Compiled by Sylvia Coates
Adam and Eve, 43, 120, 123. See also Fall
Adorno, Theodor, 2, 192, 193, 238, 262, 292, 305, 306, 308, 310
Afghanistan (Buddhas destruction), 284
After Auschwitz (Rubinstein), 239
Alfonso X (king of Castile): Kant’s extension of challenge by, 79, 109–10; Leibniz’s response to, 18, 25–26, 57; objection to God’s design by, 14–18, 30, 109, 147, 247, 312; Rousseau’s answer to objections of, 53–54, 57–58, 109
alienation, 88
L’An 2440 (tract), 29
analytic philosophy, 290–91, 307, 310, 313
Anecdotes sur Mme la comtesse du Barry, 177
Anna Karenina (Tolstoy), 7
anthropomorphism, 155, 156, 157
antisemitism: German form of, 271; as God’s instrument, 253; Nazis’ as variation of historic, 254
Arendt, Hannah: description of goodness by, 302–3; on Eichmann’s intention, 271–73, 276; fungus metaphor for banal evil by, 301–2, 303; on Hegelianism during Eichmann’s trial, 260–61; on Hegel’s rational and actual equation, 102; link between Rousseau and, 11; postwar theodicy of, 300–304; response to Auschwitz by, 238; on role of Jewish Councils, 273–74, 356n.18; theodicies defined by, 299; See also Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt)
Aristotle, 225
Auschwitz: Agamben on, 264; Améry on, 264–66; classical religious explanations for, 253–54; comparing devastation of Lisbon to, 239–40; faith destroyed by, 239; impact on meaning of moral evil by, 257–58; meaning of, 251; metaphysical vs. political discussion of, 273–74; as moral lesson about vigilance, 286; Musselmänner in, 266–67; postwar response to suffering within, 266–67; problem of evil posed by, 2, 3, 273–81; as representing new form of evil, 256–58; responsibility problem of, 270–73; reticence of response to, 2; risks of comparing Lisbon earthquake and, 8; signaling replacing God failure, 281; survivor guilt and, 262; as symbol for modern breakdown, 255. See also Final Solution; World War II
The Authoritarian Personality (Adorno et al.), 292
Bacon, Francis, 137
Barthes, Roland, 293
Bayle, Pierre: acceptance of things beyond understanding, 34–35; on Alfonso, 15; argument about infinite amounts of torture by, 351n.4; Cartesianism promoted by, 125–26; on Christianity solution to problem of evil, 18–19; early life/death of brother, 117; on free will defense, 120–25; on history as crimes and misfortunes, 10, 96; influence of, 116–17, 127–28; loving mother metaphor used by, 122–24; on Manichaeism as response to experience, 19, 20, 21; on problem of evil, 118–21; skepticism of, 127–28; Voltaire’s admiration for, 116–17, 127, 129, 131; See also Dictionary (Bayle)
Benjamin, Walter, 80, 98, 292, 305, 315–16
Beyond Good and Evil (Nietzsche), 227
blasphemy: essence of, 15; metaphysical rebellion vs., 295; superstition/idolatry as, 70–71. See also Alfonso X (king of Castile)
Bloch, Ernst, 292
Blumenberg, Hans, 58, 59, 288, 315, 316
Bonnet, Charles, 41
book burning, 284
Bradley, F. H., 289
Brecht, Bertolt, 302
Brief Relation of the Destruction of the Indies (De Las Casas), 172
The Brothers Karamazov (Dostoevksy), 296
Buchenwald, 255
Buddhas destruction (Afghanistan), 284
Bury, J. D., 258
calculus, 25
Calvinism: comparing Manichaeism to, 124–25; predestination doctrine of, 19
Camus, Albert: on aestheticization of evil, 302; on Greek/Christian worldviews, 294–95; as metaphysical rebel, 295–97; use of plague symbolism for evil, 292–94; political analysis of metaphysical evil by, 294–95
Candide; or, Optimism (Voltaire): as case against hope, 116; comparing Zadig worldview to, 128–37; disharmony expressed in, 179; optimism/pessimism/realism of, 133–34, 144–48; Pangloss in, 87, 128, 131, 134, 139, 143–44, 145, 148; problem of evil examined in, 141–46; Seven Years’ War described in, 132; travels through Eldorado in, 150–51
Cartesian dualism, 125–26, 267
causality: Bayle on God and natural evil, 120–21; as center of Hume’s work, 149, 154–55, 163–64, 165–68; Hume on similarities of, 157–59; suffering and greater good, 30–31; Voltaire’s differentiation of reason and, 139
childbirth metaphor, 224
children: Freud on Providence notion and frightened, 318–19; problem of evil as expression of needs of, 319–20; Rousseau on manipulation of, 53, 55–56, 59–60; Rousseau’s interest in development of, 321; Rousseau on value of punishment for, 47–48; self-knowledge development by, 51
Chou En-lai, 99
Christianity: Auschwitz impact on, 239; Camus’s examination of, 294–95; Hume’s presentation as alternative, 156; Manichaean heresies of, 19, 20, 21, 24; on meaning for pain of childbirth, 224; as meditation on man/God relationship, 85; presented as solution to problem of evil, 18–19; suffering revered by, 216–17; view of Greek gods by, 352n.14. See also Manichaean heresies
Civilization and Its Discontents (Freud), 231–32
Clarke, Samuel, 28
Confessions (Rousseau), 37, 49, 178, 212
contemporary evil: Auschwitz as conceptual, 240; Auschwitz lesson on vigilance against, 286; of Auschwitz Musselmänner 266–67; Auschwitz as representing new form of, 256–58; begin through trivial steps, 301–2; comparing Lisbon to losses of, 305–6; condemning both moral and natural, 286–87; impact of technology on, 255–56; impossible explanations for, 238–39; interest in Sade’s portraits of, 278–79; lines crossed during W.W. II as, 251; new forms of theodicy to explain, 257–58; as product of will/intention, 268–69; seeking explanations of September 11 as, 285–86. See also evil
continental philosophy, 290–91, 307
Copernicus, 26
Creation: Camus’s ethic on hatred of Creator vs., 298; design argument supporting, 28–29, 152–54, 159–62; difficulty in separating Creator and, 299; earthquakes as challenging goodness of, 246–47; Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt) as defense of, 300–304; goodness of, 33; Hume on similarities/order within, 157–59; intellectual intuition to perceive, 63; Kant on seasons as proof of divine, 21, 152; natural religion on gratitude for, 150; natural religion regarding design of, 162–63; nature as product of, 82; Rousseau’s world as testifying of, 50
