the Neuropsychological Theory of Jeffrey A. Gray, in Attention Deficit Disorder: Criteria, Cognition, Intervention, L.E. Bloomingdale and J.A. Sergeant, Editors. 1998, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 117–25.

463 Gorenstein, E.E. and J.P. Newman, Disinhibitory psychopathology: a new perspective and a model for research. Psychol Rev, 1980. 87(3): 301–15.

464 Pliszka, S.R., et al., Classical conditioning in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and anxiety disorders: a test of Quay’s model. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1993. 21(4): 411–23.

465 Mitchell, J.T. and R.O. Nelson-Gray, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in adults: relationship to Gray’s Behavioral Approach System. Personality and Individual Differences, 2006. 40(4): 749–60.

466 Lijffijt, M., et al., Differences between low and high trait impulsivity are not associated with differences in inhibitory motor control. J Atten Disord, 2004. 8(1): 25–32.

467 Lijffijt, M., et al., A meta-analytic review of stopping performance in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: deficient inhibitory motor control? J Abnorm Psychol, 2005. 114(2): 216–22.

468 Nigg, J.T., et al., Inhibitory processes in adults with persistent childhood onset ADHD. J Consult Clin Psychol, 2002. 70(1): 153–7.

469 McLean, A., et al., Characteristic neurocognitive profile associated with adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychol Med, 2004. 34(4): 681–92.

470 Overtoom, C.C., et al., Inhibition in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a psychophysiological study of the stop task. Biol Psychiatry, 2002. 51(8): 668–76.

471 O’Connell, R.G., et al., The neural correlates of deficient error awareness in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Neuropsychologia, 2009. 47(4): 1149–59.

472 Liotti, M., et al., Abnormal brain activity related to performance monitoring and error detection in children with ADHD. Cortex, 2005. 41(3): 377–88.

473 Rubia, K., et al., Abnormal brain activation during inhibition and error detection in medication-naïve adolescents with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry, 2005. 162(6): 1067–75.

474 Schachar, R.J., et al., Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2004. 32(3): 285–93.

475 Konow, A. and K.H. Pribram, Error recognition and utilization produced by injury to the frontal cortex in man. Neuropsychologia, 1970. 8(4): 489–91.

476 Brown, R.G. and C.D. Marsden, Cognitive function in Parkinson’s disease: from description to theory. Trends Neurosci, 1990. 13(1): 21–9.

477 Bokura, H., S. Yamaguchi, and S. Kobayashi, Event-related potentials for response inhibition in Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 2005. 43(6): 967–75.

478 Johnstone, S.J. and A.R. Clarke, Dysfunctional response preparation and inhibition during a visual Go/No-go task in children with two subtypes of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Res, 2009. 166(2–3): 223–37.

479 Wiers, R.W., et al., Automatic and controlled processes and the development of addictive behaviors in adolescents: a review and a model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2007. 86(2): 263–83.

480 Wiers, R.W. and A.W. Stacy, eds. Handbook of Implicit Cognition and Addiction. 2005, London: Sage Publications Ltd.

481 Wiers, R.W., B.A. Teachman, and J. De Houwer, Implicit cognitive processes in psychopathology: an introduction. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry, 2007. 38(2): 95–104.

482 Suskauer, S.J., et al., Functional magnetic resonance imaging evidence for abnormalities in response selection in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: differences in activation associated with response inhibition but not habitual motor response. J Cogn Neurosci, 2008. 20(3): 478–93.

483 Band, G.P.H. and A. Scheres, Is inhibition impaired in ADHD. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2005. 23: 517–21.

484 Castellanos, F.X. and R. Tannock, Neuroscience of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2002. 3(8): 617–28.

485 Verte, S., et al., The relationship of working memory, inhibition, and response variability in child psychopathology. J Neurosci Methods, 2006. 151(1): 5–14.

486 Gullo, M.J. and S. Dawe, Impulsivity and adolescent substance use: rashly dismissed as “all-bad”? Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2008. 32(8): 1507–18.

487 Anderson, C., et al., Who attains social status? Effects of personality and physical attractiveness in social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2001. 81(1): 116–32.

488 van der Linden, D., et al., Reinforcement sensitivity theory and occupational health: BAS and BIS on the job. Personality and Individual Differences, 2007. 42(6): 1127–38.

489 Bono, J.E. and T.A. Judge, Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2004. 89(5): 901–10.

490 Stewart, W.H. and P.L. Roth, Risk propensity differences between entrepreneurs and managers: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2001. 86(1): 145–53.

491 Posner, M.I. and M.E. Raichle, Images of Mind. 1994, New York: Scientific American Library.

492 Berridge, C.W., Noradrenergic modulation of arousal. Brain Res Rev, 2008. 58(1): 1–17.

493 Swanson, J.M., Role of executive function in ADHD. J Clin Psychiatry, 2003. 64(Suppl 14): 35–9.

494 Booth, J.E., C.L. Carlson, and D.M. Tucker, Performance on a neurocognitive measure of alerting differentiates ADHD combined and inattentive subtypes: a preliminary report. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2007. 22(4): 423–32.

495 Oberlin, B.G., J.L. Alford, and R.T. Marrocco, Normal attention orienting but abnormal stimulus alerting and conflict effect in combined subtype of ADHD. Behav Brain Res, 2005. 165(1): 1–11.

496 Pennington, B.F., Toward a new neuropsychological model of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: subtypes and multiple deficits. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1221–3.

497 Baddeley, A. and C.G. Hitch, Working Memory, in The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, G.H. Bower, Editor. 1974, New York: Academic Press, pp. 47–89.

498 Baddeley, A., The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends Cogn Sci, 2000. 4(11): 417–23.

499 Baddeley, A., Is working memory still working? Am Psychol, 2001. 56(11): 851–64.

500 Levy, F. and M. Farrow, Working memory in ADHD: prefrontal/parietal connections. Curr Drug Targets, 2001. 2(4): 347–52.

501 Karatekin, C. and R.F. Asarnow, Working memory in childhood-onset schizophrenia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Res, 1998. 80(2): 165–76.

502 Martinussen, R., et al., A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2005. 44(4): 377–84.

503 Martinussen, R. and R. Tannock, Working memory impairments in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder with and without comorbid language learning disorders. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 2006. 28(7): 1073–94.

504 Marusiak, C.W. and H.L. Janzen, Assessing the working memory abilities of ADHD children using the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 2005. 20(1–2): 84–97.

505 Westerberg, H., et al., Visuo-spatial working memory span: a sensitive measure of cognitive deficits in children with ADHD. Child Neuropsychol, 2004. 10(3): 155–61.

506 Barnett, R., P. Maruff, and A. Vance, An investigation of visuospatial memory impairment in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), combined type. Psychol Med, 2005. 35(10): 1433–43.

507 Karatekin, C., A test of the integrity of the components of Baddeley’s model of working memory in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2004. 45(5): 912–26.

508 Rapport, M.D., et al., A conceptual model of child psychopathology: implications for understanding Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and treatment efficacy. J Clin Child Psychol, 2001. 30(1): 48–58.

509 Mann, C.A., et al., Quantitative analysis of EEG in boys with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: controlled study with clinical implications. Pediatr Neurol, 1992. 8(1): 30–6.

510 Clarke, A.R., et al., EEG analysis in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a comparative study of two subtypes. Psychiatry Res, 1998. 81(1): 19–29.

511 El-Sayed, E., et al., Altered cortical activity in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder during attentional load task. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2002. 41(7): 811–19.

512 Anckarsater, H., et al., The impact of ADHD and autism spectrum disorders on temperament, character, and personality development. Am J Psychiatry, 2006. 163(7): 1239–44.

513 Cho, S.C., et al., Patterns of temperament and character in a clinical sample of Korean children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 2008. 62(2): 160–6.

514 Faraone, S.V., et al., Personality traits among ADHD adults: implications of late-onset and subthreshold diagnoses. Psychol Med, 2008: 1–9.

515 Lynn, D.E., et al., Temperament and character profiles and the dopamine D4 receptor gene in ADHD. Am J Psychiatry, 2005. 162(5): 906–13.

516 Antrop, I., et al., Stimulation seeking and hyperactivity in children with ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2000. 41(2): 225–31.

517 Lusher, J.M., C. Chandler, and D. Ball, Dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) is associated with novelty seeking (NS) and substance abuse: the saga continues. Mol Psychiatry, 2001. 6(5): 497–9.

518 Rowe, D.C., et al., Dopamine DRD4 receptor polymorphism and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Mol Psychiatry, 1998. 3(5): 419–26.

519 Rapport, M.D., et al., Working memory deficits in boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): the contribution of central executive and subsystem processes. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2008. 36(6): 825–37.

520 Baddeley, A., Working Memory. 1986, Oxford: OUP.

521 Baddeley, A., Working Memory, Thought, and Action. 2007, Oxford: OUP.

522 Norman, D. and T. Shallice, Attention to Action: Willed and Automatic Control of Behavior, in Consciousness and Self Regulation: Advances in Research and Theory, R. Davidson, G. Schwartz, and D. Shapiro, Editors. 1986, New York: Plenum, pp. 1–18.

523 Wiers, R.W. and A.W. Stacy, Implicit cognition and addiction. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2006. 15(6): 292–6.

524 Barkley, R.A. and D. Cox, A review of driving risks and impairments associated with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the effects of stimulant medication on driving performance. J Safety Res, 2007. 38(1): 113–28.

525 Shallice, T. and P.W. Burgess, Deficits in strategy application following frontal lobe damage in man. Brain, 1991. 114(Pt 2): 727–41.

526 Bayliss, D.M. and S. Roodenrys, Executive processing and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: an application of the supervisory attentional system. Dev Neuropsychol, 2000. 17(2): 161–80.

527 Frith, C.D., S. Blakemore, and D.M. Wolpert, Explaining the symptoms of schizophrenia: abnormalities in the awareness of action. Brain Res Brain Res Rev, 2000. 31(2–3): 357–63.

528 Brown, T.E., Attention Seficit Disorder: The Unfocused Mind in Children and Adults. 2005, New Haven: Yale University Press.

529 Sergeant, J., The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2000. 24(1): 7–12.

530 Sergeant, J.A., Modeling Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a critical appraisal of the cognitive-energetic model. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1248–55.

531 van Mourik, R., et al., When distraction is not distracting: a behavioral and ERP study on distraction in ADHD. Clin Neurophysiol, 2007. 118(8): 1855–65.

532 Johnston, T.D. and L. Edwards, Genes, interactions, and the development of behavior. Psychol Rev, 2002. 109(1): 26–34.

533 Bennett, K.S., F. Levy, and D.A. Hay, Behaviour Genetic Approaches to the Study of ADHD, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 111–28.

534 Brown, W.M., et al., Age-stratified heritability estimation in the Framingham Heart Study families. BMC Genet, 2003. 4(Suppl 1): S32.

535 Kuntsi, J., et al., Genetic influences on the stability of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms from early to middle childhood. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(6): 647–54.

536 Goodman, R. and J. Stevenson, A twin study of hyperactivity – II. The aetiological role of genes, family relationships and perinatal adversity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1989. 30(5): 691–709.

537 Eaves, L.J., et al., Genetics and developmental psychopathology: 2. The main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1997. 38(8): 965–80.

538 Larsson, J.O., H. Larsson, and P. Lichtenstein, Genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change of ADHD symptoms between 8 and 13 years of age: a longitudinal twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2004. 43(10): 1267–75.

539 Wood, A.C., et al., High heritability for a composite index of children’s activity level measures. Behav Genet, 2008. 38(3): 266–76.

540 Faraone, S.V., et al., Molecular genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1313–23.

541 Biederman, J., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a selective overview. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1215–20.

542 Levy, F., et al., Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1997. 36(6): 737–44.

543 Sherman, D.K., W.G. Iacono, and M.K. McGue, Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder dimensions: a twin study of inattention and impulsivity-hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1997. 36(6): 745–53.

544 Thapar, A., et al., Refining the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder phenotype for molecular genetic studies. Mol Psychiatry, 2006. 11(8): 714–20.

545 Rommelse, N.N., et al., Neuropsychological measures probably facilitate heritability research of ADHD. Arch Clin Neuropsychol, 2008. 23(5): 579–91.

546 Rommelse, N., et al., Relationship between endophenotype and phenotype in ADHD. Behav Brain Funct, 2008. 4: 4.

547 Heiser, P., et al., Twin study on heritability of activity, attention, and impulsivity as assessed by objective measures. J Atten Disord, 2006. 9(4): 575–81.

548 Joseph, J., Not in their genes: a critical view of the genetics of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Developmental Review, 2000. 20(4): 539–67.

549 Pam, A., et al., The “equal environments assumption” in MZ-DZ twin comparisons: an untenable premise of psychiatric genetics? Acta Genet Med Gemellol (Roma), 1996. 45(3): 349–60.

550 Joseph, J., ADHD and Genetics: A Consensus Reconsidered, in Rethinking ADHD, S. Timimi and J. Leo, Editors. 2009, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 58–91.

551 Bennett, K.S., et al., The Australian Twin ADHD Project: current status and future directions. Twin Res Hum Genet, 2006. 9(6): 718–26.

552 Thapar, A., et al., Does the definition of ADHD affect heritability? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2000. 39(12): 1528–36.

553 Morrison, J.R. and M.A. Stewart, A family study of the hyperactive child syndrome. Biol Psychiatry, 1971. 3(3): 189–95.

554 Cantwell, D.P., Genetic studies of hyperactive children: psychiatric illness in biologic and adopting parents. Proc Annu Meet Am Psychopathol Assoc, 1975. 63: 273–80.

555 Sprich, S., et al., Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2000. 39(11): 1432–7.

556 Alberts-Corush, J., P. Firestone, and J.T. Goodman, Attention and impulsivity characteristics of the biological and adoptive parents of hyperactive and normal control children. Am J Orthopsychiatry, 1986. 56(3): 413–23.

557 Kreppner, J.M., T.G. O’Connor, and M. Rutter, Can inattention/overactivity be an institutional deprivation syndrome? J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2001. 29(6): 513–28.

558 Cadoret, R.J. and M.A. Stewart, An adoption study of attention deficit/hyperactivity/aggression and their relationship to adult antisocial personality. Compr Psychiatry, 1991. 32(1): 73–82.

559 Cadoret, R.J., et al., Studies of adoptees from psychiatrically disturbed biologic parents. II. Temperament, hyperactive, antisocial, and developmental variables. J Pediatr, 1975. 87(2): 301–6.

560 Cunningham, L., et al., Studies of adoptees from psychiatrically disturbed biological parents: psychiatric conditions in childhood and adolescence. Br J Psychiatry, 1975. 126: 534–49.

561 Tully, E.C., W.G. Iacono, and M. McGue, An adoption study of parental depression as an environmental liability for adolescent depression and childhood disruptive disorders. Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(9): 1148–54.

562 Simmel, C., et al., Externalizing symptomatology among adoptive youth: prevalence and preadoption risk factors. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2001. 29(1): 57–69.

563 Deutsch, C.K., et al., Overrepresentation of adoptees in children with the Attention Deficit Disorder. Behav Genet, 1982. 12(2): 231–8.

564 Biederman, J., et al., Impact of adversity on functioning and comorbidity in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1995. 34(11): 1495–503.

565 Counts, C.A., et al., Family adversity in DSM-IV ADHD combined and inattentive subtypes and associated disruptive behavior problems. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2005. 44(7): 690–8.

566 Scahill, L., et al., Psychosocial and clinical correlates of ADHD in a community sample of school-age children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1999. 38(8): 976–84.

567 Sonuga-Barke, E.J. and K. Rubia, Inattentive/overactive children with histories of profound institutional deprivation compared with standard ADHD cases: a brief report. Child Care Health Dev, 2008. 34(5): 596–602.

568 Stevens, S.E., et al., Inattention/overactivity following early severe institutional deprivation: presentation and associations in early adolescence. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2008. 36(3): 385–98.

569 Faraone, S.V. and J. Biederman, Nature, nurture, and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Developmental Review, 2000. 20(4): 568–81.

570 Bartels, M., et al., A study of parent ratings of internalizing and externalizing problem behavior in 12-year-old twins. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2003. 42(11): 1351–9.

571 Hammer, M. and J. Zubin, Evolution, culture and psychopathology. J Gen Psychol, 1968. 78(2nd Half): 151–64.

572 Fabrega, H., Jr, Psychiatric conditions in an evolutionary context. Psychopathology, 2004. 37(6): 290–8.

573 Shelley-Tremblay, J.F. and L.A. Rosen, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: an evolutionary perspective. J Genet Psychol, 1996. 157(4): 443–53.

