Notes

A NOTE ON NAMES AND-ISMS

1. Raphaël J. Bidawid, ed., Les lettres du patriarche nestorien Timothée I (Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1956), 27–28.

1. THE END OF GLOBAL CHRISTIANITY

1. James Bissett Pratt, Why Religions Die (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press, 1940). For the obliteration of Indian Buddhism, see Charles Allen, The Buddha and the Sahibs (London: John Murray, 2002). For Zoroastrianism, see Jamsheed K. Choksy, Conflict and Cooperation (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1997).

2. Michael Burleigh, Sacred Causes (New York: HarperCollins, 2007).

3. C. R. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1967; first published 1951); Andrew C. Ross, A Vision Betrayed (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1994).

4. Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002); Lamin Sanneh, Disciples of All Nations (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2007). In recent years, a number of writers have attempted truly global histories of Christianity. See, for instance, Adrian Hastings, ed., A World History of Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans, 1999); David Chidester, Christianity: A Global History (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2000); Dale T. Irvin and Scott W. Sunquist, History of the World Christian Movement: Earliest Christianity to 1453 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2001); Paul R. Spickard and Kevin M. Cragg, A Global History of Christians (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001); John W. Coakley and Andrea Sterk, eds., Readings in World Christian History, vol. 1 (Mary-knoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2004); and Martin E. Marty, The Christian World (New York: Modern Library, 2008).

5. Estimates of Christian numbers are from David B. Barrett, World Christian Encyclopedia, 1st ed. (Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford Univ. Press, 1982). Scholars have long known of these Asian churches and their missions. After the Eastern churches fell into decline, they became the focus of a whole genre of academic study of the “Christian Orient.” The foundation work was the Oriens Christianus in Quatuor Patriarchatus Digestus of Michel Le Quien, published posthumously in 1740. This particular subset of Orientalism was a booming field in the nineteenth century, as Euro-American travelers clambered over Syriac and Coptic monasteries, often in search of manuscripts. Typical titles include Asahel Grant, The Nestorians; or, The Lost Tribes (New York: Harper, 1841); and George Percy Badger, The Nestorians and Their Rituals (London: J. Masters, 1852). See also Thomas Laurie, Dr. Grant and the Mountain Nestorians (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2005); and William Taylor, Antioch and Canterbury (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006). For the discovery of Egypt, see Somers Clarke, Christian Antiquities in the Nile Valley (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912). The Asian missions were thoroughly familiar to Edward Gibbon in the eighteenth century, and in the 1920s and 1930s Kenneth S. Latourette presented the story to a general audience. Latourette was one of the most influential modern church historians, whose works became standard texts for seminaries and history departments. Yet despite all these efforts, the story is barely known to the vast majority of Euro-American Christians. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christian Missions in China (New York: Russell and Russell, 1967; first published 1929). Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 vols. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937–45); vol. 2 is titled The Thousand Years of Uncertainty, A.D. 500–A.D. 1500.

6. Bidawid, Lettres. Seleucia formed a twin city with the old Parthian capital of Ctesiphon, and the patriarchal see is sometimes called Seleucia-Ctesiphon. For surveys of the “Oriental” churches, see Walter F. Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1908); Adrian Fortescue, The Lesser Eastern Churches (London: Catholic Truth Society, 1913); Beresford James Kidd, The Churches of Eastern Christendom from A. D. 451 to the Present Time (London: Faith Press, 1927); Donald Attwater, The Christian Churches of the East, 2 vols. (Milwaukee: Bruce Pub. Co., 1947–48); Aziz S. Atiya, A History of Eastern Christianity ( Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1967); Ken Parry, Eastern Christianity (New York: Routledge, 2006); Ken Parry, David J. Melling, Dimitri Brady, Sidney H. Griffith, and John F. Healey, eds., The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000).

7. John Strugnell, “Notes on the Text and Transmission of the Apocryphal Psalms,” Harvard Theological Review 59 (1966): 258.

8. Bidawid, Lettres, 37.

9. For Origenism, see G. Widengren, “Researches in Syrian Mysticism,” Numen 8, no. 3 (1961): 161–98. Margaret Smith, Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near and Middle East (London: Sheldon Press, 1931); Paul Harb and François Graffin, eds., Lettre sur les trois étapes de la vie monastique (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1992); Mary Hansbury, The Letters of John of Dalyatha (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006).