Creator: Camus’s ethic on Creation and hatred for, 298; design argument and architect role of, 28–29, 152–54, 159–62; difficulty in separating Creation and, 299. See also God
“Creed of the Savoyard Vicar” (Emile) [Rousseau], 40–41, 52, 150
Critical Philosophy: on moral principles, 79; principle of sufficient reason in, 61–62, 138–39, 320, 326; on urge to move beyond experience, 357n.22; warning on God’s displacement as part of, 62. See also Kant, Immanuel
Critical Theory: overview of, 305–10; on possibility of changing the world, 308
Critique of Judgment (Kant), 82, 83–84, 110
Critique of Practical Reason (Kant), 90–91, 110, 148–49
Critique of Pure Reason (Kant), 6, 11, 65, 80, 81, 110, 212
damned: Leibniz’s speculations regarding, 22; predestination on, 19–20
Demea (Dialogues character), 158, 161
Descartes, René: on appearance and reality, 126; as father of modern philosophy, 10
design argument, 28–29, 81–84, 152–54, 159–62, 195
desire: Kant notion of freedom applied to, 90–91; Schopenhauer on destruction of, 200
Devil. See Satan
Dialectic of Enlightenment (Adorno and Horkheimer), 192, 193, 305, 308
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (Hume), 149, 152, 156, 158, 167, 169, 207–8
Dictionary (Bayle): Enlightenment marked by, 10; influence of, 116–17. See also Bayle, Pierre
Diderot, Denis, 150
Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (Rousseau), 11, 40
Dissertation (Marx), 14
Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 114, 255, 278, 325
“The Earthquake in Chile” (Kleist), 324
earthquakes: as challenging Creation, 246–47; essay responses to Lisbon, 1–2, 38–39; fault theory of, 245; Kleist’s resistance to giving meaning to, 324; as like wars, 255; as paradigms of natural evil, 243; Turkish (1999), 164. See also Lisbon earthquake; natural evil
Ecce Homo (Nietzsche), 218
Eichmann, Adolf, 271–73, 276, 277, 300, 301, 302, 356n.17
Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt): debate over, 299–300; on evil as refusal to use reason, 303–4; on Final Solution role of Jewish Councils, 273–74, 356n.18; on Hegelianism during trial, 260–61; as postwar theodicy, 300–304. See also Arendt, Hannah
Einstein, Albert, 327
Emile (Rousseau), 37, 40, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52–53, 55–56, 59, 72, 85
“Das Ende aller Dinge” (Kant), 304
Engels, Friedrich: on communism as conclusion of philosophy, 107–8; on taking power from God, 106
Enlightenment: dating the origins of, 10; developing picture of childhood using, 321–22; idea of progress during, 258–59; independent thought as key to, 88–89; influence of Dictionary (Bayle) during, 116–17; interest in cultural mores during, 134; natural religion as hope of, 149–50, 151–52; Sade’s contribution to demasking task of, 171–72; skepticism of thinkers throughout, 258; utopian fantasies of future during, 29
Epicurus, 118
Essay on Man (Pope): compared to Theodicy, 35; defense of Providence in, 35; influence on Voltaire by, 137; philosophical debate over, 32–33; struggle between hope/despair within, 34–35
eternal return doctrine, 219–20
evil: Arendt’s fungus metaphor for banal, 301–2, 303; Bayle on God and, 120–21; danger of denying existence of, 41–43; demanding complete explanation of, 29; difficulties in defining, 8–9; distinction between natural and moral, 3–4, 39–40, 107, 217–18; earthquakes as paradigms of natural, 243; Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt) on refusal to use reason as, 303–4; Enlightenment development of modern conceptions of, 4; fears of complete understanding of, 324–26; freedom, reason, sexuality sources of, 50–51; free will and, 43; Hume on causality of, 163–68; as inimical to good, 287–88; Leibniz’s definition of metaphysical, 22–23, 93; metaphysical question on good vs., 322–33; mid-18th-century discussion on eliminating, 92–93; natural evils as punishment for moral, 38; as product of will/intention, 268–69; redemption through future goodness, 263; refusal to become instruments of, 288; Rousseau’s philosophical treatment of, 41–57; Sade on relations of natural and moral, 190–91; Schopenhauer on balance of moral and natural, 199; search for naturalistic explanation of, 30–31, 235–37; taking responsibility for, 105–6, 236–37, 261, 269, 270, 356n.21. See also contemporary evil; metaphysical evil; problem of evil
experience: claims of causation through, 154; Manichaeism as response to, 19, 20, 21; philosophical justification of, 200–206; Schopenhauer on suffering as essence of, 197–200, 208–9; scientific progress tied to, 137; uniting ought and is as part of, 323–24; urge to move beyond, 357n.22
experimental principle, 156–57
faith: Auschwitz as destroying, 239; destroyed by natural disasters, 37–40; Rousseau on rational grounds for, 40–41, 72–73; scientific discovery supporting, 28–29; Theodicy on conformity of reason and, 21–22, 53; theodicy function regarding, 222–23, 239. See also optimism
Fall: Discourse (Rousseau) alternative to, 43, 45–47, 53; as necessary for birth of humanity, 98; Nietzsche on misery explained through, 226–27; problem of explaining, 23; Rousseau’s version without intentional evil, 268–69; Voltaire on the, 142. See also Adam and Eve
Falwell, Jerry, 286
Faulkner, William, 251
Faust (Goethe), 210, 225–26, 278–79
Feuerbach, Ludwig, 110
Fiedler, Leslie, 251
Final Solution: debate over German responsibility for, 274–75; functionalist and intentionalist schools, 277; role of Jewish Councils in, 273–74, 356n.18. See also Auschwitz
First Cause, 154
The Flies (Sartre), 238
Flight 93 (September 11), 287–88
Foucault, Michel, 99
Frankfurt School, 292, 305, 306
free will/freedom: Bayle on argument of, 120–25; choices that reveal true, 260; exercised in God’s image, 76–78; Flight 93 as proof of, 287–88; focus on immoral choices made through, 54–55; as God’s greatest gift, 43; impact of total knowledge on, 67–68; Kant’s notion of, 69–74, 90–91, 261, 269; Marx on reclaiming, 109; responsibility as price of, 107