574 Hartmann, T., Attention Deficit Disorder: A Different Perception, 2nd edn. 1997, Nevada City, CA: Underwood Books Inc.

575 Hartmann, T., The Edison Gene: ADHD and the Gift of the Hunter Child. 2003, Rochester, VT: Park Street Press.

576 Jensen, P.S., et al., Evolution and revolution in child psychiatry: ADHD as a disorder of adaptation. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1997. 36(12): 1672–9; discussion 1679–81.

577 Campbell, B.C. and D. Eisenberg, Obesity, Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder and the dopaminergic reward system. Coll Antropol, 2007. 31(1): 33–8.

578 Crawford, C. and C. Salmon, Psychopathology or adaptation? Genetic and evolutionary perspectives on individual differences and psychopathology. Neuro Endocrinol Lett, 2002. 23(Suppl 4): 39–45.

579 Arcos-Burgos, M. and M.T. Acosta, Tuning major gene variants conditioning human behavior: the anachronism of ADHD. Curr Opin Genet Dev, 2007. 17(3): 234–8.

580 Pani, L., Is there an evolutionary mismatch between the normal physiology of the human dopaminergic system and current environmental conditions in industrialized countries? Mol Psychiatry, 2000. 5(5): 467–75.

581 Brody, J.F., Evolutionary recasting: ADHD, mania and its variants. J Affect Disord, 2001. 65(2): 197–215.

582 Andrews, P.W., S.W. Gangestad, and D. Matthews, Adaptationism – how to carry out an exaptationist program. Behav Brain Sci, 2002. 25(4): 489–504; discussion 504–53.

583 Matejcek, Z., Is ADHD adaptive or non-adaptive behavior? Neuro Endocrinol Lett, 2003. 24(3–4): 148–50.

584 Baird, J., J.C. Stevenson, and D.C. Williams, The evolution of ADHD: a disorder of communication? Q Rev Biol, 2000. 75(1): 17–35.

585 Klimkeit, E.I. and J.L. Bradshaw, Evolutionary Aspects of ADHD, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 467–80.

586 Goldstein, S. and R. Barkley, ADHD, hunting and evolution: “just so” stories. ADHD Report, 1998. 6(5): 1–4.

587 Swanson, J., et al., Adaptationism and molecular biology: an example based on ADHD. Behav Brain Sci, 2002. 25(4): 530–1.

588 Chen, C.S., et al., Population migration and the variation of dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) allele frequencies around the globe. Evolution and Human Behavior, 1999. 20: 309–24.

589 Eisenberg, D.T., et al., Dopamine receptor genetic polymorphisms and body composition in undernourished pastoralists: an exploration of nutrition indices among nomadic and recently settled Ariaal men of northern Kenya. BMC Evol Biol, 2008. 8: 173.

590 Faraone, S.V., et al., Molecular genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1313–23.

591 Bittner, G.D. and B.X. Friedman, Evolution of brain structures and adaptive behaviors in humans and other animals: role of polymorphic genetic variations. The Neuroscientist, 2000. 6(4): 241–51.

592 Johnson, K.A., et al., Response variability in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: evidence for neuropsychological heterogeneity. Neuropsychologia, 2007. 45(4): 630–8.

593 Swanson, J., et al., Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder children with a 7-repeat allele of the dopamine receptor D4 gene have extreme behavior but normal performance on critical neuropsychological tests of attention. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2000. 97(9): 4754–9.

594 Watson, J.D. and F.H. Crick, Molecular structure of nucleic acids: a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. Nature, 1953. 171(4356): 737–8.

595 Lander, E.S. and N.J. Schork, Genetic dissection of complex traits. Science, 1994. 265(5181): 2037–48.

596 Gizer, I.R., C. Ficks, and I.D. Waldman, Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Hum Genet, 2009. 126(1): 51–90.

597 Waldman, I.D. and I.R. Gizer, The genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 2006. 26(4): 396–432.

598 Waldman, I. and S.H. Rhee, Behavioural and Molecular Genetic Studies, in Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders of Childhood, S. Sanberg, Editor. 2002, Cambridge: CUP, pp. 290–335.

599 Campbell, N.A., J.B. Reece, and L.G. Mitchell, Biology. 1999, New York: Addison Wesley.

600 Sweatt, J.D., Experience-dependent epigenetic modifications in the central nervous system. Biol Psychiatry, 2009. 65(3): 191–7.

601 Mill, J. and A. Petronis, Pre- and peri-natal environmental risks for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): the potential role of epigenetic processes in mediating susceptibility. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2008. 49(10): 1020–30.

602 Rutter, M., Genes and Behaviour: Nature–Nurture Interplay Explained. 2006, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

603 Stein, L.D., Human genome: end of the beginning. Nature, 2004. 431(7011): 915–16.

604 Bakker, S.C., et al., A whole-genome scan in 164 Dutch sib pairs with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: suggestive evidence for linkage on chromosomes 7p and 15q. Am J Hum Genet, 2003. 72(5): 1251–60.

605 Smalley, S.L., et al., Genetic linkage of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on chromosome 16p13, in a region implicated in autism. Am J Hum Genet, 2002. 71(4): 959–63.

606 Fisher, S.E., et al., A genomewide scan for loci involved in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Hum Genet, 2002. 70(5): 1183–96.

607 Ogdie, M.N., et al., A genomewide scan for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in an extended sample: suggestive linkage on 17p11. Am J Hum Genet, 2003. 72(5): 1268–79.

608 Zhou, K., et al., Meta-analysis of genome-wide linkage scans of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2008. 147B(8): 1392–8.

609 Hebebrand, J., et al., A genome-wide scan for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in 155 German sib-pairs. Mol Psychiatry, 2006. 11(2): 196–205.

610 Neale, B.M., et al., Genome-wide association scan of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2008. 147B(8): 1337–44.

611 Lasky-Su, J., et al., Genome-wide association scan of the time to onset of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2008. 147B(8): 1355–8.

612 Lasky-Su, J., et al., Genome-wide association scan of quantitative traits for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder identifies novel associations and confirms candidate gene associations. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2008. 147B(8): 1345–54.

613 Giros, B., et al., Hyperlocomotion and indifference to cocaine and amphetamine in mice lacking the dopamine transporter. Nature, 1996. 379(6566): 606–12.

614 Zhuang, X., et al., Hyperactivity and impaired response habituation in hyperdopaminergic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2001. 98(4): 1982–7.

615 Waldman, I.D., et al., Association and linkage of the dopamine transporter gene and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children: heterogeneity owing to diagnostic subtype and severity. Am J Hum Genet, 1998. 63(6): 1767–76.

616 Karama, S., et al., Dopamine transporter 3’UTR VNTR genotype is a marker of performance on executive function tasks in children with ADHD. BMC Psychiatry, 2008. 8: 45.

617 Rowe, D.C., et al., The relation of the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) to symptoms of internalizing disorders in children. Behav Genet, 1998. 28(3): 215–25.

618 Yang, B., et al., A meta-analysis of association studies between the 10-repeat allele of a VNTR polymorphism in the 3’-UTR of dopamine transporter gene and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2007. 144B(4): 541–50.

619 Cheuk, D.K., S.Y. Li, and V. Wong, No association between VNTR polymorphisms of dopamine transporter gene and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Chinese children. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2006. 141B(2): 123–5.

620 Joober, R., et al., Dopamine transporter 3’-UTR VNTR genotype and ADHD: a pharmaco-behavioural genetic study with methylphenidate. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2007. 32(6): 1370–6.

621 Stein, M.A., et al., Dopamine transporter genotype and methylphenidate dose response in children with ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2005. 30(7): 1374–82.

622 Payton, A., et al., Susceptibility genes for a trait measure of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a pilot study in a non-clinical sample of twins. Psychiatry Res, 2001. 105(3): 273–8.

623 Li, D., et al., Meta-analysis shows significant association between dopamine system genes and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Hum Mol Genet, 2006. 15(14): 2276–84.

624 Brookes, K., et al., The analysis of 51 genes in DSM-IV combined type Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: association signals in DRD4, DAT1 and 16 other genes. Mol Psychiatry, 2006. 11(10): 934–53.

625 Faraone, S.V., et al., Dopamine D4 gene 7-repeat allele and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 1999. 156(5): 768–70.

626 Niederhofer, H., et al., A preliminary report of the dopamine receptor D(4) and the dopamine transporter 1 gene polymorphism and its association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 2008. 4(4): 701–5.

627 Avale, M.E., et al., The dopamine D4 receptor is essential for hyperactivity and impaired behavioral inhibition in a mouse model of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Mol Psychiatry, 2004. 9(7): 718–26.

628 Gornick, M.C., et al., Association of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene 7-repeat allele with children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): an update. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2007. 144B(3): 379–82.

629 Cheon, K.A., B.N. Kim, and S.C. Cho, Association of 4-repeat allele of the dopamine D4 receptor gene exon III polymorphism and response to methylphenidate treatment in Korean ADHD children. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2007. 32(6): 1377–83.

630 Shaw, P., et al., Polymorphisms of the dopamine D4 receptor, clinical outcome, and cortical structure in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2007. 64(8): 921–31.

631 Zeni, C.P., et al., No significant association between response to methylphenidate and genes of the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems in a sample of Brazilian children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2007. 144B(3): 391–4.

632 Misener, V.L., et al., Linkage of the dopamine receptor D1 gene to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Mol Psychiatry, 2004. 9(5): 500–9.

633 Luca, P., et al., Association of the dopamine receptor D1 gene, DRD1, with inattention symptoms in families selected for reading problems. Mol Psychiatry, 2007. 12(8): 776–85.

634 Drtilkova, I., et al., Clinical and molecular-genetic markers of ADHD in children. Neuro Endocrinol Lett, 2008. 29(3): 320–7.

635 Sery, O., et al., Polymorphism of DRD2 gene and ADHD. Neuro Endocrinol Lett, 2006. 27(1–2): 236–40.

636 Waldman, I.D., Gene–environment interactions reexamined: does mother’s marital stability interact with the dopamine receptor D2 gene in the etiology of childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? Dev Psychopathol, 2007. 19(4): 1117–28.

637 Squassina, A., et al., Investigation of the dopamine D5 receptor gene (DRD5) in adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurosci Lett, 2008. 432(1): 50–3.

638 Song, E.Y., et al., Association between catechol-O-methyltransferase gene polymorphism and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Korean population. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers, 2009. 13(2): 233–6.

639 Biederman, J., et al., Sexually dimorphic effects of four genes (COMT, SLC6A2, MAOA, SLC6A4) in genetic associations of ADHD: a preliminary study. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2008. 147B(8): 1511–18.

640 Muller, D.J., et al., Correlation of a set of gene variants, life events and personality features on adult ADHD severity. J Psychiatr Res, 2009. in press.

641 Andreazza, A.C., et al., DNA damage in rats after treatment with methylphenidate. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 31(6): 1282–8.

642 Walitza, S., et al., No elevated genomic damage in children and adolescents with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder after methylphenidate therapy. Toxicol Lett, 2009. 184(1): 38–43.

643 Stopper, H., et al., Brief review of available evidence concerning the potential induction of genomic damage by methylphenidate. J Neural Transm, 2008. 115(2): 331–4.

644 Kendler, K.S., “A gene for …”: the nature of gene action in psychiatric disorders. Am J Psychiatry, 2005. 162(7): 1243–52.

645 Kendler, K.S., Psychiatric genetics: a methodologic critique. Am J Psychiatry, 2005. 162(1): 3–11.

646 Faraone, S.V., et al., Linkage analysis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2008. 147B(8): 1387–91.

647 Kuntsi, J., et al., The IMAGE project: methodological issues for the molecular genetic analysis of ADHD. Behav Brain Funct, 2006. 2: 27.

648 McGough, J.J., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder pharmacogenomics. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1367–73.

649 Sowell, E.R., et al., In vivo evidence for post-adolescent brain maturation in frontal and striatal regions. Nat Neurosci, 1999. 2(10): 859–61.

650 Sowell, E.R., P.M. Thompson, and A.W. Toga, Mapping Adolescent Brain Maturation Using Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging, in Adolescent Psychopathology and the Developing Brain, D. Romer and E.F. Walker, Editors. 2007, Oxford: OUP, pp. 55–102.

651 Doehnert, M., et al., Mapping Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder from childhood to adolescence: no neurophysiologic evidence for a developmental lag of attention but some for inhibition. Biol Psychiatry, 2009. 67(7): 608–16.

652 Maguire, E.A., R.S. Frackowiak, and C.D. Frith, Recalling routes around london: activation of the right hippocampus in taxi drivers. J Neurosci, 1997. 17(18): 7103–10.

653 Maguire, E.A., et al., Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2000. 97(8): 4398–403.

654 Kolb, B. and I.Q. Whishaw, Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology, 6th edn. 2008, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

655 LeDoux, J.E., Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu Rev Neurosci, 2000. 23: 155–84.

656 Perlov, E., et al., Spectroscopic findings in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 2009. 10(4): 355–65.

657 Ward, J., The Student’s Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience. 2006, Hove: Psychology Press.

658 Adolph, K.E., et al., What is the shape of developmental change? Psychol Rev, 2008. 115(3): 527–43.

659 Volkow, N.D., et al., Is methylphenidate like cocaine? Studies on their pharmacokinetics and distribution in the human brain. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1995. 52(6): 456–63.

660 Carmona, S., et al., Global and regional gray matter reductions in ADHD: a voxel-based morphometric study. Neurosci Lett, 2005. 389(2): 88–93.

661 Castellanos, F.X. and M.T. Acosta, The neuroanatomy of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Rev Neurol, 2004. 38(Suppl 1): S131–6.

662 Valera, E.M., et al., Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 61(12): 1361–9.

663 Krain, A.L. and F.X. Castellanos, Brain development and ADHD. Clinical Psychology Review, 2006. 26(4): 433–44.

664 Semrud-Clikeman, M., et al., Volumetric MRI differences in treatment- naïve vs chronically treated children with ADHD. Neurology, 2006. 67(6): 1023–7.

665 McAlonan, G.M., et al., Age-related grey matter volume correlates of response inhibition and shifting in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 2009. 194(2): 123–9.

666 Filipek, P.A., et al., Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder with normal controls. Neurology, 1997. 48(3): 589–601.

667 Overmeyer, S., et al., Distributed grey and white matter deficits in Hyperkinetic Disorder: MRI evidence for anatomical abnormality in an attentional network. Psychol Med, 2001. 31(8): 1425–35.

668 Kates, W.R., et al., MRI parcellation of the frontal lobe in boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or Tourette syndrome. Psychiatry Res, 2002. 116(1–2): 63–81.

669 Mostofsky, S.H., et al., Smaller prefrontal and premotor volumes in boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2002. 52(8): 785–94.

670 McAlonan, G.M., et al., Mapping brain structure in Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity disorder: a voxel-based MRI study of regional grey and white matter volume. Psychiatry Res, 2007. 154(2): 171–80.

671 Sowell, E.R., et al., Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Lancet, 2003. 362(9397): 1699–707.

672 Ellison-Wright, I., Z. Ellison-Wright, and E. Bullmore, Structural brain change in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder identified by meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 2008. 8: 51.

673 Hill, D.E., et al., Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in children. Neuropsychology, 2003. 17(3): 496–506.

674 Wolosin, S.M., et al., Abnormal cerebral cortex structure in children with ADHD. Hum Brain Mapp, 2009. 30(1): 175–84.

675 Li, X., et al., Asymmetry of prefrontal cortical convolution complexity in males with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder using fractal information dimension. Brain Dev, 2007. 29(10): 649–55.

676 Ranta, M.E., et al., Manual MRI parcellation of the frontal lobe. Psychiatry Res, 2009. 172(2): 147–54.

677 Makris, N., et al., Anterior cingulate volumetric alterations in treatment-naïve adults with ADHD: a pilot study. J Atten Disord, 2010. 13(4): 407–13.

678 Seidman, L.J., et al., Dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex volumetric abnormalities in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 60(10): 1071–80.

679 Rubia, K., et al., Hypofrontality in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI. Am J Psychiatry, 1999. 156(6): 891–6.

680 Chabot, R.J. and G. Serfontein, Quantitative electroencephalographic profiles of children with Attention Deficit Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 1996. 40(10): 951–63.

681 Shaw, P., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2007. 104(49): 19649–54.

682 Shaw, P., et al., Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2006. 63(5): 540–9.

683 Qiu, A., et al., Basal ganglia volume and shape in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 2009. 166(1): 74–82.

684 Valera, E.M., et al., Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 61(12): 1361–9.

685 Silk, T.J., et al., Structural development of the basal ganglia in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Psychiatry Res, 2009. 172(3): 220–5.

686 Garrett, A., et al., Neuroanatomical abnormalities in adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 47(11): 1321–8.

687 Tremols, V., et al., Differential abnormalities of the head and body of the caudate nucleus in Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Res, 2008. 163(3): 270–8.

688 Volkow, N.D., et al., Depressed dopamine activity in caudate and preliminary evidence of limbic involvement in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2007. 64(8): 932–40.

689 Baldacara, L., et al., Cerebellum and psychiatric disorders. Rev Bras Psiquiatr, 2008. 30(3): 281–9.

690 Berquin, P.C., et al., Cerebellum in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a morphometric MRI study. Neurology, 1998. 50(4): 1087–93.

691 Durston, S., et al., Magnetic resonance imaging of boys with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and their unaffected siblings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2004. 43(3): 332–40.

692 Monuteaux, M.C., et al., A preliminary study of dopamine D4 receptor genotype and structural brain alterations in adults with ADHD. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2008. 147B(8): 1436–41.

693 Mackie, S., et al., Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 2007. 164(4): 647–55.

694 Bledsoe, J., M. Semrud-Clikeman, and S.R. Pliszka, A magnetic resonance imaging study of the cerebellar vermis in chronically treated and treatment-naïve children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder combined type. Biol Psychiatry, 2009. 65(7): 620–4.

695 Perlov, E., et al., Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in adults with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci, 2008. 33(6): 509–15.

696 Plessen, K.J., et al., Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2006. 63(7): 795–807.

697 Castellanos, F.X., Neuroimaging Studies of ADHD, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP, pp. 243–58.

698 Pliszka, S.R., et al., Neuroimaging of inhibitory control areas in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder who were treatment naïve or in long-term treatment. Am J Psychiatry, 2006. 163(6): 1052–60.

699 Vaidya, C.J., et al., Altered neural substrates of cognitive control in childhood ADHD: evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Psychiatry, 2005. 162(9): 1605–13.

700 Teicher, M.H., et al., Functional deficits in basal ganglia of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder shown with functional magnetic resonance imaging relaxometry. Nat Med, 2000. 6(4): 470–3.

701 Durston, S., et al., Differential patterns of striatal activation in young children with and without ADHD. Biol Psychiatry, 2003. 53(10): 871–8.

702 Bradshaw, J.L., Developmental Disorders of the Frontostriatal System: Neuropsychologocal, Neuropsychiatric and Evolutionary Perspectives. 2001, Hove: Psychology Press.

703 Aron, A.R. and R.A. Poldrack, Cortical and subcortical contributions to Stop signal response inhibition: role of the subthalamic nucleus. J Neurosci, 2006. 26(9): 2424–33.

704 Eagle, D.M., et al., Stop-signal reaction-time task performance: role of prefrontal cortex and subthalamic nucleus. Cereb Cortex, 2008. 18(1): 178–88.

705 Silveri, M.M., et al., Oral methylphenidate challenge selectively decreases putaminal T2 in healthy subjects. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2004. 76(2): 173–80.

706 Jenner, P., N.M. Rupniak, and C.D. Marsden, Differential alteration of striatal D-1 and D-2 receptors induced by the long-term administration of haloperidol, sulpiride or clozapine to rats. Psychopharmacology Suppl, 1985. 2: 174–81.

707 Hall, M.D., et al., Behavioural and biochemical alterations in the function of dopamine receptors following repeated administration of L-DOPA to rats. Neuropharmacology, 1984. 23(5): 545–53.

708 Kerwin, R., et al., Functional increase in striatal dopaminergic activity following continuous long-term treatment with trifluoperazine. Neurosci Lett, 1984. 45(3): 329–34.

709 Rupniak, M.N., P. Jenner, and C.D. Marsden, The effect of chronic neuroleptic administration on cerebral dopamine receptor function. Life Sci, 1983. 32(20): 2289–311.

710 Jenner, P., et al., Long-term adaptive changes in striatal dopamine function in response to chronic neuroleptic intake in rats. J Neural Transm Suppl, 1983. 18: 205–12.

711 Creese, I., et al., Dopamine receptors: subtypes, localization and regulation. Fed Proc, 1981. 40(2): 147–52.

712 Chabot, R.J., et al., Sensitivity and specificity of QEEG in children with attention deficit or specific developmental learning disorders. Clin Electroencephalogr, 1996. 27(1): 26–34.

713 Chabot, R.J., et al., Behavioral and electrophysiologic predictors of treatment response to stimulants in children with attention disorders. J Child Neurol, 1999. 14(6): 343–51.

714 Castellanos, F.X. and J. Swanson, Biological Underpinnings of ADHD, in Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders of Childhood, S. Sandberg, Editor. 2002, Cambridge: CUP, pp. 336–66.

715 Johnstone, S.J., et al., Response inhibition and interference control in children with AD/HD: a visual ERP investigation. Int J Psychophysiol, 2009. 72(2): 145–53.

716 Becker, K. and M. Holtmann, Role of electroencephalography in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Expert Rev Neurother, 2006. 6(5): 731–9.

717 Mahone, E.M., et al., Oculomotor anomalies in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: evidence for deficits in response preparation and inhibition. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2009. 48(7): 749–56.

718 Van der Stigchel, S., et al., Oculomotor capture in ADHD. Cogn Neuropsychol, 2007. 24(5): 535–49.

719 Itami, S. and H. Uno, Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder revealed by reversal and extinction tasks. Neuroreport, 2002. 13(18): 2453–7.

720 Bradley, C., The behavior of children receiving Benzedrine. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1937. 94: 577–85.

721 Russell, V.A., et al., Response variability in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a neuronal and glial energetics hypothesis. Behav Brain Funct, 2006. 2: 30.

722 Grace, A.A., Psychostimulant Actions on Dopamine and Limbic System Function: Relevance to the Pathophysiology and Treatment of ADHD, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP, pp. 134–57.

723 Kebabian, J.W. and D.B. Calne, Multiple receptors for dopamine. Nature, 1979. 277(5692): 93–6.

724 Bradley, C., Benzedrine and dexedrine in the treatment of children’s behavior disorders. Pediatrics, 1950. 5(1): 24–37.

725 Jackson, D. and K. Peters, Use of drug therapy in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): maternal views and experiences. J Clin Nurs, 2008. 17(20): 2725–32.

726 Hinnenthal, J.A., A.R. Perwien, and K.L. Sterling, A comparison of service use and costs among adults with ADHD and adults with other chronic diseases. Psychiatr Serv, 2005. 56(12): 1593–9.

727 Goksoyr, P.K. and J.A. Nottestad, The burden of untreated ADHD among adults: the role of stimulant medication. Addict Behav, 2008. 33(2): 342–6.

728 Birnbaum, H.G., et al., Costs of Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in the US: excess costs of persons with ADHD and their family members in 2000. Curr Med Res Opin, 2005. 21(2): 195–206.

729 Bernfort, L., S. Nordfeldt, and J. Persson, ADHD from a socio-economic perspective. Acta Paediatr, 2008. 97(2): 239–45.

730 Rosler, M., et al., Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and comorbid disorders in young male prison inmates. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci, 2004. 254(6): 365–71.

731 Pelham, W.E., E.M. Foster, and J.A. Robb, The economic impact of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Psychol, 2007. 32(6): 711–27.

732 Matza, L.S., C. Paramore, and M. Prasad, A review of the economic burden of ADHD. Cost Eff Resour Alloc, 2005. 3: 5.

733 King, S., et al., A systematic review and economic model of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of methylphenidate, dexamfetamine and atomoxetine for the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adolescents. Health Technol Assess, 2006. 10(23): iii–iv, xiii–146.

734 Salt, N., E. Parkes, and A. Scammell, GPs’ perceptions of the management of ADHD in primary care: a study of Wandsworth GPs. Primary Health Care Research & Development, 2005. 6(2): 162–71.

735 Schlander, M., Long-acting medications for the hyperkinetic disorders: a note on cost-effectiveness. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2007. 16(7): 421–9.

736 Klorman, R., et al., Enhancing effects of methylphenidate on normal young adults’ cognitive processes. Psychopharmacol Bull, 1984. 20(1): 3–9.

737 Oades, R.D., The Roles of Norepinephrine and Serotonin in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: From Genes to Patients, D. Gozal and D.L. Molfeses, Editors. 2005, Totawa, NJ: Humana Press Inc., pp. 97–129.

738 Brams, M., A.R. Mao, and R.L. Doyle, Onset of efficacy of long-acting psychostimulants in pediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Postgrad Med, 2008. 120(3): 69–88.

739 Kowalik, S., H. Minami, and R.R. Silva, Critical assessment of the methylphenidate transdermal system. Drugs Today (Barc), 2007. 43(8): 515–27.

740 Gonzalez, M.A., D. Campbell, and J. Rubin, Effects of application to two different skin sites on the pharmacokinetics of transdermal methylphenidate in pediatric patients with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2009. 19(3): 227–32.

741 Ding, Y.S., et al., Carbon-11-d-threo-methylphenidate binding to dopamine transporter in baboon brain. J Nucl Med, 1995. 36(12): 2298–305.

742 Leonard, B.E., et al., Methylphenidate: a review of its neuropharmacological, neuropsychological and adverse clinical effects. Hum Psychopharmacol, 2004. 19(3): 151–80.

743 Sulzer, D., et al., Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review. Prog Neurobiol, 2005. 75(6): 406–33.

744 Holmes, J.C. and C.O. Rutledge, Effects of the d- and l-isomers of amphetamine on uptake, release and catabolism of norepinephrine, dopamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in several regions of rat brain. Biochem Pharmacol, 1976. 25(4): 447–51.

745 Easton, N., et al., Effects of amphetamine isomers, methylphenidate and atomoxetine on synaptosomal and synaptic vesicle accumulation and release of dopamine and noradrenaline in vitro in the rat brain. Neuropharmacology, 2007. 52(2): 405–14.

746 Easton, N., et al., Differential effects of the D- and L- isomers of amphetamine on pharmacological MRI BOLD contrast in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2007. 193(1): 11–30.

747 Sagvolden, T. and T. Xu, l-Amphetamine improves poor sustained attention while d-amphetamine reduces overactivity and impulsiveness as well as improves sustained attention in an animal model of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Funct, 2008. 4: 3.

748 Joyce, B.M., P.E. Glaser, and G.A. Gerhardt, Adderall produces increased striatal dopamine release and a prolonged time course compared to amphetamine isomers. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2007. 191(3): 669–77.

749 Swanson, J.M., et al., Analog classroom assessment of Adderall in children with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1998. 37(5): 519–26.

750 Faraone, S.V., J. Biederman, and C. Roe, Comparative efficacy of Adderall and methylphenidate in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 2002. 22(5): 468–73.

751 Pelham, W.E., et al., A comparison of morning-only and morning/late afternoon Adderall to morning-only, twice-daily, and three times-daily methyl­phenidate in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 1999. 104(6): 1300–11.

752 Pelham, W.E., et al., A comparison of Ritalin and Adderall: efficacy and time-course in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 1999. 103(4): e43.

753 Spencer, T., et al., Efficacy of a mixed amphetamine salts compound in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2001. 58(8): 775–82.

754 Faraone, S.V., et al., Efficacy of Adderall and methylphenidate in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a drug–placebo and drug–drug response curve analysis of a naturalistic study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 2002. 5(2): 121–9.

755 Faraone, S.V., et al., Efficacy of Adderall and methylphenidate in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a reanalysis using drug–placebo and drug–drug response curve methodology. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2001. 11(2): 171–80.

756 Faraone, S.V. and J. Biederman, Efficacy of Adderall for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a meta-analysis. J Atten Disord, 2002. 6(2): 69–75.

757 Najib, J., The efficacy and safety profile of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate, a prodrug of d-amphetamine, for the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyper­activity Disorder in children and adults. Clin Ther, 2009. 31(1): 142–76.

758 Adler, L.A., et al., Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Clin Psychiatry, 2008. 69(9): 1364–73.

759 Lopez, F.A., L.D. Ginsberg, and V. Arnold, Effect of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate on parent-rated measures in children aged 6 to 12 years with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a secondary analysis. Postgrad Med, 2008. 120(3): 89–102.

760 Findling, R.L., et al., Long-term effectiveness and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in school-aged children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. CNS Spectr, 2008. 13(7): 614–20.

761 Biederman, J., et al., Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate and mixed amphetamine salts extended-release in children with ADHD: a double-blind, placebo- controlled, crossover analog classroom study. Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 62(9): 970–6.

762 Biederman, J., et al., Efficacy and tolerability of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (NRP-104) in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a phase III, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, forced-dose, parallel-group study. Clin Ther, 2007. 29(3): 450–63.

763 Wigal, S.B., et al., A 13-hour laboratory school study of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in school-aged children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health, 2009. 3(1): 17.

764 Weber, J. and M.A. Siddiqui, Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adults. CNS Drugs, 2009. 23(5): 419–25.

765 Cowles, B.J., Lisdexamfetamine for treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Ann Pharmacother, 2009. 43(4): 669–76.

766 Jasinski, D. and S. Krishnan, Abuse liability and safety of oral lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in individuals with a history of stimulant abuse. J Psychopharmacol, 2009. 23(4): 419–27.

767 Jasinski, D. and S. Krishnan, Human pharmacology of intravenous lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: abuse liability in adult stimulant abusers. J Psychopharmacol, 2009. 23(4): 410–18.

768 Solanto, M.V., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Clinical Features, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP, pp. 3–30.

769 Lord, J. and S. Paisley, The Clinical Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Methylphenidate for Hyperactivity in Childhood. 2000, London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence.

770 Solanto, M.V., R. Schachar, and A. Ickowicz, The Psychopharmacology of ADHD, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 269–314.

771 Spencer, T., et al., Pharmacotherapy of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder across the life cycle. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1996. 35(4): 409–32.

772 Greenhill, L.L., Clinical Effects of Stimulant Medication in ADHD, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP, pp. 31–72.

773 Scheffler, R.M., et al., Positive association between Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder medication use and academic achievement during elementary school. Pediatrics, 2009. 123(5): 1273–9.

774 Aron, A.R., et al., Methylphenidate improves response inhibition in adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2003. 54(12): 1465–8.

775 Boonstra, A.M., et al., Does methylphenidate improve inhibition and other cognitive abilities in adults with childhood-onset ADHD? J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 2005. 27(3): 278–98.

776 O’Driscoll, G.A., et al., Executive functions and methylphenidate response in subtypes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1452–60.

777 Overtoom, C.C., et al., Effects of methylphenidate, desipramine, and L-dopa on attention and inhibition in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Behav Brain Res, 2003. 145(1–2): 7–15.

778 Scheres, A., et al., The effect of methylphenidate on three forms of response inhibition in boys with AD/HD. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2003. 31(1): 105–20.

779 DeVito, E.E., et al., Methylphenidate improves response inhibition but not reflection-impulsivity in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2009. 202(1–3): 531–9.

780 Lijffijt, M., et al., Dose-related effect of methylphenidate on stopping and changing in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Eur Psychiatry, 2006. 21(8): 544–7.

781 Kobel, M., et al., Effects of methylphenidate on working memory functioning in children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Eur J Paediatr Neurol, 2008. 13(6): 516–23.

782 Bedard, A.C., et al., Effects of methylphenidate on working memory components: influence of measurement. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2007. 48(9): 872–80.

783 Turner, D.C., et al., Neurocognitive effects of methylphenidate in adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2005. 178(2–3): 286–95.

784 Bedard, A.C., et al., Methylphenidate improves visual-spatial memory in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2004. 43(3): 260–8.

785 Mehta, M.A., et al., Methylphenidate enhances working memory by modulating discrete frontal and parietal lobe regions in the human brain. J Neurosci, 2000. 20(6): RC65.

786 Kempton, S., et al., Executive function and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: stimulant medication and better executive function performance in children. Psychol Med, 1999. 29(3): 527–38.

787 Tannock, R., A. Ickowicz, and R. Schachar, Differential effects of methylphenidate on working memory in ADHD children with and without comorbid anxiety. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1995. 34(7): 886–96.

788 Cunningham, C.E. and R.A. Barkley, The interactions of normal and hyperactive children with their mothers in free play and structured tasks. Child Dev, 1979. 50(1): 217–24.

789 Barkley, R.A. and C.E. Cunningham, The effects of methylphenidate on the mother–child interactions of hyperactive children. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1979. 36(2): 201–8.