Freud, Sigmund: childhood pictured by, 319–20; on coping with suffering, 232–34; on culture and civilization, 229–30, 233, 234; on reasons for belief in Providence, 227–37, 318–19; on sources of suffering, 228–30, 232; on terror-constructed worldview, 231–32; on wish to control, 235–37
The Future of an Illusion (Freud), 228
The Gay Science (Nietzsche), 305
General Providence, 110. See also Providence
German Historians’ Debate (1980s), 252
Germany: difference between Soviet Union and Nazi, 259; moral responsibility debate in, 274–75; randomness of responses within, 259–60; universal element of Auschwitz vindicating, 252, 254–55; virulent form of antisemitism, 271
Glanz (Adorno), 310
God: Alfonso’s blasphemy against, 14–18, 30, 109, 147, 247, 312; antisemites as instruments of, 253–54; Camus’s ethic on separating Creation from, 298; design argument and architect role of, 28–29, 152–54, 159–62; dissatisfaction from wish to be, 62–63; Engels on taking power from, 106; free will as gift from, 43; free will as reflective imitation of, 76–78; Hegel on philosophy role by, 86–87; Hegel’s metaphor for, 27; hope as gift from, 327; injustice of infinite punishment permitted by, 19–20; Kant on seasons as evidence of, 21, 152; Nietzsche’s problem of evil and the death of, 215–27; Nietzsche’s various portrayals of, 353n.2; notion of divine freedom of, 38; Sade’s arguments on existence of, 189–90; sin and suffering as coming from, 23–24; on trial since Job’s story, 18. See also Creator; Providence; replacing God
God’s intention: Bayle on problem of evil and, 118–21; design argument and, 28–29, 152–54, 159–62; implications of pre-destination doctrine for, 19–21; Leibniz’s reason defense of, 21–27, 57, 58; The Plague (Camus) regarding, 293–94; Rousseau’s vindication of, 4, 55, 57–58, 59–60; Theodicy used in defense of, 18, 24–27. See also intention; theodicy
God’s knowledge: claims of, 124; empiricists on human vs., 64; as exceeding human knowledge, 3; Leibniz’s views on, 63–64. See also knowledge
God’s nature: as anthropomorphic, 155, 156, 157; Bayle’s loving mother metaphor for, 122–24; comparing Manichaean and Calvinist view of, 124–25; Hume on, 155–56; natural religion on generosity of, 164; Sade’s suggestions of evil in, 188–89, 190–91, 195
God’s order: implications of Lisbon earthquake for, 4–5; new bourgeois world and, 247; Pantheism Controversy debate over, 58–60; Rousseau’s defense of, 4, 55, 57–58, 59–60
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 58–59, 209–10, 278–79, 354n.2
Goldhagen, Daniel, 271
good/goodness: Arendt’s description of, 302–3; Auschwitz and beliefs about, 258–59; Creation as, 33, 50; earthquakes as challenging Creation, 246–47; evil as inimical to, 287–88; Hegelian view of, 94–100, 259, 260–61; historical evidence of progress in, 94–98, 263; metaphysical question on evil vs., 322–33; redemption of evil through future, 263; Rousseau on required intervention for, 53, 55–56, 59–60; theodicy function regarding God’s, 222–23, 239; as universe force, 42
grace: implications for happiness-virtue connection by, 141; original sin and need for, 36
“Grand Inquisitor” (Dostoevsky), 295
Greek gods: Camus on worldview of, 295; Christian view of, 352n.14; Freud on functions of, 230–31; Nietzsche on suffering of, 213–14; Orpheus and Hades, 72; Prometheus, 58–59, 108, 109, 226, 227
Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Kant), 76, 77
guilt: as act of revenge, 217; Auschwitz and survivor, 262; Nazi, 275–76; Nietzsche’s conception of, 215, 217; religious suffering from, 230; as requiring malice and forethought, 271–72; universal element of Auschwitz and German, 252, 254–55
Habermas, Jürgen, 292
happiness: Candide on, 146; as desire of reason, 72–75; Freud on pleasure principle and, 232–33; tragedy and, 75
happiness-virtue connection: dangers of knowledge regarding, 67–68; implications of grace and reason for, 141; Kant’s view on, 65–68, 70–71; Leibniz on scientific revelations on, 67; as moral action goal, 66, 70–71; presupposing, 60–61; Rousseau’s view on, 48–49. See also virtue
Haym, Rudolf, 101
Hazan, Rabbi Isaac, 15
Hegel, G.W.F.: on aim of knowledge, 100; on becoming God through knowing self, 84–86; description of God by, 27; on elimination of the contingent, 89–93, 111, 261; as influence on communism, 107; influence of Kant on, 85–89; metaphysical frame for problem of evil by, 86, 93–94; on progress of goodness, 94–100, 259, 260–61; real = the rational dictum by, 101; return to Leibniz by, 87; theodicy claims by, 86–87, 103; on understanding reality through philosophy, 100–101
Hegel und seine Zeit (Haym), 101
Heine, Heinrich, 68, 72, 214, 284
Herodotus, 209
Himmler, Heinrich, 275
Historical and Critical Dictionary (Bayle). See Dictionary (Bayle)
historical materialism puppet metaphor, 315–16
history: Hegel on progress of goodness evident in, 94–98, 263; as history of crimes and misfortunes, 10, 96, 117; mental torture of tragic events in, 89–90; as negation of given reality, 101; Rousseau’s view of evil as phenomenon of, 44–47
history of philosophy: assumptions of, 4–5; on attempts to provide self-knowledge, 212; Kant’s insights into, 148; learning from the, 327–28; reconciliation and, 313; reorienting, 12–13; secularization of the sacred during, 316–17; shifting focus on problem of evil in, 54–55, 288–91. See also philosophy
History of Western Philosophy (Russell), 289
Hobbes, Thomas, 96
“Homeless Shelter” (Adorno), 305
Horkheimer, Max, 192, 193, 292, 306
humankind: Auschwitz’s revelations regarding, 254–55; breakdown of faith in modernity by, 250–51; capacity for cruelty of, 256; Engels on returning power from God to, 106; Freud on terror-constructed worldview of, 231–32; Hegel on historic progress of goodness in, 94–98; individual metaphor for development of, 98; Marx on replacement of God invented by, 108; suffering capacities of, 161; traditional theology placing blame on, 355n.5. See also God; Providence