790 Schachar, R.J., et al., Behavioral, situational, and temporal effects of treatment of ADHD with methylphenidate. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1997. 36(6): 754–63.

791 Pelham, W.E., Jr, The NIMH multimodal treatment study for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: just say yes to drugs alone? Can J Psychiatry, 1999. 44(10): 981–90.

792 The MTA Cooperative Group, A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: The MTA Cooperative Group. Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1999. 56(12): 1073–86.

793 Wells, K.C., et al., Parenting and family stress treatment outcomes in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): an empirical analysis in the MTA study. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2000. 28(6): 543–53.

794 Hinshaw, S.P., et al., Family processes and treatment outcome in the MTA: negative/ineffective parenting practices in relation to multimodal treatment. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2000. 28(6): 555–68.

795 The MTA Cooperative Group, National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD follow-up: 24-month outcomes of treatment strategies for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 2004. 113(4): 754–61.

796 Epstein, J.N., et al., Assessing medication effects in the MTA study using neuropsychological outcomes. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2006. 47(5): 446–56.

797 The MTA Cooperative Group, National Institute of Mental Health Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD follow-up: changes in effectiveness and growth after the end of treatment. Pediatrics, 2004. 113(4): 762–9.

798 Jensen, P.S., et al., 3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2007. 46(8): 989–1002.

799 Swanson, J.M., et al., Secondary evaluations of MTA 36-month outcomes: propensity score and growth mixture model analyses. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2007. 46(8): 1003–14.

800 Swanson, J.M., et al., Effects of stimulant medication on growth rates across 3 years in the MTA follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2007. 46(8): 1015–27.

801 Molina, B.S., et al., Delinquent behavior and emerging substance use in the MTA at 36 months: prevalence, course, and treatment effects. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2007. 46(8): 1028–40.

802 Pappadopulos, E., et al., Medication adherence in the MTA: saliva methylphenidate samples versus parent report and mediating effect of concomitant behavioral treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2009. 48(5): 501–10.

803 Molina, B.S., et al., The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2009. 48(5): 484–500.

804 Swanson, J.M. and L. Hechtman, Using long-acting stimulants: does it change ADHD treatment outcome? Can Child Adolesc Psychiatr Rev, 2005. 14(Supplement 1): 2–3.

805 Croche, A.F., et al., The effects of stimulant medication on the growth of hyperkinetic children. Pediatrics, 1979. 63(6): 847–50.

806 Satterfield, J.H., et al., Growth of hyperactive children treated with methylphenidate. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1979. 36(2): 212–17.

807 Klein, R.G. and S. Mannuzza, Hyperactive boys almost grown up. III. Methylphenidate effects on ultimate height. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1988. 45(12): 1131–4.

808 Spencer, T.J., et al., Does prolonged therapy with a long-acting stimulant suppress growth in children with ADHD? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2006. 45(5): 527–37.

809 Swanson, J., et al., Stimulant-related reductions of growth rates in the PATS. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2006. 45(11): 1304–13.

810 Spencer, T.J., et al., Growth deficits in ADHD children revisited: evidence for disorder-associated growth delays? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1996. 35(11): 1460–9.

811 Jackson, G.E., The Case against Stimulants, in Rethinking ADHD, S. Timimi and J. Leo, Editors. 2009, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 255–86.

812 Poulton, A., Growth on stimulant medication; clarifying the confusion: a review. Arch Dis Child, 2005. 90(8): 801–6.

813 Corkum, P., et al., Acute impact of immediate release methylphenidate administered three times a day on sleep in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Pediatr Psychol, 2008. 33(4): 368–79.

814 Tirosh, E., et al., Effects of methylphenidate on sleep in children with Attention-Deficient Hyperactivity Disorder. An activity monitor study. Am J Dis Child, 1993. 147(12): 1313–15.

815 Schwartz, G., et al., Actigraphic monitoring during sleep of children with ADHD on methylphenidate and placebo. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2004. 43(10): 1276–82.

816 Wigal, T., et al., Safety and tolerability of methylphenidate in preschool children with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2006. 45(11): 1294–303.

817 Sobanski, E., et al., Sleep in adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) before and during treatment with methylphenidate: a controlled polysomnographic study. Sleep, 2008. 31(3): 375–81.

818 O’Brien, L.M., et al., Sleep disturbances in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatr Res, 2003. 54(2): 237–43.

819 Greenhill, L., et al., Sleep architecture and REM sleep measures in prepubertal children with Attention Deficit Disorder with hyperactivity. Sleep, 1983. 6(2): 91–101.

820 O’Brien, L.M., et al., The effect of stimulants on sleep characteristics in children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Sleep Med, 2003. 4(4): 309–16.

821 Nahas, A.D. and V. Krynicki, Effect of methylphenidate on sleep stages and ultradian rhythms in hyperactive children. J Nerv Ment Dis, 1977. 164(1): 66–9.

822 Hvolby, A., J. Jorgensen, and N. Bilenberg, Actigraphic and parental reports of sleep difficulties in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 2008. 162(4): 323–9.

823 Lurie, S. and A. O’Quinn, Neuroendocrine responses to methylphenidate and d-amphetamine: applications to Attention-Deficit Disorder. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 1991. 3(1): 41–50.

824 Frank, M.G., The mystery of sleep function: current perspectives and future directions. Rev Neurosci, 2006. 17(4): 375–92.

825 Banks, S. and D.F. Dinges, Behavioral and physiological consequences of sleep restriction. J Clin Sleep Med, 2007. 3(5): 519–28.

826 Faraone, S.V., et al., Effects of once-daily oral and transdermal methylphenidate on sleep behavior of children with ADHD. J Atten Disord, 2009. 12(4): 308–15.

827 Andersen, S.L. and C.P. Navalta, Altering the course of neurodevelopment: a framework for understanding the enduring effects of psychotropic drugs. Int J Dev Neurosci, 2004. 22(5–6): 423–40.

828 Zahniser, N.R. and A. Sorkin, Trafficking of dopamine transporters in psychostimulant actions. Semin Cell Dev Biol, 2009. 20(4): 411–17.

829 Feron, F.J., et al., Dopamine transporter in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder normalizes after cessation of methylphenidate. Pediatr Neurol, 2005. 33(3): 179–83.

830 Andersen, S.L., Trajectories of brain development: point of vulnerability or window of opportunity? Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2003. 27(1–2): 3–18.

831 El-Zein, R.A., et al., Cytogenetic effects in children treated with methylphenidate. Cancer Lett, 2005. 230(2): 284–91.

832 Tucker, J.D., et al., Cytogenetic assessment of methylphenidate treatment in pediatric patients treated for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Mutat Res, 2009. 677(1–2): 53–8.

833 Ponsa, I., et al., Absence of cytogenetic effects in children and adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder treated with methylphenidate. Mutat Res, 2009. 666(1–2): 44–9.

834 Witt, K.L., et al., Methylphenidate and amphetamine do not induce cytogenetic damage in lymphocytes of children with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 47(12): 1375–83.

835 Walitza, S., et al., Does methylphenidate cause a cytogenetic effect in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder? Environ Health Perspect, 2007. 115(6): 936–40.

836 Suter, W., H.J. Martus, and A. Elhajouji, Methylphenidate is not clastogenic in cultured human lymphocytes and in the mouse bone-marrow micronucleus test. Mutat Res, 2006. 607(2): 153–9.

837 Patrick, K.S. and J.S. Markowitz, Pharmacology of methylphenidate, amphetamine enantiomers and pemoline in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 1997. 12(6): 527–46.

838 Fuller, R.W., et al., Comparative effects of pemoline, amfonelic acid and amphetamine on dopamine uptake and release in vitro and on brain 3,4- dihydroxyphenylacetic acid concentration in spiperone-treated rats. J Pharm Pharmacol, 1978. 30(3): 197–8.

839 Molina, V.A. and O.A. Orsingher, Effects of Mg-pemoline on the central catecholaminergic system. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther, 1981. 251(1): 66–79.

840 Sallee, F., et al., Oral pemoline kinetics in hyperactive children. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 1985. 37(6): 606–9.

841 Pelham, W.E., Jr, et al., Pemoline effects on children with ADHD: a time-response by dose-response analysis on classroom measures. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1995. 34(11): 1504–13.

842 Conners, C.K., et al., Magnesium pemoline and dextroamphetamine: a controlled study in children with minimal brain dysfunction. Psychopharmacologia, 1972. 26(4): 321–36.

843 Conners, C.K. and E. Taylor, Pemoline, methylphenidate, and placebo in children with minimal brain dysfunction. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1980. 37(8): 922–30.

844 Pelham, W.E., Jr, et al., Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, and pemoline. Pediatrics, 1990. 86(2): 226–37.

845 Heiligenstein, E., H.F. Johnston, and J.K. Nielsen, Pemoline therapy in college students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a retrospective study. J Am Coll Health, 1996. 45(1): 35–9.

846 Bostic, J.Q., et al., Pemoline treatment of adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a short-term controlled trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2000. 10(3): 205–16.

847 Wilens, T.E., et al., Controlled trial of high doses of pemoline for adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 1999. 19(3): 257–64.

848 Heiligenstein, E. and J. Anders, Pemoline in adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: predictors of nonresponse. J Am Coll Health, 1997. 45(5): 225–9.

849 Andriola, M.R., Efficacy and safety of methylphenidate and pemoline in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Current Therapeutic Research, 2000. 61(4): 208–15.

850 Langer, D.H., et al., Evidence of lack of abuse or dependence following pemoline treatment: results of a retrospective survey. Drug Alcohol Depend, 1986. 17(2–3): 213–27.

851 Bonnet, U. and E. Davids, A rare case of dependence on pemoline. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 30(7): 1340–1.

852 Rosh, J.R., et al., Four cases of severe hepatotoxicity associated with pemoline: possible autoimmune pathogenesis. Pediatrics, 1998. 101(5): 921–3.

853 Marotta, P.J. and E.A. Roberts, Pemoline hepatotoxicity in children. J Pediatr, 1998. 132(5): 894–7.

854 Adcock, K.G., et al., Pemoline therapy resulting in liver transplantation. Ann Pharmacother, 1998. 32(4): 422–5.

855 Friedmann, N., et al., Effect on growth in pemoline-treated children with Attention Deficit Disorder. Am J Dis Child, 1981. 135(4): 329–32.

856 Levin, E.D., F.J. McClernon, and A.H. Rezvani, Nicotinic effects on cognitive function: behavioral characterization, pharmacological specification, and anatomic localization. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2006. 184(3–4): 523–39.

857 Potter, A.S. and P.A. Newhouse, Effects of acute nicotine administration on behavioral inhibition in adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2004. 176(2): 182–94.

858 Conners, C.K., et al., Nicotine and attention in adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Psychopharmacol Bull, 1996. 32(1): 67–73.

859 Shytle, R.D., et al., A pilot controlled trial of transdermal nicotine in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry, 2002. 3(3): 150–5.

860 Potter, A.S. and P.A. Newhouse, Acute nicotine improves cognitive deficits in young adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2008. 88(4): 407–17.

861 Livingstone, P.D., et al., Alpha7 and non-alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors modulate dopamine release in vitro and in vivo in the rat prefrontal cortex. Eur J Neurosci, 2009. 29(3): 539–50.

862 Wilens, T.E. and M.W. Decker, Neuronal nicotinic receptor agonists for the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: focus on cognition. Biochem Pharmacol, 2007. 74(8): 1212–23.

863 Wilens, T.E., et al., ABT-089, a neuronal nicotinic receptor partial agonist, for the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in adults: results of a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 59(11): 1065–70.

864 Wilens, T.E., et al., A pilot controlled clinical trial of ABT-418, a cholinergic agonist, in the treatment of adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 1999. 156(12): 1931–7.

865 Yang, P.B., A.C. Swann, and N. Dafny, Methylphenidate treated at the test cage: dose-dependent sensitization or tolerance depend on the behavioral assay used. Crit Rev Neurobiol, 2007. 19(1): 59–77.

866 Emmett-Oglesby, M.W. and K.E. Taylor, Role of dose interval in the acquisition of tolerance to methylphenidate. Neuropharmacology, 1981. 20(10): 995–1002.

867 Pearl, R.G. and L.S. Seiden, The existence of tolerance to and cross-tolerance between d-amphetamine and methylphenidate for their effects on milk consumption and on differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate performance in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1976. 198(3): 635–47.

868 Safer, D.J. and R.P. Allen, Absence of tolerance to the behavioral effects of methylphenidate in hyperactive and inattentive children. J Pediatr, 1989. 115(6): 1003–8.

869 Barkley, R.A., A review of stimulant drug research with hyperactive children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1977. 18(2): 137–65.

870 Satterfield, J.H., B.T. Satterfield, and D.P. Cantwell, Multimodality treatment: a two-year evaluation of 61 hyperactive boys. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1980. 37(8): 915–19.

871 Satterfield, J.H., D.P. Cantwell, and B.T. Satterfield, Multimodality treatment: a one-year follow-up of 84 hyperactive boys. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1979. 36(9): 965–74.

872 Ross, D.C., J. Fischhoff, and B. Davenport, Treatment of ADHD when tolerance to methylphenidate develops. Psychiatr Serv, 2002. 53(1): 102.

873 Winsberg, B., et al., Is there dose-dependent tolerance associated with chronic methylphenidate therapy in hyperactive children: oral dose and plasma considerations. Psychopharmacol Bull, 1987. 23(1): 107–10.

874 Swanson, J., et al., Acute tolerance to methylphenidate in the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 1999. 66(3): 295–305.

875 Porrino, L.J., et al., A naturalistic assessment of the motor activity of hyperactive boys. II. Stimulant drug effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1983. 40(6): 688–93.

876 Johnston, C., et al., Psychostimulant rebound in attention deficit disordered boys. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1988. 27(6): 806–10.

877 Carlson, G.A. and K.L. Kelly, Stimulant rebound: how common is it and what does it mean? J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2003. 13(2): 137–42.

878 Sarampote, C.S., et al., Can stimulant rebound mimic pediatric bipolar disorder? J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2002. 12(1): 63–7.

879 Cox, D.J., et al., Rebound effects with long-acting amphetamine or methylphenidate stimulant medication preparations among adolescent male drivers with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psycho­pharmacol, 2008. 18(1): 1–10.

880 Rapoport, J.L. and G. Inoff-Germain, Responses to methylphenidate in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and normal children: update 2002. J Atten Disord, 2002. 6(Suppl 1): S57–60.

881 Rapoport, J.L., et al., Dextroamphetamine: cognitive and behavioral effects in normal prepubertal boys. Science, 1978. 199(4328): 560–3.

882 Wilens, T.E., et al., Misuse and diversion of stimulants prescribed for ADHD: a systematic review of the literature. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 47(1): 21–31.

883 Wender, P.H., Minimal Brain Dysfunction. 1971, New York: Wiley.

884 Ferguson, S.A., A Review of Rodent Models of ADHD, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP, pp. 209–20.

885 Sagvolden, T., et al., Rodent models of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1239–47.

886 Dougherty, D.D., et al., Dopamine transporter density in patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Lancet, 1999. 354(9196): 2132–3.

887 Koff, J.M., L. Shuster, and L.G. Miller, Chronic cocaine administration is associated with behavioral sensitization and time-dependent changes in striatal dopamine transporter binding. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1994. 268(1): 277–82.

888 Little, K.Y., et al., Striatal dopaminergic abnormalities in human cocaine users. Am J Psychiatry, 1999. 156(2): 238–45.

889 Volkow, N.D., et al., Brain dopamine transporter levels in treatment and drug naïve adults with ADHD. Neuroimage, 2007. 34(3): 1182–90.

890 Hesse, S., et al., Dopamine transporter imaging in adult patients with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Res, 2009. 171(2): 120–8.

891 Castellanos, F.X., et al., Cerebrospinal fluid monoamine metabolites in boys with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Res, 1994. 52(3): 305–16.

892 Castellanos, F.X., et al., Cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid predicts behavioral response to stimulants in 45 boys with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 1996. 14(2): 125–37.

893 Stoff, D.M., et al., Elevated platelet MAO is related to impulsivity in disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 1989. 28(5): 754–60.

894 Nedic, G., et al., Platelet monoamine oxidase activity in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Research, 2010. 175(3): 252–5.

895 Shekim, W.O., et al., Platelet MAO and measures of attention and impulsivity in boys with Attention Deficit Disorder and hyperactivity. Psychiatry Research, 1986. 18(2): 179–88.