human nature: Hegel’s explorations into divine and, 85; Kant’s vision of, 82–83; reason as the divine in, 88–89
Hume, David: on causality of evil, 149, 154–55, 163–68; experimental principle used by, 156–57; focus on natural world by, 152–54, 159–62, 169; on God as architect of design argument, 28–29, 152–54, 159–62; on God’s nature, 155–56; influence of Bayle on, 127; influence on Kant by, 81; Kant’s comments on, 148–49; on living your life over, 207–8; natural religion promoted by, 149–54; reasonableness of, 168–69, 195–96; recognizing reality of evil, 42; regarding anthropomorphism, 155, 156, 157
injustice: against Job, 100; of infinite punishment, 19–20; Rawls on not acquiescing, 312. See also justice
intention: Arendt on Eichmann’s, 271–73, 276; Auschwitz context of, 270–73; evidence of September 11, 283–84; of evil acts, 268–69; forced participation of victims and, 274–75; functionalist/intentionalist schools debate over, 277; guilt as requiring malice and, 271–72. See also God’s intention
Introduction to the Lectures on the Philosophy of World History (Hegel), 86–87, 317
James, Henry, 250
Jesus Christ: Camus on problems solved by, 295; crucifixion of, 214, 222, 256; punishment taken on by, 19; salvation provided by passion of, 43
Jewish Councils, 273–74, 356n.18
Jewish people: Auschwitz viewed as judgment against, 253–54; Providence origins in history of, 100
Job: birth cursed by, 142; charges against God on behalf of, 18; early justification for trials of, 17; epilogue on rewards in story of, 130; Nietzsche regarding affirmation of, 225; as only one individual among many, 24; origins of theodicy in story of, 291; problem of evil began with story of, 135; as question for messianic redemption, 19; rationalization of injustice against, 100; virtue-happiness connection and, 71
Johnson, Dr., 108
Judaism: Auschwitz impact on, 239; on human and divine nature, 85; on transcendent ideas, 306
Juliette: The Prosperities of Vice (Sade), 170, 174, 175, 180, 186–87, 190; didactic purposes of exaggeration of, 194–95
justice: Freud on childhood expectations of, 235–36; Schopenhauer on world as tribunal of world, 199, 204; Voltaire’s questioning of Providence, 141–48, 204. See also injustice
Justice as Fairness (Rawls), 313
Justine: The Misfortunes of Virtue (Sade): didactic purposes of exaggeration of, 194–95; ending of, 185–87; philosophers as villains in, 173–76, 178; Providence presentation in, 180–81, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 190; read as empiricist’s warning, 195; virtue presented as despair, 180, 183–85
Kant, Immanuel: attacks on instrumental conceptions of reason by, 193, 195; attacks on Stoic thought by, 75–76; being at home metaphors used by, 304; demands for systematic account of reason by, 326–27; on difference between nature and reason, 61–62, 81–82, 88–89; distinction between moral and natural evil, 217–18; on ends vs. means of reason, 321–22; essays on nature of earthquakes by, 1, 39, 244–46; on God as exceeding human knowledge, 3; on happiness-virtue connection, 65–68; on his early optimistic works, 246; influence on Hegel by, 85–89; on Job’s story, 17; on living your life over, 208; lying to assassins example by, 77, 138, 288; metaphysical evil rejected by, 108, 109–10; on moral action and knowledge, 67–70; notion of freedom of, 69–74, 90–91, 261, 269; principle of sufficient reason of, 61–62, 138–39, 320, 326; problem of evil assumptions questioned by, 60–62; on psalms of King David, 29; on purposiveness of nature, 82–83; on Rousseau as second Newton, 36, 37, 41; on Rousseau’s view of history and evil, 44–45; on seasons as evidence of God, 21, 152; on the sublime and harmony, 83–84; on superstition/idolatry as blasphemy, 70–71; theodicy denounced by, 68–70; transcendental idealism on God’s knowledge, 64–65; on transcendent ideas, 306–7; on truth telling, 73–74, 354n.16
Kant’s Copernican Revolution, 63, 86
Kepler, Johannes, 26
Kierkegaard, Søren, 84
Kleist, Heinrich von, 324
Klossowski, Pierre, 188
knowledge: dissatisfaction from wish to be God and human, 62–63; of happiness-virtue connection, 67–68; Hegel’s goal for, 100; Imitatio Dei principle guiding acts of, 77–78; impact on moral action of, 67–70; Kant’s transcendental idealism on, 64–65; redemption through, 51–53. See also God’s knowledge; self-knowledge
Kohlhaas, Michael, 71
Kojeve, Alexander, 101
Krüger, Johann Gottlob, 243, 244
Labrousse, Elisabeth, 127
Lactantius, 118
The Law of Peoples (Rawls), 313
Lectures on the History of Philosophy (Hegel), 95
legitimacy of the modern, 315–16
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm: on Alfonso’s blasphemy, 18, 25–26, 57; on Bayle’s demands for explanation of evil, 29; comparing Nietzsche to, 222–23; on coping with catastrophe, 38–39, 67; defense of God by, 21–27, 57; on differences between Creator and Creation, 298; distance between Pope and, 32–33, 35; on God’s knowledge, 63–64; influence on Hegel by, 87; influence on Voltaire by, 129–30, 136; on living your life over, 206–7; metaphysical evil defined by, 22–23, 93; See also Theodicy (Leibniz)
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 32, 59, 327
“Letters to a German Friend” (Camus), 297
Levinas, Emmanuel, 238, 239, 291, 292, 356n.21
life: Freud on difficulty of, 232; Goethe’s own description of his life, 354n.2; irreconciliation of morality and, 215–16; meaning through suffering, 216–17; Nietzsche on justification of, 225–26; Nietzsche on tragedy affirming, 225; ought and is gap in, 89, 101, 102, 111, 215–16; question regarding living over your, 206–14; suffering as condemnation of, 216. See also experience
Lisbon: as commercial/cultural center, 241; destruction suffered by, 241–42; efforts to restore order/political unrest in, 248–50, 283