896 Solanto, M.V., Neuropharmacological basis of stimulant drug action in Attention Deficit Disorder with hyperactivity: a review and synthesis. Psychol Bull, 1984. 95(3): 387–409.

897 Seeman, P., Brain dopamine receptors. Pharmacol Rev, 1980. 32(3): 229–313.

898 Pinsky, C., et al., Climbing behavior permits in vivo assessment of pre- and postsynaptic extrapyramidal dopaminergic function in mice. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 1988. 12(3–4): 195–8.

899 Solanto, M.V., Behavioral effects of low-dose methylphenidate in childhood Attention Deficit Disorder: implications for a mechanism of stimulant drug action. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry, 1986. 25(1): 96–101.

900 Castellanos, F.X., Toward a pathophysiology of Attention-Deficit/Hyper­activity Disorder. Clin Pediatr (Phila), 1997. 36(7): 381–93.

901 Seeman, P. and B.K. Madras, Anti-hyperactivity medication: methylphenidate and amphetamine. Mol Psychiatry, 1998. 3(5): 386–96.

902 Seeman, P. and B. Madras, Methylphenidate elevates resting dopamine which lowers the impulse-triggered release of dopamine: a hypothesis. Behav Brain Res, 2002. 130(1–2): 79–83.

903 Grace, A.A. and B.S. Bunney, The control of firing pattern in nigral dopamine neurons: burst firing. J Neurosci, 1984. 4(11): 2877–90.

904 Robbins, T.W. and B.J. Sahakian, “Paradoxical” effects of psychomotor stimulant drugs in hyperactive children from the standpoint of behavioural pharmacology. Neuropharmacology, 1979. 18(12): 931–50.

905 Sahakian, B.J. and T.W. Robbins, Are the effects of psychomotor stimulant drugs on hyperactive children really paradoxical? Med Hypotheses, 1977. 3(4): 154–8.

906 Dews, P.B., Rate-dependency hypothesis. Science, 1977. 198(4322): 1182–3.

907 Glick, S.D. and S. Milloy, Rate-dependent effects of d-amphetamine on locomotor activity in mice: possible relationship to paradoxical amphetamine sedation in minimal brain dysfunction. Eur J Pharmacol, 1973. 24(2): 266–8.

908 Sikstrom, S. and G. Soderlund, Stimulus-dependent dopamine release in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychol Rev, 2007. 114(4): 1047–75.

909 Grace, A.A., Phasic versus tonic dopamine release and the modulation of dopamine system responsivity: a hypothesis for the etiology of schizophrenia. Neuroscience, 1991. 41(1): 1–24.

910 Grace, A.A., The tonic/phasic model of dopamine system regulation: its relevance for understanding how stimulant abuse can alter basal ganglia function. Drug Alcohol Depend, 1995. 37(2): 111–29.

911 Sagvolden, T., et al., A dynamic developmental theory of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behav Brain Sci, 2005. 28(3): 397–419; discussion 419–68.

912 Dews, P.B., Studies on behavior. IV. Stimulant actions of methamphetamine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1958. 122(1): 137–47.

913 Dews, P.B. and W.H. Morse, Some observations on an operant in human subjects and its modification by dextro amphetamine. J Exp Anal Behav, 1958. 1(4): 359–64.

914 Green, L. and D. Warshauer, A note on the “paradoxical” effect of stimulants on hyperactivity with reference to the rate-dependency effect of drugs. J Nerv Ment Dis, 1981. 169(3): 196–8.

915 Rapport, M.D., G.J. DuPaul, and N.F. Smith, Rate-dependency and hyperactivity: methylphenidate effects on operant responding. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 1985. 23(1): 77–83.

916 Weber, K., Methylphenidate: rate-dependent drug effects in hyperactive boys. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1985. 85(2): 231–5.

917 DuPaul, G.J., M.D. Rapport, and S.A. Vyse, ADDH and methylphenidate responders: effects on behavior controlled by complex reinforcement schedules. Int Clin Psychopharmacol, 1988. 3(4): 349–61.

918 Hicks, R.E., J.P. Mayo, Jr, and C.J. Clayton, Differential psychopharmacology of methylphenidate and the neuropsychology of childhood hyperactivity. Int J Neurosci, 1989. 45(1–2): 7–32.

919 Millard, W.J. and L.J. Standish, The paradoxical effect of central nervous system stimulants on hyperactivity: a paradox unexplained by the rate-dependent effect. J Nerv Ment Dis, 1982. 170(8): 499–501.

920 Rapoport, J.L., et al., Dextroamphetamine: its cognitive and behavioral effects in normal and hyperactive boys and normal men. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1980. 37(8): 933–43.

921 Zahn, T.P., J.L. Rapoport, and C.L. Thompson, Autonomic and behavioral effects of dextroamphetamine and placebo in normal and hyperactive prepubertal boys. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1980. 8(2): 145–60.

922 Swanson, J.M., What Do Psychopharmacological Studies Tell Us About Information Processing Deficits in ADDH?, in Attention Deficit Disorder: Criteria, Cognition, Intervention., L.E. Bloomingdale and J. Sergeant, Editors. 1988, New York: Pergamon Press, pp. 97–115.

923 Teicher, M.H., et al., Rate dependency revisited: understanding the effects of methylphenidate in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2003. 13(1): 41–51.

924 Stein, M.A., et al., A dose-response study of OROS methylphenidate in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 2003. 112(5): e404.

925 Carlsson, M.L., On the role of cortical glutamate in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, two phenomenologically antithetical conditions. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 2000. 102(6): 401–13.

926 Oades, R.D., et al., The control of responsiveness in ADHD by catecholamines: evidence for dopaminergic, noradrenergic and interactive roles. Dev Sci, 2005. 8(2): 122–31.

927 Bymaster, F.P., et al., Atomoxetine increases extracellular levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in prefrontal cortex of rat: a potential mechanism for efficacy in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsycho­pharmacology, 2002. 27(5): 699–711.

928 Wong, D.T., et al., A new inhibitor of norepinephrine uptake devoid of affinity for receptors in rat brain. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1982. 222(1): 61–5.

929 Oades, R.D., Function and Dysfunction of Monoamine Interactions in Children and Adolescents with AD/HD, in Neurotransmitter Interactions and Cognitive Function, E.D. Levin, Editor. 2006, Basel: Birkhauser Verlag AG, pp. 207–44.

930 Swanson, C.J., et al., Effect of the Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder drug atomoxetine on extracellular concentrations of norepinephrine and dopamine in several brain regions of the rat. Neuropharmacology, 2006. 50(6): 755–60.

931 Spencer, T., et al., Effectiveness and tolerability of tomoxetine in adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 1998. 155(5): 693–5.

932 Michelson, D., et al., Atomoxetine in adults with ADHD: two randomized, placebo-controlled studies. Biological Psychiatry, 2003. 53(2): 112–20.

933 Michelson, D., et al., Atomoxetine in the treatment of children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a randomized, placebo- controlled, dose-response study. Pediatrics, 2001. 108(5): E83.

934 Michelson, D., et al., Atomoxetine in the treatment of children with ADHD: A randomized, placebo-controlled dose-response study. European Neuro­psychopharmacology, 2001. 11(Supplement 3): S319–20.

935 Weiss, M., et al., A randomized, placebo-controlled study of once-daily atomoxetine in the school setting in children with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2005. 44(7): 647–55.

936 Gau, S.S., et al., A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial on once-daily atomoxetine in Taiwanese children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2007. 17(4): 447–60.

937 Martenyi, F., et al., Atomoxetine in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a 6-week, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial in Russia. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2010. 19(1): 57–66.

938 Brown, R.T., et al., Atomoxetine in the management of children with ADHD: effects on quality of life and school functioning. Clin Pediatr (Phila), 2006. 45(9): 819–27.

939 Kratochvil, C.J., et al., Acute atomoxetine treatment of younger and older children with ADHD: a meta-analysis of tolerability and efficacy. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health, 2008. 2(1): 25.

940 Cheng, J.Y., et al., Efficacy and safety of atomoxetine for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adolescents: meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2007. 194(2): 197–209.

941 Wilens, T.E., et al., Long-term atomoxetine treatment in adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Pediatr, 2006. 149(1): 112–19.

942 Newcorn, J.H., et al., Low-dose atomoxetine for maintenance treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 2006. 118(6): e1701–6.

943 Chamberlain, S.R., et al., Atomoxetine improved response inhibition in adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 62(9): 977–84.

944 Chamberlain, S.R., et al., Atomoxetine modulates right inferior frontal activation during inhibitory control: a pharmacological functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry, 2009. 65(7): 550–5.

945 Faraone, S.V., et al., Comparing the efficacy of medications for ADHD using meta-analysis. Med Gen Med, 2006. 8(4): 4.

946 Kratochvil, C.J., et al., Atomoxetine and methylphenidate treatment in children with ADHD: a prospective, randomized, open-label trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2002. 41(7): 776–84.

947 Wang, Y., et al., Atomoxetine versus methylphenidate in paediatric outpatients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a randomized, double-blind comparison trial. Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 2007. 41(3): 222–30.

948 Kemner, J.E., et al., Outcomes of OROS methylphenidate compared with atomoxetine in children with ADHD: a multicenter, randomized prospective study. Adv Ther, 2005. 22(5): 498–512.

949 Starr, H.L. and J. Kemner, Multicenter, randomized, open-label study of OROS methylphenidate versus atomoxetine: treatment outcomes in African-American children with ADHD. J Natl Med Assoc, 2005. 97(Suppl 10): 11S–16S.

950 Wigal, S.B., et al., A laboratory school comparison of mixed amphetamine salts extended release (Adderall XR) and atomoxetine (Strattera) in school-aged children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Atten Disord, 2005. 9(1): 275–89.

951 Newcorn, J.H., et al., Atomoxetine and osmotically released methylphenidate for the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: acute comparison and differential response. Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(6): 721–30.

952 Quintana, H., et al., Transition from methylphenidate or amphetamine to atomoxetine in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder – a preliminary tolerability and efficacy study. Clin Ther, 2007. 29(6): 1168–77.

953 Hammerness, P., et al., Atomoxetine in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with prior stimulant therapy: a prospective open label study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2009. 18(8): 493–8.

954 Hammerness, P., et al., Atomoxetine for the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adolescents: a review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat, 2009. 5: 215–26.

955 Banaschewski, T., et al., Non-stimulant medications in the treatment of ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2004. 13(Suppl 1): I102–16.

956 Jasinski, D.R., et al., Abuse liability assessment of atomoxetine in a drug-abusing population. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2008. 95(1–2): 140–6.

957 Wee, S. and W.L. Woolverton, Evaluation of the reinforcing effects of atomoxetine in monkeys: comparison to methylphenidate and desipramine. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2004. 75(3): 271–6.

958 Heil, S.H., et al., Comparison of the subjective, physiological, and psychomotor effects of atomoxetine and methylphenidate in light drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2002. 67(2): 149–56.

959 Sofuoglu, M. and R.A. Sewell, Norepinephrine and stimulant addiction. Addict Biol, 2009. 14(2): 119–29.

960 Levin, F.R., et al., Atomoxetine treatment for cocaine abuse and adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): a preliminary open trial. J Dual Diagn, 2009. 5(1): 41–56.

961 Stoops, W.W., et al., Safety, tolerability and subject-rated effects of acute intranasal cocaine administration during atomoxetine maintenance. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2008. 92(1–3): 282–5.

962 Van Brunt, D.L., et al., Predictors of selecting atomoxetine therapy for children with Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder. Pharmacotherapy, 2005. 25(11): 1541–9.

963 Bangs, M.E., et al., Meta-analysis of suicide-related behavior events in patients treated with atomoxetine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 47(2): 209–18.

964 Paxton, G.A. and N.E. Cranswick, Acute suicidality after commencing atomoxetine. J Paediatr Child Health, 2008. 44(10): 596–8.

965 Markx, S. and D.A. Kahn, An 18-year-old woman with new-onset suicidal ideation while being treated with atomoxetine. J Psychiatr Pract, 2008. 14(1): 62–6.

966 Wooltorton, E., Suicidal ideation among children taking atomoxetine (Strattera). CMAJ, 2005. 173(12): 1447.

967 Reith, D.M. and L. Edmonds, Assessing the role of drugs in suicidal ideation and suicidality. CNS Drugs, 2007. 21(6): 463–72.

968 Minzenberg, M.J. and C.S. Carter, Modafinil: a review of neurochemical actions and effects on cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2008. 33(7): 1477–502.

969 Kahbazi, M., et al., A randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial of modafinil in children and adolescents with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatry Res, 2009. 168(3): 234–7.

970 Biederman, J. and S.R. Pliszka, Modafinil improves symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder across subtypes in children and adolescents. J Pediatr, 2008. 152(3): 394–9.

971 Greenhill, L.L., et al., A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of modafinil film-coated tablets in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2006. 45(5): 503–11.

972 Biederman, J., et al., A comparison of once-daily and divided doses of modafinil in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry, 2006. 67(5): 727–35.

973 Biederman, J., et al., Efficacy and safety of modafinil film-coated tablets in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, flexible-dose study. Pediatrics, 2005. 116(6): e777–84.

974 Turner, D.C., et al., Modafinil improves cognition and response inhibition in adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2004. 55(10): 1031–40.

975 Rugino, T.A. and T.C. Samsock, Modafinil in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatr Neurol, 2003. 29(2): 136–42.

976 Turner, D.C., et al., Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2003. 165(3): 260–9.

977 Morgan, R.E., et al., Modafinil improves attention, inhibitory control, and reaction time in healthy, middle-aged rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2007. 86(3): 531–41.

978 Bloch, M.H., et al., Meta-analysis: treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children with comorbid tic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2009. 48(9): 884–93.

979 Hunt, R.D., R.B. Minderaa, and D.J. Cohen, The therapeutic effect of clonidine in Attention Deficit Disorder with hyperactivity: a comparison with placebo and methylphenidate. Psychopharmacol Bull, 1986. 22(1): 229–36.

980 Hunt, R.D., R.B. Minderaa, and D.J. Cohen, Clonidine benefits children with Attention Deficit disorder and hyperactivity: report of a double-blind placebo-crossover therapeutic trial. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry, 1985. 24(5): 617–29.

981 Palumbo, D.R., et al., Clonidine for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: I. Efficacy and tolerability outcomes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 47(2): 180–8.

982 Connor, D.F., K.E. Fletcher, and J.M. Swanson, A meta-analysis of clonidine for symptoms of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1999. 38(12): 1551–9.

983 Hazell, P.L. and J.E. Stuart, A randomized controlled trial of clonidine added to psychostimulant medication for hyperactive and aggressive children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2003. 42(8): 886–94.

984 Johnston, J.A., et al., Decreased use of clonidine following treatment with atomoxetine in children with ADHD. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 2006. 26(4): 389–95.

985 Sallee, F.R., et al., Long-term safety and efficacy of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 2009. 19(3): 215–26.

986 Sallee, F., et al., Guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 48(2): 1–11.

987 Biederman, J., et al., Long-term, open-label extension study of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with ADHD. CNS Spectr, 2008. 13(12): 1047–55.

988 Boon-yasidhi, V., Y.S. Kim, and L. Scahill, An open-label, prospective study of guanfacine in children with ADHD and tic disorders. J Med Assoc Thai, 2005. 88(Suppl 8): S156–62.

989 Hunt, R.D., A.F. Arnsten, and M.D. Asbell, An open trial of guanfacine in the treatment of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1995. 34(1): 50–4.

990 Chappell, P.B., et al., Guanfacine treatment of comorbid Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Tourette’s syndrome: preliminary clinical experience. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1995. 34(9): 1140–6.

991 Biederman, J., et al., A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatrics, 2008. 121(1): e73–84.

992 Scahill, L., et al., A placebo-controlled study of guanfacine in the treatment of children with tic disorders and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Am J Psychiatry, 2001. 158(7): 1067–74.

993 Posey, D.J. and C.J. McDougle, Guanfacine and guanfacine extended release: treatment for ADHD and related disorders. CNS Drug Rev, 2007. 13(4): 465–74.

994 Sagvolden, T., The alpha-2A adrenoceptor agonist guanfacine improves sustained attention and reduces overactivity and impulsiveness in an animal model of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Funct, 2006. 2: 41.

995 Easton, N., et al., Guanfacine produces differential effects in frontal cortex compared with striatum: assessed by phMRI BOLD contrast. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2006. 189(3): 369–85.

996 Diller, L. and S. Goldstein, Science, ethics, and the psychosocial treatment of ADHD. J Atten Disord, 2006. 9(4): 571–4.

997 Fabiano, G.A., et al., A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Clin Psychol Rev, 2009. 29(2): 129–40.

998 Toplak, M.E., et al., Review of cognitive, cognitive-behavioral, and neural-based interventions for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Clin Psychol Rev, 2008. 28(5): 801–23.

999 Van der Oord, S., et al., Efficacy of methylphenidate, psychosocial treatments and their combination in school-aged children with ADHD: a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev, 2008. 28(5): 783–800.

1000 Abikoff, H., ADHD psychosocial treatments: generalization reconsidered. J Atten Disord, 2009. 13(3): 207–10.

1001 Grosjean, B., From synapse to psychotherapy: the fascinating evolution of neuroscience. Am J Psychother, 2005. 59(3): 181–97.

1002 Goldapple, K., et al., Modulation of cortical-limbic pathways in major depression: treatment-specific effects of cognitive behavior therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2004. 61(1): 34–41.

1003 Brody, A.L., et al., Regional brain metabolic changes in patients with major depression treated with either paroxetine or interpersonal therapy: preliminary findings. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2001. 58(7): 631–40.

1004 Kennedy, S.H., et al., Differences in brain glucose metabolism between responders to CBT and venlafaxine in a 16-week randomized controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry, 2007. 164(5): 778–88.

1005 Paquette, V., et al., “Change the mind and you change the brain”: effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on the neural correlates of spider phobia. Neuroimage, 2003. 18(2): 401–9.

1006 Beitman, B.D. and G.I. Viamontes, The neurobiology of psychotherapy. Psychiatric Annals, 2006. 26(4): 214–20.

1007 Sinclair, M., Behavioural and Cognitive Approaches, in People with Hyperactivity: Understanding and Managing Their Problems, E. Taylor, Editor. 2007, London: Mac Keith Press, pp. 142–59.

1008 Pfiffner, L.J., R.A. Barkley, and G.I. DuPaul, Treatment of ADHD in School Settings, in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, R.A. Barkley, Editor. 2006, New York: Guilford Press, pp. 547–89.

1009 Anastopoulos, A.D., L.H. Rhoads, and S.E. Farley, Counselling and Training Parents, in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment, R.A. Barkley, Editor. 2006, New York: Guilford Press, pp. 453–79.

1010 Silver, L.B., Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder: A Clinical Guide to Diagnosis and Treatments for Health and Mental Health Professionals. 2004, Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.

1011 Bramham, J., et al., Evaluation of group cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord, 2009. 12(5): 434–41.

1012 Young, S. and J. Bramham, ADHD in Adults: A Psychological Guide to Practice. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

1013 O’Connell, R.G., M. Bellgrove, and I.H. Robertson, Avenues for the Neuro-Remediation of ADHD: Lessons from Clinical Neuroscience, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 441–64.

1014 Young, S., Cognitive Behavioural Treatment of ADHD, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 375–94.

1015 Solanto, M.V., et al., Development of a new psychosocial treatment for adult ADHD. J Atten Disord, 2008. 11(6): 728–36.

1016 Arns, M., et al., Efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in ADHD: the effects on inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity: a meta-analysis. Clin EEG Neurosci, 2009. 40(3): 180–9.

1017 Leins, U., et al., Neurofeedback for children with ADHD: a comparison of SCP and Theta/Beta protocols. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 2007. 32(2): 73–88.

1018 Zylowska, L., et al., Mindfulness meditation training in adults and adolescents with ADHD: a feasibility study. J Atten Disord, 2008. 11(6): 737–46.

1019 Shalev, L., Y. Tsal, and C. Mevorach, Computerized progressive attentional training (CPAT) program: effective direct intervention for children with ADHD. Child Neuropsychol, 2007. 13(4): 382–8.

1020 Keane, H., Pleasure and discipline in the uses of Ritalin. Int J Drug Policy, 2008. 19(5): 401–9.

1021 Blum, K., et al., Reward deficiency syndrome: a biogenetic model for the diagnosis and treatment of impulsive, addictive, and compulsive behaviors. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2000. 32(Suppl): i–iv, 1–112.

1022 Sonuga-Barke, E.J., Causal models of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biol Psychiatry, 2005. 57(11): 1231–8.

1023 Pattij, T. and L.J. Vanderschuren, The neuropharmacology of impulsive behaviour. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 2008. 29(4): 192–9.

1024 Di Chiara, G. and A. Imperato, Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1988. 85(14): 5274–8.

1025 Di Chiara, G., et al., Drug addiction as a disorder of associative learning: role of nucleus accumbens shell/extended amygdala dopamine. Ann NY Acad Sci, 1999. 877: 461–85.

1026 Volkow, N.D., et al., Cocaine addiction: hypothesis derived from imaging studies with PET. J Addict Dis, 1996. 15(4): 55–71.

1027 Altman, J., et al., The biological, social and clinical bases of drug addiction: commentary and debate. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1996. 125(4): 285–345.

1028 Johansen, E.B. and T. Sagvolden, Behavioral effects of intra-cranial self-stimulation in an animal model of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Res, 2005. 162(1): 32–46.

1029 Johansen, E.B. and T. Sagvolden, Slower extinction of responses maintained by intra-cranial self-stimulation (ICSS) in an animal model of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Res, 2005. 162(1): 22–31.

1030 Sagvolden, T., et al., Altered reinforcement mechanisms in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Behav Brain Res, 1998. 94(1): 61–71.

1031 Johansen, E.B., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) behaviour explained by dysfunctioning reinforcement and extinction processes. Behav Brain Res, 2002. 130(1–2): 37–45.

1032 Leith, N.J. and R.J. Barrett, Self-stimulation and amphetamine: tolerance to d and l isomers and cross tolerance to cocaine and methylphenidate. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1981. 74(1): 23–8.

1033 Gatley, S.J., et al., Place preference and microdialysis studies with two derivatives of methylphenidate. Life Sci, 1996. 58(24): PL345–52.

1034 Martin-Iverson, M.T., R. Ortmann, and H.C. Fibiger, Place preference conditioning with methylphenidate and nomifensine. Brain Res, 1985. 332(1): 59–67.

1035 Meririnne, E., A. Kankaanpaa, and T. Seppala, Rewarding properties of methylphenidate: sensitization by prior exposure to the drug and effects of dopamine D1- and D2-receptor antagonists. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 2001. 298(2): 539–50.

1036 Nolley, E.P. and B.M. Kelley, Adolescent reward system perseveration due to nicotine: studies with methylphenidate. Neurotoxicol Teratol, 2007. 29(1): 47–56.

1037 Sellings, L.H., L.E. McQuade, and P.B. Clarke, Characterization of dopamine-dependent rewarding and locomotor stimulant effects of intravenously-administered methylphenidate in rats. Neuroscience, 2006. 141(3): 1457–68.

1038 Sora, I., et al., Cocaine reward models: conditioned place preference can be established in dopamine- and in serotonin-transporter knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1998. 95(13): 7699–704.

1039 Achat-Mendes, C., K.L. Anderson, and Y. Itzhak, Methylphenidate and MDMA adolescent exposure in mice: long-lasting consequences on cocaine-induced reward and psychomotor stimulation in adulthood. Neuropharmacology, 2003. 45(1): 106–15.

1040 Augustyniak, P.N., et al., Differential behavioral and neurochemical effects of cocaine after early exposure to methylphenidate in an animal model of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Behav Brain Res, 2006. 167(2): 379–82.

1041 Crawford, C.A., et al., Effects of early methylphenidate exposure on morphine- and sucrose-reinforced behaviors in adult rats: relationship to dopamine D2 receptors. Brain Res, 2007. 1139: 245–53.

1042 Schultz, W., Behavioral dopamine signals. Trends Neurosci, 2007. 30(5): 203–10.

1043 Schultz, W., Behavioral theories and the neurophysiology of reward. Annu Rev Psychol, 2006. 57: 87–115.

1044 Tobler, P.N., C.D. Fiorillo, and W. Schultz, Adaptive coding of reward value by dopamine neurons. Science, 2005. 307(5715): 1642–5.

1045 Schultz, W., L. Tremblay, and J.R. Hollerman, Reward prediction in primate basal ganglia and frontal cortex. Neuropharmacology, 1998. 37(4-5): 421–9.

1046 Schultz, W., Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. J Neurophysiol, 1998. 80(1): 1–27.

1047 Schultz, W., P. Dayan, and P.R. Montague, A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 1997. 275(5306): 1593–9.

1048 Tobler, P.N., A. Dickinson, and W. Schultz, Coding of predicted reward omission by dopamine neurons in a conditioned inhibition paradigm. J Neurosci, 2003. 23(32): 10402–10.

1049 Everitt, B.J., et al., Review. Neural mechanisms underlying the vulnerability to develop compulsive drug-seeking habits and addiction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2008. 363(1507): 3125–35.

1050 Carmona, S., et al., Ventro-striatal reductions underpin symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2009. 66(10): 972–7.

1051 Matsumoto, K., W. Suzuki, and K. Tanaka, Neuronal correlates of goal-based motor selection in the prefrontal cortex. Science, 2003. 301(5630): 229–32.

1052 Shaw, S.G. and E.T. Rolls, Is the release of noradrenaline necessary for self-stimulation of the brain? Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 1976. 4(4): 375–9.

1053 Volkow, N.D., J.S. Fowler, and G.J. Wang, The addicted human brain viewed in the light of imaging studies: brain circuits and treatment strategies. Neuropharmacology, 2004. 47(Suppl 1): 3–13.

1054 Hollerman, J.R. and W. Schultz, Dopamine neurons report an error in the temporal prediction of reward during learning. Nat Neurosci, 1998. 1(4): 304–9.

1055 Schultz, W., Reward signaling by dopamine neurons. Neuroscientist, 2001. 7(4): 293–302.

1056 Volkow, N.D., et al., Activation of orbital and medial prefrontal cortex by methylphenidate in cocaine-addicted subjects but not in controls: relevance to addiction. J Neurosci, 2005. 25(15): 3932–9.

1057 Wong, D.F., et al., Increased occupancy of dopamine receptors in human striatum during cue-elicited cocaine craving. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2006. 31(12): 2716–27.

1058 Goldstein, R.Z., et al., Role of the anterior cingulate and medial orbitofrontal cortex in processing drug cues in cocaine addiction. Neuroscience, 2007. 144(4): 1153–9.

1059 Volkow, N.D., et al., Cocaine cues and dopamine in dorsal striatum: mechanism of craving in cocaine addiction. J Neurosci, 2006. 26(24): 6583–8.

1060 Volkow, N.D., et al., Dopamine increases in striatum do not elicit craving in cocaine abusers unless they are coupled with cocaine cues. Neuroimage, 2008. 39(3): 1266–73.

1061 Kelly, A.M.C., et al., Functional Neuroimaging of Reward and Motivational Pathways in ADHD, in Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, and M. Gill, Editors. 2007, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, pp. 209–36.

1062 Holroyd, C.B., et al., Electrophysiological evidence of atypical motivation and reward processing in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychologia, 2008. 46(8): 2234–42.

1063 Looby, A., Childhood Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and the development of substance use disorders: valid concern or exaggeration? Addict Behav, 2008. 33(3): 451–63.

1064 Carroll, K.M. and B.J. Rounsaville, History and significance of childhood Attention Deficit Disorder in treatment-seeking cocaine abusers. Compr Psychiatry, 1993. 34(2): 75–82.

1065 Eyre, S.L., B.J. Rounsaville, and H.D. Kleber, History of childhood hyperactivity in a clinic population of opiate addicts. J Nerv Ment Dis, 1982. 170(9): 522–9.

1066 Horner, B.R. and K.E. Scheibe, Prevalence and implications of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder among adolescents in treatment for substance abuse. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1997. 36(1): 30–6.

1067 Ziedonis, D.M., et al., Psychiatric comorbidity in white and African-American cocaine addicts seeking substance abuse treatment. Hosp Community Psychiatry, 1994. 45(1): 43–9.

1068 DeMilio, L., Psychiatric syndromes in adolescent substance abusers. Am J Psychiatry, 1989. 146(9): 1212–14.

1069 Hovens, J.G., D.P. Cantwell, and R. Kiriakos, Psychiatric comorbidity in hospitalized adolescent substance abusers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1994. 33(4): 476–83.

1070 Dennis, M., et al., The Cannabis Youth Treatment (CYT) experiment: rationale, study design and analysis plans. Addiction, 2002. 97(Suppl 1): 16–34.

1071 Wilens, T.E., The nature of the relationship between Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and substance use. J Clin Psychiatry, 2007. 68(Suppl 11): 4–8.

1072 Ohlmeier, M.D., et al., Nicotine and alcohol dependence in patients with comorbid Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Alcohol Alcohol, 2007. 42(6): 539–43.

1073 Ohlmeier, M.D., et al., Comorbidity of alcohol and substance dependence with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Alcohol Alcohol, 2008. 43(3): 300–4.

1074 Eklund, J.M. and B.A. Klinteberg, Childhood behaviour as related to subsequent drinking offences and violent offending: a prospective study of 11- to 14-year-old youths into their fourth decade. Crim Behav Ment Health, 2003. 13(4): 294–309.

1075 Arias, A.J., et al., Correlates of co-occurring ADHD in drug-dependent subjects: prevalence and features of substance dependence and psychiatric disorders. Addict Behav, 2008. 33(9): 1199–207.

1076 Lynskey, M.T. and W. Hall, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and substance use disorders: is there a causal link? Addiction, 2001. 96(6): 815–22.

1077 Wilens, T.E., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and the substance use disorders: the nature of the relationship, subtypes at risk, and treatment issues. Psychiatr Clin North Am, 2004. 27(2): 283–301.

1078 Wilens, T.E. and W. Dodson, A clinical perspective of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder into adulthood. J Clin Psychiatry, 2004. 65(10): 1301–13.

1079 Biederman, J., et al., Psychoactive substance use disorders in adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): effects of ADHD and psychiatric comorbidity. Am J Psychiatry, 1995. 152(11): 1652–8.

1080 Faraone, S.V., et al., Substance use among ADHD adults: implications of late onset and subthreshold diagnoses. Am J Addict, 2007. 16(Suppl 1): 24–32; quiz 33–4.

1081 Biederman, J., et al., Familial risk analyses of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and substance use disorders. Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(1): 107–15.

1082 McClernon, F.J., et al., Interactions between genotype and retrospective ADHD symptoms predict lifetime smoking risk in a sample of young adults. Nicotine Tob Res, 2008. 10(1): 117–27.

1083 Gittelman, R., et al., Hyperactive boys almost grown up. I. Psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1985. 42(10): 937–47.

1084 Mannuzza, S., et al., Adult psychiatric status of hyperactive boys grown up. Am J Psychiatry, 1998. 155(4): 493–8.

1085 Mannuzza, S., et al., Hyperactive boys almost grown up. V. Replication of psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1991. 48(1): 77–83.

1086 Barkley, R.A., et al., The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: I. An 8-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1990. 29(4): 546–57.

1087 Minde, K., G. Weiss, and N. Mendelson, A 5-year follow-up study of 91 hyperactive school children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry, 1972. 11(3): 595–610.

1088 Satterfield, J.H., C.M. Hoppe, and A.M. Schell, A prospective study of delinquency in 110 adolescent boys with Attention Deficit Disorder and 88 normal adolescent boys. Am J Psychiatry, 1982. 139(6): 795–8.

1089 Weiss, G., et al., Hyperactives as young adults: a controlled prospective ten-year follow-up of 75 children. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1979. 36(6): 675–81.

1090 August, G.J., M.A. Stewart, and C.S. Holmes, A four-year follow-up of hyperactive boys with and without conduct disorder. Br J Psychiatry, 1983. 143: 192–8.

1091 Molina, B.S., et al., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder risk for heavy drinking and alcohol use disorder is age specific. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 2007. 31(4): 643–54.

1092 Volkow, N.D., et al., Cardiovascular effects of methylphenidate in humans are associated with increases of dopamine in brain and of epinephrine in plasma. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2003. 166(3): 264–70.

1093 Biederman, J., et al., Is cigarette smoking a gateway to alcohol and illicit drug use disorders? A study of youths with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 59(3): 258–64.

1094 Lai, S., et al., The association between cigarette smoking and drug abuse in the United States. J Addict Dis, 2000. 19(4): 11–24.

1095 Torabi, M.R., W.J. Bailey, and M. Majd-Jabbari, Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the “gateway drug effect.” J Sch Health, 1993. 63(7): 302–6.