Lisbon earthquake: comparing devastation of Auschwitz and, 239–40; comparing modern losses to, 305–6; implications for God’s order by, 4–5; intellectual world’s debate over, 247–50; Kant essay on, 1, 39, 244–46; meaning of, 251; modernity born during, 267–68; natural disaster nature of, 3; number mysticism regarding timing of, 244; parallels between September 11 and, 282; religious responses to, 242–45; risks of comparing Auschwitz and, 8; Rousseau/Voltaire on, 1, 4, 39–40, 137–38, 210–11, 353n.6; rumors of new earthquake following, 249; sequence of disaster of, 241–42. See also earthquakes
“The Lisbon Earthquake” (Voltaire), 116, 132, 135, 210–11
Loewith, Karl, 315
love: as cornerstone of society, 52; Voltaire’s Dictionary entry on, 139–40
loving mother metaphor, 122–24
lying to assassins (Kant’s example), 77, 138, 288
Lyotard, Jean-François, 251, 292
McTaggart, John, 289
Malagrida, Father, 249
Manichaean heresies: compared to Calvinism, 124–25; as problem of evil explanation, 118–21, 124; as response to experience, 19, 20, 21; on struggle between God and Satan, 118. See also Christianity
Marquard, Odo, 310
Marx, Karl: philosophical influences on, 107–8; philosophical position of, 103–4, 109; on theology/philosophy connections, 104–6
maturity: dangers of, 352n.17; moderation and, 74; taking responsibility as part of, 107; as theme of Kant’s philosophy, 74
meaning: of Auschwitz, Lisbon, and Hiroshima, 251; as hopeful gesture, 327–28; impact of Auschwitz on moral evil, 257–58; Kleist’s resistance to give earthquake, 324; of life through suffering, 216–17; nature as lacking, 268; of suffering, 217–18, 224; of W.W. I, 250–51. See also experience
Mendelssohn, Moses, 32, 85, 327
“Metaphysical Deduction” (Kant), 61
metaphysical evil: Camus’s rebellion against, 295–97; Candide’s irony regarding, 145–46; Kant’s rejection of, 108, 109–10; Leibniz on, 22–23, 93; opposition of nature/morality and, 267; The Plague (Camus) analysis of, 293–95, 297; return to examining, 309–10. See also evil; moral evil
metaphysical outrage, 323
metaphysics: making sense of the world using, 322; ought and is gap generating, 322–23
Mill, John Stuart, 289
Minima Moralia (Adorno), 305
miracles: gratitude for natural vs. divine, 246–47; Kant on disaster as counterpart to, 83; resurrection as, 19
moderation, 74
modernity: Auschwitz symbolism for breakdown of, 255; begun through act of theodicy, 288; born during Lisbon earthquake, 267–68; breakdown of, 250–51; Candide as description of path to, 146; legitimacy of, 315–16; as source of unhappiness, 99
moral action: consequences of, 78–79; contingency and, 89–93, 111, 261; happiness-virtue goal of, 66, 70–71; impact of knowledge on, 67–70; Kant, Adorno, and Horkheimer on, 193–94; Kant on happiness and, 69–74; taken by Flight 93 passengers, 287–88
moral dilemma: freedom through choices during, 260–61; Groundwork (Kant) on, 76–78
moral evil: Augustine on connection of natural and, 42–43; Auschwitz Musselmänner, 266–67; Bayle on God’s invention of, 120–21; contemporary condemnation of natural and, 286–87; distinction between natural and, 3–4, 39–40, 107, 217–18; Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt) on refusal to use reason as, 303–4; fears of complete understanding of, 324–26; Hume on causality of, 163–68; impact of Auschwitz in meaning of, 257–58; link between overcoming natural and, 53–54; Lisbon earthquake as punishment for, 242–45; natural evils as punishment for, 38; The Plague (Camus) as metaphor of, 292–94, 296, 298; as product of will/intention, 268–69; redemption through future goodness, 263; Sade on relations of natural and, 190–91; Schopenhauer on balance of natural and, 199; taking responsibility for, 106–7, 236–37, 261, 269, 270, 356n.21. See also metaphysical evil; natural evil
morality: Freud on gods’ function regarding, 230–31; irreconcilability of life and, 215–16; Kant’s fantasy of God replaced by, 79–80; overcoming gap between nature and, 267, 270; rejecting reconciliation of nature and, 257–58
moral responsibility: debate over German, 274–75; as price of freedom, 107; problem of Auschwitz and, 270–73; taken for evil, 105–6, 236–37, 261, 269, 270, 356n.21; understanding historical, 277
The Myth of Sisyphus (Camus), 294–95
natural disasters: as counterpart to miracle, 83; essay responses to Lisbon, 1–2; faith destroyed by, 37–40; Freud on need for control over, 235–37; impact of technology on, 255; Leibniz on coping with, 38–39, 67; link between overcoming moral and, 53–54; number mysticism to predict, 244; as punishment for moral evils, 38. See also Lisbon earthquake
natural evil: Augustine on connection of moral and, 42–43; Bayle on God as cause of, 120–21; contemporary condemnation of moral and, 286–87; demystifying, 235–37; distinction between moral and, 3–4, 39–40, 107, 217–18; earthquakes as paradigms of, 243; link between overcoming moral and, 53–54; Sade on relations of moral and, 190–91; Schopenhauer on balance of moral and, 199; Spinozism perspective on, 60. See also earthquakes; moral evil
Natural History of Religion (Hume), 149, 156, 166
natural religion: demystifying evil through, 235–37; Dialogues (Hume) on, 149–50, 151–52; on generosity of God, 164; regarding Creation design, 162–63; stripped of superstition, 153–54
natural world, 152–54, 159–62, 169
nature: Freud on civilization as defense against, 229–30; Freud on need for control over, 235–37; function of Greek gods explanation of, 230; as having no meaning, 268; Kant on difference between reason and, 61–62, 81–82, 88–89; Kant on purposiveness of, 82–83; overcoming gap between morality and, 267, 270; rejecting reconciliation of morality and, 257–58; Sade’s search for ultimate crime against, 269
Nazis: book burning by, 284; Camus’s view of, 297; difference between Soviet Union and, 259; differences between others and, 252; forced participation of victims by, 274–75; guilt of, 275–76; as historic antisemitism variation, 254; more evil produced with less malice by, 270–71; The Plague (Camus) as metaphor for, 293–94, 297; propaganda efforts by, 275; role of Jewish Councils in Final Solution of, 273–74, 356n.18; as war criminals vs. uniquely diabolical, 253–54
Newton, Sir Isaac, 25, 28, 31, 53
Newton of the mind. See Rousseau, Jean-Jacques
Nietzsche, Friedrich: Améry’s transcendence as opposition to, 264–66; announcement of God’s displacement, 17–18; childbirth metaphor used by, 224; comparing Leibniz to, 222–23; conception of guilt by, 215, 217; contributions to theodicy by, 213–27; on creation of problem of evil, 213, 257; on death of God, 84, 215–27; difficulty in classifying, 204–6; difficulty in separating Creator/Creation in view of, 299; doctrine of eternal return by, 219–20; focus on centrality of problem of evil by, 205–6, 289; idea/reality opposition overcome by, 263–64; identification with Stoics by, 221; on justification of life, 225–26; metaphysical wound spoken of by, 88; on redemption of past pain, 219; on revelations of life question, 212–14; on suffering, 213–14, 221–22, 223–27; on transcendence as betrayal of life, 307–8; various portrayals of God by, 353n.2
Nietzsche’s Last Men, 218, 235
Night (Wiesel), 239
nihilism, Pantheism Controversy and, 58
La Nouvelle Héloïse (Rousseau), 42
number mysticism, 244
Nürnberg judgment, 251
Odyssey (Homer), 305
Oedipus, 74, 90, 138, 206, 228, 272–73
Oedipus at Colonus, 206
“On Critical Theory” (Horkheimer), 306–7
On the Genealogy of Morals (Nietzsche), 113
“On the Supposed Right to Lie from Altruistic Motives” (Kant), 73
optimism: Candide’s portrayal of pessimism, realism, and, 133–34, 144–48; invention of Providence and need for, 317; Kant on his early works of, 246; reflecting 18th-century interest in theodicy, 321; Rousseau and Voltaire’s debate over, 210–12
original sin, 33, 35, 36, 43, 96, 142, 269
The Origins of Totalitarianism (Arendt), 292
ought and is gap, 89, 101, 102, 111, 215–16, 257, 322, 323–24
Pangloss, 87, 128, 131, 134, 139, 143–44, 145, 148
Pantheismusstreit (Pantheism Controversy): differing responses to, 59–60; ignited by Goethe, 58–59
Phenomenology of Spirit (Hegel), 5, 84, 96, 96–98, 108, 212
Philo (Dialogues character), 158, 159–60, 161
Philosophical Dictionary (Voltaire), 116
Philosophical Investigations (Wittgenstein), 1, 212
philosophical pornography, 176–80
philosophy: absence of problem of evil discussion in modern, 288–90; analytic division into specializations of, 327; comparison of poetry and, 33–34; denying God and, 42; differences between continental and analytic, 290–91, 307, 313; elimination of the contingent aim of, 89–90, 111, 261; Engels on communism as conclusion of, 107–8; epistemological center of modern, 5–6; experience justification through, 200–206; grounds for early metaphysical inquiries of, 6; Hegel on role of God in modern, 86–87; Hegel on understanding through, 100–101; legitimacy of the modern and, 315–16; Lisbon earthquake debated through, 1–2, 39, 244–50; living your life over question asked by, 206–14; Marx on ties between theology and, 104–6; metaphysical outrage used to produce, 323; as objective of Sade’s Justine, 173–76; permanent separation of theology and, 86; using pornographic vehicle for arguments of, 176–80; rationalist/empiricists division of, 114–15; reconciliation role of political, 313; reemergence of problem of evil discussion in, 291–314; relations between psychology and, 212; Rousseau on the vanity of, 40; secularization of sacred in, 316–17; as seeking truth, 103; self-knowledge as task of, 212; Voltaire on vanity of, 116. See also history of philosophy
Philosophy of Right (Hegel), 313
The Plague (Camus), 292–94, 296, 298
political philosophy, 313
Pombal (Lisbon prime minister), 248, 250, 283
Pope, Alexander: on coping with catastrophe, 38–39; distance between Leibniz and, 32–33, 35; influence of views, 31–33; influence on Voltaire by, 135–37; use of poetry as medium by, 33–34; on self-love necessity, 35–36
“Pope a Metaphysician!” (Lessing and Mendelssohn), 32
predestination doctrine: described, 19–20; implications for God of, 19–21
pride, 114
Principia (Newton), 72
principle of sufficient reason, 61–62, 138–39, 320, 326
problem of evil: atheists’ formulation of, 314–15; Auschwitz’s presentation of, 2, 3, 273–81; Bayle on free will defense of, 120–25; Bayle’s analysis of, 118–21; Christianity presented as solution to, 18–19; claims of this text regarding, 7–8; danger of denying, 41–42; danger of fragmenting, 7; death of God as Nietzsche’s solution to, 215–27; development over time and solution to, 44–47; differences in philosophical traditions approaches to, 290–91; as expression of child’s needs, 319–20; fears of understanding, 324–26; Hegel’s use of metaphysical frame for, 86, 93–94; Hume’s approach to, 168–69; Job’s story and, 17; Job’s story as beginning, 135; Kant’s examination of assumptions for, 60–62; Marx’s approach to, 103; as meaningless suffering, 216–17; modern philosophy’s neglect of, 288–90; Nietzsche on creation of, 213, 257; Nietzsche’s focus on centrality of, 205–6, 289; postwar intellectuals and, 2; presented in Sade’s novels, 188–96; redeeming past, 219; reemergence of philosophical discussion on, 291–314; religious origins of, 315–24; replacing God as solution to, 200–201; Rousseau’s shaping of, 55–57; stated in nontheist terms, 5; Voltaire on, 141–48; Voltaire’s position on, 141–48. See also evil
progress: Auschwitz impact on beliefs about, 258–59; Bury’s history of the idea of, 258; connection between ideas of Providence and, 98–99; Hegelian view of, 94–100, 259, 260–61; historical evidence of, 94–98, 263; legitimacy of the modern and idea of, 316
Prometheus, 58–59, 108, 109, 226, 227