1096 Kuperman, S., et al., Developmental sequence from disruptive behavior diagnosis to adolescent alcohol dependence. Am J Psychiatry, 2001. 158(12): 2022–6.

1097 Pomerleau, C.S., et al., Smoking patterns and abstinence effects in smokers with no ADHD, childhood ADHD, and adult ADHD symptomatology. Addict Behav, 2003. 28(6): 1149–57.

1098 Lambert, N.M. and C.S. Hartsough, Prospective study of tobacco smoking and substance dependencies among samples of ADHD and non-ADHD participants. J Learn Disabil, 1998. 31(6): 533–44.

1099 Lynskey, M.T. and D.M. Fergusson, Childhood conduct problems, attention deficit behaviors, and adolescent alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1995. 23(3): 281–302.

1100 Moffitt, T.E., Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: boys’ developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Dev, 1990. 61(3): 893–910.

1101 Sartor, C.E., et al., The role of childhood risk factors in initiation of alcohol use and progression to alcohol dependence. Addiction, 2007. 102(2): 216–25.

1102 Biederman, J., et al., A prospective 4-year follow-up study of attention-deficit hyperactivity and related disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1996. 53(5): 437–46.

1103 Barkley, R.A., et al., Young adult follow-up of hyperactive children: antisocial activities and drug use. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2004. 45(2): 195–211.

1104 Szobot, C.M., et al., Is Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder associated with illicit substance use disorders in male adolescents? A community-based case-control study. Addiction, 2007. 102(7): 1122–30.

1105 Wilens, T.E., et al., Characteristics of adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder plus Substance Use Disorder: the role of psychiatric comorbidity. Am J Addict, 2005. 14(4): 319–27.

1106 Marshal, M.P., B.S. Molina, and W.E. Pelham, Jr, Childhood ADHD and adolescent substance use: an examination of deviant peer group affiliation as a risk factor. Psychol Addict Behav, 2003. 17(4): 293–302.

1107 Volkow, N.D. and J.S. Fowler, Addiction, a disease of compulsion and drive: involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex, 2000. 10(3): 318–25.

1108 Jester, J.M., et al., Trajectories of childhood aggression and inattention/hyperactivity: differential effects on substance abuse in adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 2008. 47(10): 1158–65.

1109 Niemela, S., et al., Childhood predictors of drunkenness in late adolescence among males: a 10-year population-based follow-up study. Addiction, 2006. 101(4): 512–21.

1110 Span, S.A. and M. Earleywine, Cognitive functioning moderates the relation between hyperactivity and drinking habits. Alcohol Clin Exp Res, 1999. 23(2): 224–9.

1111 Span, S.A. and M. Earleywine, Cognitive functioning moderates the relation between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms and alcohol use in women. Addictive Behaviors, 2004. 29(8): 1605–13.

1112 Aytaclar, S., et al., Association between hyperactivity and executive cognitive functioning in childhood and substance use in early adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1999. 38(2): 172–8.

1113 Abrantes, A.M., et al., Substance Use Disorder characteristics and externalizing problems among inpatient adolescent smokers. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2005. 37(4): 391–9.

1114 Fuemmeler, B.F., S.H. Kollins, and F.J. McClernon, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms predict nicotine dependence and progression to regular smoking from adolescence to young adulthood. J. Pediatr. Psychol., 2007. 32(10): 1203–13.

1115 Molina, B.S. and W.E. Pelham, Jr, Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. J Abnorm Psychol, 2003. 112(3): 497–507.

1116 Burke, J.D., R. Loeber, and B.B. Lahey, Which aspects of ADHD are associated with tobacco use in early adolescence? J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2001. 42(4): 493–502.

1117 Elkins, I.J., M. McGue, and W.G. Iacono, Prospective effects of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, conduct disorder, and sex on adolescent substance use and abuse. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2007. 64(10): 1145–52.

1118 Kollins, S.H., F.J. McClernon, and B.F. Fuemmeler, Association between smoking and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in a population-based sample of young adults. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 2005. 62(10): 1142–7.

1119 Lee, S.S. and S.P. Hinshaw, Predictors of adolescent functioning in girls with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): the role of childhood ADHD, conduct problems, and peer status. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol, 2006. 35(3): 356–68.

1120 Rodriguez, D., K.P. Tercyak, and J. Audrain-McGovern, Effects of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms on development of nicotine dependence from mid-adolescence to young adulthood. J. Pediatr. Psychol., 2008. 33(6): 563–75.

1121 Fredericks, E.M. and S.H. Kollins, Assessing methylphenidate preference in ADHD patients using a choice procedure. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2004. 175(4): 391–8.

1122 Eissenberg, T., Measuring the emergence of tobacco dependence: the contribution of negative reinforcement models. Addiction, 2004. 99(Suppl 1): 5–29.

1123 Han, D.H., et al., The effect of methylphenidate on Internet video game play in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 2008. 50(3): 251–6.

1124 Koepp, M.J., et al., Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 1998. 393(6682): 266–8.

1125 Wilens, T.E., et al., Do individuals with ADHD self-medicate with cigarettes and substances of abuse? Results from a controlled family study of ADHD. Am J Addict, 2007. 16(Suppl 1): 14–21; quiz 22–3.

1126 Potter, A.S., P.A. Newhouse, and D.J. Bucci, Central nicotinic cholinergic systems: a role in the cognitive dysfunction in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? Behav Brain Res, 2006. 175(2): 201–11.

1127 Newhouse, P.A., A. Potter, and A. Singh, Effects of nicotinic stimulation on cognitive performance. Curr Opin Pharmacol, 2004. 4(1): 36–46.

1128 Rezvani, A.H. and E.D. Levin, Cognitive effects of nicotine. Biol Psychiatry, 2001. 49(3): 258–67.

1129 Iversen, L.L., Speed, Ecstacy, Ritalin: The Science of Amphetamines. 2006, Oxford: OUP.

1130 Woodworth, T., DEA Congressional Testimony: Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Youth and Families. 2000, http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/cngrtest/ct051600.htm

1131 Darredeau, C., et al., Patterns and predictors of medication compliance, diversion, and misuse in adult prescribed methylphenidate users. Hum Psychopharmacol, 2007. 22(8): 529–36.

1132 Poulin, C., From Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder to medical stimulant use to the diversion of prescribed stimulants to non-medical stimulant use: connecting the dots. Addiction, 2007. 102(5): 740–51.

1133 Novak, S.P., et al., The nonmedical use of prescription ADHD medications: results from a national Internet panel. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy, 2007. 2: 32.

1134 Musser, C.J., et al., Stimulant use and the potential for abuse in Wisconsin as reported by school administrators and longitudinally followed children. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 1998. 19(3): 187–92.

1135 McCabe, S.E., et al., Prevalence and correlates of illicit methylphenidate use among 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students in the United States, 2001. J Adolesc Health, 2004. 35(6): 501–4.

1136 Teter, C.J., et al., Illicit methylphenidate use in an undergraduate student sample: prevalence and risk factors. Pharmacotherapy, 2003. 23(5): 609–17.

1137 Advokat, C.D., D. Guidry, and L. Martino, Licit and illicit use of medications for Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in undergraduate college students. J Am Coll Health, 2008. 56(6): 601–6.

1138 Kroutil, L.A., et al., Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants in the United States. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2006. 84(2): 135–43.

1139 Wu, L.T., et al., Misuse of methamphetamine and prescription stimulants among youths and young adults in the community. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2007. 89(2–3): 195–205.

1140 McCabe, S.E., et al., Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction, 2005. 100(1): 96–106.

1141 Teter, C.J., et al., Illicit use of specific prescription stimulants among college students: prevalence, motives, and routes of administration. Pharmacotherapy, 2006. 26(10): 1501–10.

1142 Koob, G.F. and M. Le Moal, Neurobiology of Addiction. 2006, Amsterdam: Academic Press.

1143 Sanchis-Segura, C. and R. Spanagel, Behavioural assessment of drug reinforcement and addictive features in rodents: an overview. Addict Biol, 2006. 11(1): 2–38.

1144 Botly, L.C., et al., Characterization of methylphenidate self-administration and reinstatement in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2008. 199(1): 55–66.

1145 Stoops, W.W., et al., Reinforcing effects of methylphenidate: influence of dose and behavioral demands following drug administration. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2005. 177(3): 349–55.

1146 Kollins, S.H., E.K. MacDonald, and C.R. Rush, Assessing the abuse potential of methylphenidate in nonhuman and human subjects: a review. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2001. 68(3): 611–27.

1147 Nielsen, J.A., et al., Self-administration of central stimulants by rats: a comparison of the effects of d-amphetamine, methylphenidate and McNeil 4612. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 1984. 20(2): 227–32.

1148 Lile, J.A., et al., The reinforcing efficacy of psychostimulants in rhesus monkeys: the role of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 2003. 307(1): 356–66.

1149 Stoops, W.W., et al., Reinforcing, subject-rated, performance and physiological effects of methylphenidate and d-amphetamine in stimulant abusing humans. J Psychopharmacol, 2004. 18(4): 534–43.

1150 Rush, C.R., et al., Reinforcing and subject-rated effects of methylphenidate and d-amphetamine in non-drug-abusing humans. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 2001. 21(3): 273–86.

1151 Volkow, N.D., et al., Role of dopamine in the therapeutic and reinforcing effects of methylphenidate in humans: results from imaging studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol, 2002. 12(6): 557–66.

1152 Robbins, T.W., ADHD and addiction. Nat Med, 2002. 8(1): 24–5.

1153 Volkow, N.D. and J.M. Swanson, Variables that affect the clinical use and abuse of methylphenidate in the treatment of ADHD. Am J Psychiatry, 2003. 160(11): 1909–18.

1154 Swanson, J.M. and N.D. Volkow, Serum and brain concentrations of methyl­phenidate: implications for use and abuse. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2003. 27(7): 615–21.

1155 Spencer, T.J., et al., PET study examining pharmacokinetics, detection and likeability, and dopamine transporter receptor occupancy of short- and long-acting oral methylphenidate. Am J Psychiatry, 2006. 163(3): 387–95.

1156 Parasrampuria, D.A., et al., Assessment of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects related to abuse potential of a unique oral osmotic-controlled extended-release methylphenidate formulation in humans. J Clin Pharmacol, 2007. 47(12): 1476–88.

1157 Parasrampuria, D.A., et al., Do formulation differences alter abuse liability of methylphenidate? A placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, crossover study in recreational drug users. J Clin Psychopharmacol, 2007. 27(5): 459–67.

1158 Rush, C.R., et al., Methylphenidate increases cigarette smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2005. 181(4): 781–9.

1159 Vansickel, A.R., et al., A pharmacological analysis of stimulant-induced increases in smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2007. 193(3): 305–13.

1160 Cousins, M.S., H.M. Stamat, and H. de Wit, Acute doses of d-amphetamine and bupropion increase cigarette smoking. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2001. 157(3): 243–53.

1161 Henningfield, J.E. and R.R. Griffiths, Cigarette smoking and subjective response: effects of d-amphetamine. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 1981. 30(4): 497–505.

1162 Schuster, C.R., B.R. Lucchesi, and G.S. Emley, The effects of d-amphetamine, meprobamate, and lobeline on the cigarette smoking behavior of normal human subjects. NIDA Res Monogr, 1979. 23: 91–9.

1163 Sigmon, S.C., et al., Acute effects of D-amphetamine on progressive-ratio performance maintained by cigarette smoking and money. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2003. 167(4): 393–402.

1164 Tidey, J.W., S.C. O’Neill, and S.T. Higgins, d-amphetamine increases choice of cigarette smoking over monetary reinforcement. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2000. 153(1): 85–92.

1165 Roll, J.M., S.T. Higgins, and J. Tidey, Cocaine use can increase cigarette smoking: evidence from laboratory and naturalistic settings. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol, 1997. 5(3): 263–8.

1166 Owens, E.B., et al., Which treatment for whom for ADHD? Moderators of treatment response in the MTA. J Consult Clin Psychol, 2003. 71(3): 540–52.

1167 Blouin, A.G.A., R.A. Bornstein, and R.L. Trites, Teenage alcohol use among hyperactive children: a five year follow-up study. J. Pediatr. Psychol., 1978. 3(4): 188–94.

1168 Lambert, N.M., The contribution of childhood ADHD, conduct problems, and stimulant treatment to adolescent and adult tobacco and psychoactive substance abuse. Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry, 2005. 7: 197–221.

1169 Robinson, T.E. and K.C. Berridge, The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Brain Res Rev, 1993. 18(3): 247–91.

1170 Kean, B., Claim and counterclaim: the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) – preventing or contributing to the development of Substance Use Disorder (SUD)? The International Journal of Risk and Safety in Medicine, 2007. 19(1): 65–74.

1171 Faraone, S.V. and T.E. Wilens, Effect of stimulant medications for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on later substance use and the potential for stimulant misuse, abuse, and diversion. J Clin Psychiatry, 2007. 68(Suppl 11): 15–22.

1172 Wilens, T.E., et al., Does stimulant therapy of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder beget later substance abuse? A meta-analytic review of the literature. Pediatrics, 2003. 111(1): 179–85.

1173 Barkley, R.A., et al., Does the treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder with stimulants contribute to drug use/abuse? A 13-year prospective study. Pediatrics, 2003. 111(1): 97–109.

1174 Wilens, T.E., et al., Effect of prior stimulant treatment for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on subsequent risk for cigarette smoking and alcohol and drug use disorders in adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 2008. 162(10): 916–21.

1175 Biederman, J., et al., Stimulant therapy and risk for subsequent substance use disorders in male adults with ADHD: a naturalistic controlled 10-year follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(5): 597–603.

1176 Mannuzza, S., et al., Age of methylphenidate treatment initiation in children with ADHD and later substance abuse: prospective follow-up into adulthood. Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(5): 604–9.

1177 Huss, M., et al., No increase in long-term risk for nicotine use disorders after treatment with methylphenidate in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): evidence from a non-randomised retrospective study. J Neural Transm, 2008. 115(2): 335–9.

1178 Faraone, S.V., et al., A naturalistic study of the effects of pharmacotherapy on substance use disorders among ADHD adults. Psychol Med, 2007. 37(12): 1743–52.

1179 Volkow, N.D. and J.M. Swanson, Does childhood treatment of ADHD with stimulant medication affect substance abuse in adulthood? Am J Psychiatry, 2008. 165(5): 553–5.

1180 Kollins, S.H., ADHD, substance use disorders, and psychostimulant treatment: current literature and treatment guidelines. J Atten Disord, 2008. 12(2): 115–25.

1181 McCabe, S.E., C.J. Teter, and C.J. Boyd, Medical use, illicit use and diversion of prescription stimulant medication. J Psychoactive Drugs, 2006. 38(1): 43–56.

1182 Lieberman, J.A., B.J. Kinon, and A.D. Loebel, Dopaminergic mechanisms in idiopathic and drug-induced psychoses. Schizophr Bull, 1990. 16(1): 97–110.

1183 Munafo, M. and I. Albery, eds. Cognition and Addiction. 2006, Oxford: OUP.

1184 Arseneault, L., et al., Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence. Br J Psychiatry, 2004. 184: 110–17.

1185 Di Forti, M., et al., Cannabis use and psychiatric and cogitive disorders: the chicken or the egg? Curr Opin Psychiatry, 2007. 20(3): 228–34.

1186 Fletcher, J.M., et al., Cognitive correlates of long-term cannabis use in Costa Rican men. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 1996. 53(11): 1051–7.

1187 Graham, N.A., R.L. DuPont, and M.S. Gold, Symptoms of ADHD or marijuana use? Am J Psychiatry, 2007. 164(6): 973.

1188 Hollis, C., et al., Different psychological effects of cannabis use in adolescents at genetic high risk for schizophrenia and with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Schizophr Res, 2008. 105: 216–23.

1189 Fergusson, D.M. and J.M. Boden, Cannabis use and adult ADHD symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2008. 95(1–2): 90–6.

1190 Upadhyaya, H.P. and M.J. Carpenter, Is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptom severity associated with tobacco use? Am J Addict, 2008. 17(3): 195–8.

1191 Galéra, C., et al., Hyperactivity-inattention symptoms in childhood and substance use in adolescence: the youth gazel cohort. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 2008. 94(1–3): 30–7.

1192 Laqueille, X., et al., Methylphenidate effective in treating amphetamine abusers with no other psychiatric disorder. Eur Psychiatry, 2005. 20(5–6): 456–7.

1193 Khantzian, E.J., et al., Methylphenidate (Ritalin) treatment of cocaine dependence – a preliminary report. J Subst Abuse Treat, 1984. 1(2): 107–12.

1194 Khantzian, E.J., An extreme case of cocaine dependence and marked improvement with methylphenidate treatment. Am J Psychiatry, 1983. 140(6): 784–5.

1195 Shearer, J., et al., Substitution therapy for amphetamine users. Drug Alcohol Rev, 2002. 21(2): 179–85.

1196 Shearer, J., et al., Pilot randomized double blind placebo-controlled study of dexamphetamine for cocaine dependence. Addiction, 2003. 98(8): 1137–41.

1197 Levin, F.R., et al., Treatment of cocaine dependent treatment seekers with adult ADHD: double-blind comparison of methylphenidate and placebo. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2007. 87(1): 20–9.

1198 Levin, F.R., et al., Methylphenidate treatment for cocaine abusers with adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: a pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry, 1998. 59(6): 300–5.

1199 Solanto, M.V., Neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of stimulant drug action in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: a review and integration. Behav Brain Res, 1998. 94(1): 127–52.

1200 Volkow, N.D., et al., Therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate significantly increase extracellular dopamine in the human brain. J Neurosci, 2001. 21(2): RC121.

1201 Volkow, N.D., et al., Reinforcing effects of psychostimulants in humans are associated with increases in brain dopamine and occupancy of D(2) receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1999. 291(1): 409–15.

1202 Volkow, N.D., et al., Imaging endogenous dopamine competition with [11C]raclopride in the human brain. Synapse, 1994. 16(4): 255–62.

1203 Volkow, N.D., et al., Dopamine transporter occupancies in the human brain induced by therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate. Am J Psychiatry, 1998. 155(10): 1325–31.

1204 Volkow, N.D., et al., Blockade of striatal dopamine transporters by intravenous methylphenidate is not sufficient to induce self-reports of “high.” J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 1999. 288(1): 14–20.

1205 Volkow, N.D., et al., Relationship between psychostimulant-induced “high” and dopamine transporter occupancy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1996. 93(19): 10388–92.

1206 Castells, X., et al., Efficacy of central nervous system stimulant treatment for cocaine dependence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Addiction, 2007. 102(12): 1871–87.

1207 Szobot, C.M., et al., Methylphenidate DAT binding in adolescents with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder comorbid with Substance Use Disorder – a single photon emission computed tomography with [Tc(99m)]TRODAT-1 study. Neuroimage, 2008. 40(3): 1195–201.

1208 Robinson, T.E. and K.C. Berridge, Incentive-sensitization and addiction. Addiction, 2001. 96(1): 103–14.

1209 Robinson, T.E. and K.C. Berridge, Addiction. Annu Rev Psychol, 2003. 54: 25–53.

1210 Crawford, C.A., et al., Repeated methylphenidate treatment induces behavioral sensitization and decreases protein kinase A and dopamine-stimulated adenylyl cyclase activity in the dorsal striatum. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 1998. 136(1): 34–43.

1211 Eckermann, K., et al., Methylphenidate sensitization is modulated by valproate. Life Sci, 2001. 69(1): 47–57.

1212 Gaytan, O., et al., Sensitization to locomotor effects of methylphenidate in the rat. Life Sci, 1997. 61(8): PL101–7.

1213 Gaytan, O., et al., Blockade of sensitization to methylphenidate by MK-801: partial dissociation from motor effects. Neuropharmacology, 2001. 40(2): 298–309.

1214 Gaytan, O., A.C. Swann, and N. Dafny, Disruption of sensitization to methyl­phenidate by a single administration of MK-801. Life Sci, 2002. 70(19): 2271–85.

1215 Kolta, M.G., P. Shreve, and N.J. Uretsky, Effect of methylphenidate pretreatment on the behavioral and biochemical responses to amphetamine. Eur J Pharmacol, 1985. 117(2): 279–82.

1216 Kuczenski, R. and D.S. Segal, Locomotor effects of acute and repeated threshold doses of amphetamine and methylphenidate: relative roles of dopamine and norepinephrine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 2001. 296(3): 876–83.

1217 Lee, M.J., A.C. Swann, and N. Dafny, Methylphenidate sensitization is prevented by prefrontal cortex lesion. Brain Res Bull, 2008. 76(1–2): 131–40.

1218 Shuster, L., et al., Sensitization of mice to methylphenidate. Psycho­pharmacology (Berl), 1982. 77(1): 31–6.

1219 Valvassori, S.S., et al., Sensitization and cross-sensitization after chronic treatment with methylphenidate in adolescent Wistar rats. Behav Pharmacol, 2007. 18(3): 205–12.

1220 Wooters, T.E., et al., Methylphenidate enhances the abuse-related behavioral effects of nicotine in rats: intravenous self-administration, drug discrimination, and locomotor cross-sensitization. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2008. 33(5): 1137–48.

1221 Yang, P.B., A.C. Swann, and N. Dafny, Chronic pretreatment with methylphenidate induces cross-sensitization with amphetamine. Life Sci, 2003. 73(22): 2899–911.

1222 Yang, P.B., A.C. Swann, and N. Dafny, Chronic administration of methylphenidate produces neurophysiological and behavioral sensitization. Brain Res, 2007. 1145: 66–80.

1223 Klein, R. and S. Mannuzza, Is there stimulant sensitivity in children? J Atten Disord, 2002. 6(Suppl 1): S61–3.

1224 Lambert, N.M., M. McLeod, and S. Schenk, Subjective responses to initial experience with cocaine: an exploration of the incentive-sensitization theory of drug abuse. Addiction, 2006. 101(5): 713–25.

1225 Andersen, S.L., et al., Altered responsiveness to cocaine in rats exposed to methylphenidate during development. Nat Neurosci, 2002. 5(1): 13–14.

1226 Torres-Reveron, A. and D.L. Dow-Edwards, Repeated administration of methylphenidate in young, adolescent, and mature rats affects the response to cocaine later in adulthood. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2005. 181(1): 38–47.

1227 Yano, M. and H. Steiner, Methylphenidate and cocaine: the same effects on gene regulation? Trends Pharmacol Sci, 2007. 28(11): 588–96.

1228 Yang, P.B., A.C. Swann, and N. Dafny, Acute and chronic methylphenidate dose-response assessment on three adolescent male rat strains. Brain Res Bull, 2006. 71(1–3): 301–10.

1229 Guerriero, R.M., et al., Preadolescent methylphenidate versus cocaine treatment differ in the expression of cocaine-induced locomotor sensitization during adolescence and adulthood. Biol Psychiatry, 2006. 60(11): 1171–80.

1230 Kuczenski, R. and D.S. Segal, Exposure of adolescent rats to oral methylphenidate: preferential effects on extracellular norepinephrine and absence of sensitization and cross-sensitization to methamphetamine. J Neurosci, 2002. 22(16): 7264–71.

1231 Niculescu, M., M.E. Ehrlich, and E.M. Unterwald, Age-specific behavioral responses to psychostimulants in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2005. 82(2): 280–8.

1232 Wooters, T.E., L.P. Dwoskin, and M.T. Bardo, Age and sex differences in the locomotor effect of repeated methylphenidate in rats classified as high or low novelty responders. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2006. 188(1): 18–27.

1233 Carlezon, W.A., Jr, S.D. Mague, and S.L. Andersen, Enduring behavioral effects of early exposure to methylphenidate in rats. Biol Psychiatry, 2003. 54(12): 1330–7.

1234 Di Chiara, G., Nucleus accumbens shell and core dopamine: differential role in behavior and addiction. Behav Brain Res, 2002. 137(1–2): 75–114.

1235 Li, Y., F.J. White, and M.E. Wolf, Pharmacological reversal of behavioral and cellular indices of cocaine sensitization in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 2000. 151(2–3): 175–83.

1236 Taylor, J.R. and J.D. Jentsch, Stimulant Effects on Striatal and Cortical Dopamine Systems Involved in Reward-Related Behavior and Impulsivity, in Stimulant Drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, M.V. Solanto, A.F.T. Arnstein, and F.X. Castellanos, Editors. 2001, Oxford: OUP, pp. 104–33.

1237 Douglas, V.I. and P.A. Parry, Effects of reward on delayed reaction time task performance of hyperactive children. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1983. 11(2): 313–26.

1238 Haenlein, M. and W.F. Caul, Attention Deficit Disorder with hyperactivity: a specific hypothesis of reward dysfunction. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 1987. 26(3): 356–62.

1239 Sonuga-Barke, E.J., Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD – a dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition. Behav Brain Res, 2002. 130(1–2): 29–36.

1240 Barkley, R.A., et al., Executive functioning, temporal discounting, and sense of time in adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2001. 29(6): 541–56.

1241 Kuntsi, J., J. Oosterlaan, and J. Stevenson, Psychological mechanisms in hyperactivity: I. Response inhibition deficit, working memory impairment, delay aversion, or something else? J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2001. 42(2): 199–210.

1242 Schweitzer, J.B. and B. Sulzer-Azaroff, Self-control in boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: effects of added stimulation and time. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1995. 36(4): 671–86.

1243 Solanto, M.V., et al., The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: a supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2001. 29(3): 215–28.

1244 Sonuga-Barke, E.J., et al., Hyperactivity and delay aversion – I. The effect of delay on choice. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 1992. 33(2): 387–98.

1245 Tripp, G. and B. Alsop, Sensitivity to reward delay in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2001. 42(5): 691–8.

1246 Rapport, M.D., et al., Hyperactivity and frustration: the influence of control over and size of rewards in delaying gratification. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1986. 14(2): 191–204.

1247 Luman, M., J. Oosterlaan, and J.A. Sergeant, The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: a review and theoretical appraisal. Clin Psychol Rev, 2005. 25(2): 183–213.

1248 Volkow, N.D., et al., Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse, 1993. 14(2): 169–77.

1249 Volkow, N.D., J.S. Fowler, and G.J. Wang, Imaging studies on the role of dopamine in cocaine reinforcement and addiction in humans. J Psychopharmacol, 1999. 13(4): 337–45.

1250 Martinez, D., et al., Cocaine dependence and d2 receptor availability in the functional subdivisions of the striatum: relationship with cocaine-seeking behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2004. 29(6): 1190–202.

1251 Morgan, D., et al., Social dominance in monkeys: dopamine D2 receptors and cocaine self-administration. Nat Neurosci, 2002. 5(2): 169–74.

1252 Nader, M.A., et al., PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine self-administration in monkeys. Nat Neurosci, 2006. 9(8): 1050–6.

1253 Kopeckova, M., et al., Some ADHD polymorphisms (in genes DAT1, DRD2, DRD3, DBH, 5-HTT) in case-control study of 100 subjects 6–10 age. Neuro Endocrinol Lett, 2008. 29(2): 246–51.

1254 Ballon, N., et al., Polymorphisms TaqI A of the DRD2, BalI of the DRD3, exon III repeat of the DRD4, and 3’ UTR VNTR of the DAT: association with childhood ADHD in male African-Caribbean cocaine dependents? Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2007. 144B(8): 1034–41.

1255 Johann, M., et al., Association of the -141C Del variant of the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) with positive family history and suicidality in German alcoholics. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 2005. 132B(1): 46–9.

1256 Rowe, D.C., et al., The DRD2 TaqI polymorphism and symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Mol Psychiatry, 1999. 4(6): 580–6.

1257 Luman, M., et al., Decision-making in ADHD: sensitive to frequency but blind to the magnitude of penalty? J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 2008. 49(7): 712–22.

1258 Luman, M., J. Oosterlaan, and J.A. Sergeant, Modulation of response timing in ADHD, effects of reinforcement valence and magnitude. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 2008. 36(3): 445–56.

1259 Scheres, A., et al., Ventral striatal hyporesponsiveness during reward anticipation in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2007. 61(5): 720–4.

1260 Plichta, M.M., et al., Neural hyporesponsiveness and hyperresponsiveness during immediate and delayed reward processing in adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 2008. 65(1): 7–14.

1261 Mineka, S. and R.W. Hendersen, Controllability and predictability in acquired motivation. Annu Rev Psychol, 1985. 36: 495–529.

1262 Seligman, M.E.P., Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death. 1992, New York: W.H.Freeman & Co Ltd.

1263 Milich, R., et al., Effects of methylphenidate on the persistence of ADHD boys following failure experiences. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1991. 19(5): 519–36.

1264 Milich, R. and M. Okazaki, An examination of learned helplessness among Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disordered boys. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1991. 19(5): 607–23.

1265 Pelham, W.E., et al., Methylphenidate and attributions in boys with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol, 1992. 60(2): 282–92.

1266 Hoza, B., et al., The self-perceptions and attributions of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disordered and nonreferred boys. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 1993. 21(3): 271–86.

1267 Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., et al., Executive dysfunction and delay aversion in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: nosologic and diagnostic implications. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 2008. 17(2): 367–384.

1268 Groman, S.M., A.S. James, and J.D. Jentsch, Poor response inhibition: at the nexus between substance abuse and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2009. 33(5): 690–8.

1269 Torregrossa, M.M., J.J. Quinn, and J.R. Taylor, Impulsivity, compulsivity, and habit: the role of orbitofrontal cortex revisited. Biol Psychiatry, 2008. 63(3): 253–5.

1270 Matsuo, K., et al., A voxel-based morphometry study of frontal gray matter correlates of impulsivity. Hum Brain Mapp, 2009. 30(4): 1188–95.

1271 Volkow, N.D., et al., Imaging dopamine’s role in drug abuse and addiction. Neuropharmacology, 2009. 56 Suppl 1: 3–8.

1272 Hesslinger, B., et al., Frontoorbital volume reductions in adult patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurosci Lett, 2002. 328(3): 319–21.

1273 Lee, J.S., et al., Regional cerebral blood flow in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: comparison before and after methylphenidate treatment. Hum Brain Mapp, 2005. 24(3): 157–64.

1274 Barbelivien, A., S. Ruotsalainen, and J. Sirvio, Metabolic alterations in the prefrontal and cingulate cortices are related to behavioral deficits in a rodent model of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Cereb Cortex, 2001. 11(11): 1056–63.

1275 Bush, G., et al., Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder revealed by fMRI and the Counting Stroop. Biol Psychiatry, 1999. 45(12): 1542–52.

1276 Strohle, A., et al., Reward anticipation and outcomes in adult males with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuroimage, 2008. 39(3): 966–72.

1277 Rubia, K., et al., Disorder-specific dissociation of orbitofrontal dysfunction in boys with pure Conduct Disorder during reward and ventrolateral prefrontal dysfunction in boys with pure ADHD during sustained attention. Am J Psychiatry, 2009. 166(1): 83–94.

1278 Cardinal, R.N., et al., Limbic corticostriatal systems and delayed reinforcement. Ann NY Acad Sci, 2004. 1021: 33–50.

1279 Chambers, R.A., J.R. Taylor, and M.N. Potenza, Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: a critical period of addiction vulnerability. Am J Psychiatry, 2003. 160(6): 1041–52.

1280 Crews, F., J. He, and C. Hodge, Adolescent cortical development: a critical period of vulnerability for addiction. Pharmacol Biochem Behav, 2007. 86(2): 189–99.

1281 O’Brien, C.P., Brain Development as a Vulnerability Factor in the Etiology of Substance Abuse and Addiction, in Adolescent Psychopathology and the Developing Brain, D. Romer and E.F. Walker, Editors. 2007, Oxford: OUP, pp. 388–98.

1282 Bush, G., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and attention networks. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2010. 35(1): 278–300.

1283 Shaw, R., A. Grayson, and V. Lewis, Inhibition, ADHD, and computer games: the inhibitory performance of children with ADHD on computerized tasks and games. J Atten Disord, 2005. 8(4): 160–8.

1284 Fossella, J.A., S. Bishop, and B.J. Casey, Exploring genetic influences on cognition: emerging strategies for target validation and treatment optimization. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord, 2003. 2(6): 357–62.

1285 Durston, S., P. de Zeeuw, and W.G. Staal, Imaging genetics in ADHD: a focus on cognitive control. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2009. 33(5): 674–89.

1286 Schlander, M., Is NICE infallible? A qualitative study of its assessment of treatments for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Curr Med Res Opin, 2008. 24(2): 515–35.

1287 Schlander, M., Has NICE got it right? An international perspective considering the case of Technology Appraisal No. 98 by the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Curr Med Res Opin, 2008. 24(4): 951–66.

1288 Schlander, M., The NICE ADHD health technology assessment: a review and critique. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health, 2008. 2(1): 1.