Providence: classical religious judgment and belief in, 253–54; earthquakes as challenging, 246–47; Freud’s examination of belief in, 227–37; General and personal, 110; Heine’s portrayal as Jewish mother, 353n.3; Justine presentation of, 180–81, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 190; Leibniz and Pope’s views of, 38–39; link between idea of progress and, 98–99; origins of ideas of, 100, 317, 319, 321; rejecting notion of, 114; rise of capitalism and beliefs about, 355n.3; Rousseau’s version of, 40–41, 50–51, 54, 57–58; Sade’s stated goal to trace design of, 181; Schopenhauer’s rejection of, 199; Voltaire questioning of, 33, 139, 141–48, 204. See also God; humankind
Prussian Academy, 32
punishment: of Alfonso for blasphemy, 15–16; Auschwitz viewed as classical religious, 253–54; Bayle on free will defense and, 120–21; examining Job’s story for justified, 17; injustice of infinite amount of, 19–20; Kant’s principle of sufficient reason and, 61–62, 138–39, 320, 326; Leibniz on sin and suffering, 22–24; Lisbon earthquake as divine, 242–45; of natural evils for moral evils, 38; Rousseau on value of childhood, 47–48; taken on by Jesus, 19
purposiveness: as lawfulness of contingent, 93; of nature, 82–83
“The Question of Philosophy” (Horkheimer), 306
quietism: denial of evil as leading to, 41; theodicy charged with leading to, 68–69, 181
Rawls, John, 292, 310–14, 357n.25
real = the rational dictum, 101
reality: accepting vs. changing, 103; Agamben’s experiment on re-creation of Auschwitz, 264; Candide portrayal of, 133–34; Descartes on gap between appearance and, 126; Freud on need for education to, 229; Freud on terror-constructed, 231–32; history as negation of given, 101; Nietzsche’s solution to opposition of idea and, 263–64; Nietzsche’s view of, 222; ought and is gap in, 89, 101, 102, 111, 215–16, 257, 322, 323–24; theodicy function regarding, 222–23; understood through philosophy, 100–101
reason: contemporary fractured conception of, 327; demand for systematic connections by, 141; as the divine in humankind, 88–89; Eichmann in Jerusalem on evil as refusal to use, 303–4; eliminating contingency task of, 93–94; God replaced by, 27–28, 111–12; happiness as desire of, 72–75; Hume’s perspective of, 168–69, 195–96; implications for happiness-virtue connection by, 141; Kant on difference between nature and, 61–62, 81–82, 88–89; Kant’s attacks on instrumental conceptions of, 193, 195; Kant’s demands for systematic account of, 326–27; Kant on ends vs. means of, 321–22; Leibniz’s trust in, 25–27; principle of sufficient, 61–62, 138–39, 320, 326; Rousseau on faith based on, 40–41, 72–73; skepticism about human, 128; Theodicy on conformity of faith and, 21–22, 53; uniting ought and is demanded by, 323–24; Voltaire’s examination of, 139, 147–48
The Rebel (Camus), 295
“Rebellion” (Dostoevsky), 295–96
redemption: of evil through future goodness, 263; Nietzsche’s perspective on, 206–27; provided by passion of Jesus, 43; Rousseau on manipulation needed for, 59–60; Rousseau on self-knowledge for, 51–53; through same processes causing evil, 51. See also salvation
religion: Bayle’s skepticism about, 127–28; common wonders inspiring, 153; Enlightenment’s hopes for natural, 149–50, 151–52; Freud on neurosis of, 228–29; hope kept alive by traditional, 306; Hume on Christianity as alternative, 156; Marx’s description of, 105; Marx on ties between philosophy and, 104–6; placing misery blame on humankind, 355n.5; possible origins of problem of evil in, 315–24
Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (Kant), 29, 70
replacing God: Auschwitz signaling failure of, 281; Freud on philosophical, 231–32; Hegel on becoming God and, 84–86; Kant’s fantasy of morality, 79–80; Nietzsche’s death of God model of, 215–27; as problem of evil solution, 200–201; using reason for, 27–28, 111–12; as sin of pride, 114. See also God
“Resentments” (Améry), 264
resurrection (messianic), 19
Rorty, Richard, 6
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques: Alfonso’s objections answered by, 53–54, 57–58; on children/childrearing, 47–48, 51, 53, 55–56, 59–60, 321; comments by Sade on, 178–79; on evil as historic phenomenon, 44–47; on illness and death, 49–50; Lisbon earthquake differences between Voltaire and, 1, 4, 39–40, 137–38, 210–11, 353n.6; on living your life over, 210–11; modern shaping of problem of evil by, 55–57; naturalistic view of, 35; on natural vs. moral evil, 39–40; Providence discussion by, 40–41, 50–51, 54, 57–58; on rational grounds of faith, 40–41, 72–73; on sex as civil society basis, 177, 178; on suffering for sins, 217; two services expected from, 30–31; vindication of God by, 4, 55, 57–58, 59–60
Rousset, David, 255
Rubinstein, Richard, 239
Russell, Bertrand, 289
Sade, Marquis de: criminal focus of writing by, 170–74, 194; criticism of French aristocracy by, 172–73; Justine’s portrayal of philosophy by, 173–76; modern interest in works of, 278–79; problem of evil presented in novels of, 188–96; Providence presentation in Justine by, 180–81, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 190; on Rousseau’s work, 178–79; search for ultimate unnatural crime by, 269; skepticism of reason used by, 194–95; suggested evil in God’s nature by, 188–89, 190–91, 195; tracing Creation design as stated goal of, 181; virtue presented as despair in Justine by, 180, 183–85
Saint-Fond (Juliette fictional character), 189–90
salvation: as gift from God, 43; original sin and grace of, 36; Rousseau’s vision of, 51–53. See also redemption
Sancho (king of Castile), 14–15
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 292, 293, 294, 297–98
Satan: Goethe vs. Dostoevsky’s portrait of, 278–80; Manichaeism on struggle between God and, 118; revealed during Holocaust, 280–81
Schelling, Friedrich, 260
Schiller, Friedrich, 71
Scholem, Gershom, 301
Schopenhauer, Arthur: influences acknowledged by, 197–98; on living your life over, 208–9; Providence rejected by, 199; on suffering as essence of existence, 197–200, 208–9; vision of cosmic self-destruction by, 196–99; on the world as tribunal of the world, 199, 204
Schopenhauer as Educator (Nietzsche), 88, 354n.19
science: distinctions between natural and moral, 30; experience tied to progress of, 137; on fault theory of earthquakes, 245; happiness-virtue connection revealed through, 67; paradigmatic nature of Newton’s, 31; as servant of faith, 29
scientific discoveries: argument from design proved by, 28–29; on calculus, 25; natural order revealed by, 246–47; on size of universe, 24–25
self-determination, 91–92. See also free will/freedom
self-knowledge: becoming God through, 84–86; as philosophy task, 212; redemption through, 51–53. See also knowledge
September 11: intention evident in, 283–84; moral action by Flight 93 passengers, 287–88; parallels between Lisbon and, 281–83; seeking explanations for evil of, 285–86; as type of evil, 9, 283. See also terrorists/terrorism
sexuality: denied as a sin by Voltaire, 142–43; as linking self-interest and morality, 52; pornography literature (18th-century) expression of, 176–80; Schopenhauer’s view of, 198. See also desire
Shklar, Judith, 56
sin: Bayle on free will defense and, 120–25; essence of pride of, 114; injustice of infinite punishment for, 19–20; Leibniz on suffering and, 22–24; notion of original, 33, 35, 36, 43, 96; original, 33, 35, 36, 43, 96, 142, 269; Rousseau on suffering and, 47–48; Rousseau on suffering for, 217; Voltaire’s denial of sex as, 142–43
skepticism: of Bayle, 127–28; of Hume, 167, 194–95; regarding human reason, 128; of Sade’s reason, 194–95; throughout Enlightenment thinkers, 258
Smith, Adam, 149
Social Contract (Rousseau), 57
society: developing bourgeoisie (18th century), 247; love as cornerstone of, 52; Rawls on realistic utopia of, 313–14
Soviet gulags, 252
Soviet Union, 259
Spinoza, Baruch, 6, 10, 59, 60
Spinozism: perspective on natural evil of, 60; vision of the world of, 59, 60
Stendhal, 214
Stoic thought: Kant’s attacks on, 75–76; Nietzsche’s identification with, 221; regarding Lisbon earthquake, 243–45
suffering: as cause of greater good, 30–31; childbirth metaphor for, 224; Christianity’s reverence for, 216–17; as condemnation of life, 216; explained through the Fall, 226–27; Freud on coping with, 232–34; Freud on sources of, 228–30, 232; Goethe on, 58–59; happiness-virtue connection and innocent, 65–66; Hegel on necessity of, 90, 96; human capacities for, 161; justified by theodicy, 105–6; Leibniz on sin and, 22–24; Marx on, 109; meaningful vs. meaningless, 217–18, 224; Nietzsche on, 213–14, 221–22, 223–27; postwar response to Auschwitz, 266–67; problem of evil as meaningless, 216–17; Rousseau on sin and, 47–48, 217; Schopenhauer on, 197–200, 208–9
syphilis (Candide), 142–43, 177
Tablas Alfonsinas, 15
Taliban, 284
Taubes, Jacob, 315
terrorists/terrorism: clear intentions of, 283–84; conceptual helplessness produced by, 285; as evil, 286; moral action by Flight 93 passengers against, 287–88. See also September 11
theodicy: Arendt’s definition of, 299; bad faith element of, 114; beginning and end of, 288; contemporary evil and new forms of, 257–58; continued philosophical discourse on, 201–2; Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt) as postwar, 300–304; function of, 222–23, 239; Hegel’s claims of, 86–87, 103; justification through, 97; Kant on dangers of, 69–70; leading to quietism charge of, 68–69, 181; limitations of simple, 285–86; modern philosophy’s neglect of, 289–90; Nietzsche’s contributions to, 213–27; optimism reflecting 18th-century interest in, 321; originating in story of Job, 291; sources of impulse to, 318–19; suffering justified by, 105–6
Theodicy (Leibniz): compared to Essay on Man, 35; conformity of faith with reason function of, 21–22, 53; as defense of God, 18, 24–27; divine freedom notion developed in, 38; influence of, 31; as renewing Augustine’s view, 121. See also Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm
Theory of Justice (Rawls), 310–11
Thérèse philosophe, 178
Theses on the Philosophy of History (Benjamin), 315–16
tragedy, 75
transcendental idealism, 64–65
transcendent ideas: Nietzsche’s rejection of, 307–8; philosophical debate over, 306–7; in response to Auschwitz, 308–9; as theological concept, 357n.31
Treatise of Human Nature (Hume), 168, 212
truth: Kant on importance of, 73–74, 354n.16; philosophy as seeking, 103
Turkish earthquake (1999), 164, 355n.6
Twilight of the Idols (Nietzsche), 212
virtue: distinguishing happiness from, 71–72; Justine (Sade) punishment of, 180, 183–85; tragedy and, 75; Zadig (Voltaire) on, 128–30. See also happiness-virtue connection
Virtue Awakened by the Earthquake (Krüger), 243
Voltaire, François-Marie Arouet: admiration of Bayle by, 116–17; comparing Zadig and Candide worldview by, 130–37; Dictionary entry on love by, 139–40; Dictionary entry on theism by, 141; erotic examples used by, 177–78; events producing worldview shift in, 130–31; influence of Bayle on works by, 128, 131; influence of Leibniz on, 129–30, 136; influence of Pope on, 135–37; interest in causal chains by, 138–39; Lisbon earthquake discussion between Rousseau and, 1, 4, 39–40, 137–38, 210–11, 353n.6; on living your life over, 207, 210–12; on original sin/Providence, 33, 142; on principle of sufficient reason, 138–39; on Providence and problem of evil, 141–48, 204; reason examined by, 139, 147–48; on Rousseau’s dark tones, 56
“What Is Enlightenment?” (Kant), 98
Wiesel, Elie, 239
Wolff, Christian, 244
Work on Myth (Blumenberg), 58
“The World as It Is” (Voltaire), 131
World War II: lines crossed during, 251; The Plague (Camus) as resistance text during, 293–94, 297; sources of moral shocks during, 253. See also Auschwitz
The World as Will and Representation (Schopenhauer), 203
Zadig; or, Destiny (Voltaire): comparing Candide worldview to, 128–37; Leibniz worldview evident in, 129–31; story line of, 128–29