10. For the elephant, see Samuel Hugh Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia, vol. 1, Beginnings to 1500, 2nd rev. ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1998), 498. John Stewart, Nestorian Missionary Enterprise (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1928); Aubrey R. Vine, The Nestorian Churches (London: Independent Press, 1937); Edward R. Hardy, Jr., Militant in Earth (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1940).

11. Bidawid, Lettres, 37. “In these days” is quoted from Alphonse Mingana, The Early Spread of Christianity in Central Asia and the Far East (New York: Long-mans, Green, 1925),

12. “The countries of the sunrise” is from Alphonse Mingana, The Early Spread of Christianity in India (Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press, 1926), 34. Compare Barrett, World Christian Encyclopedia, 1st ed. 796; Ian Gillman and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, Christians in Asia Before 1500 (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1999). See also Samuel Hugh Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia, vol. 2, 1500 to 1900 (Mary-knoll, NY: Orbis, 2005). 12. Bidawid, Lettres, 27–28. For the geographical perceptions of late antiquity, see J. W. McCrindle, ed., The Christian Topography of Cosmas (London: Hakluyt Society, 1897).

13. Charles F. Horne, ed., The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East (New York: Parke, Austin, & Lipscomb, 1917), 12: 381–92.

14. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:301–2.

15. Bidawid, Lettres, 25.

16. Alphonse Mingana, ed., Timothy’s Apology for Christianity, Woodbrooke Studies, vol. 2 (Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons, 1928), 41.

17. For the discovery of Indian numbers, see Severus Sebokht, “On the Constellations,” http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/severus_sebokht_ constellations_01_intro.htm. Peter Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom, rev. ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 275. For Aristotle, see Bidawid, Lettres, 35.

18. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:354–55. De Lacy O’Leary, How Greek Science Passed to the Arabs (London: Kegan Paul, 2001); Richard E. Rubenstein, Aristotle’s Children (Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2003). For the Muslim inheritance, see Michael Hamilton Morgan, Lost History (Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2007).

19. The Victorian scholar was John Mason Neale. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia 1:380.

20. Klaus Koschorke, Frieder Ludwig, and Marian Delgado, eds., History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450–1990 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2007), 3.

21. The sixth-century Christian writer Cosmas Indicopleustes was struck that “[t]he pagans even, availing themselves of what Moses has thus revealed, divide the whole earth into three parts: Asia, Libya and Europe, designating Asia the east, Libya the south, extending to the west; Europe the north, also extending to all the west.” McCrindle, Christian Topography, book 2.

22. Evelyn Edson, The World Map, 1300–1492 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2007); Andrew F. Walls, “Eusebius Tries Again,” International Bulletin of Missionary Research 24, no. 3 (2000): 105–11.

23. Speros Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1971). For numbers of Christians, see Barrett, World Christian Encyclopedia, 1st ed., 796.

24. “A miserable community” is quoted from Mingana, Christianity in Central Asia, 20.

25. David B. Barrett, George T. Kurian, and Todd M. Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001).

26. Walls, “Eusebius Tries Again.”

27. The absence is not total, and a number of historians have explored the catastrophic destruction of the Catholic missions in seventeenth-century Japan. Also drawing on this experience is the fictional narrative of Shusaku Endo’s 1967 novel Silence, which raises critical theological questions about how to interpret the failure of a doomed church. But with the exception of Japan, we find few such analyses, particularly for the vast regions that would one day become the core of the Muslim world. From the vast modern literature on the history of Christianity, I know of just three books specifically dedicated to the disappearance of these Christian communities, all impressive pieces of scholarship, but all quite dated: Leonard Ralph Holme, The Extinction of the Christian Churches in North Africa (New York: B. Franklin, 1969; first published 1898); Laurence Edward Browne, The Eclipse of Christianity in Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1933); Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism. The dates alone (Vryonis’s book was published in 1971) suggest that this is anything but a thriving field of scholarly inquiry. Other books have studied the decline of particular religions but not their final destruction: Bat Ye’or, The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1996).

28. Euan Cameron, Interpreting Christian History (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005).

29. Holme, Christian Churches in North Africa, 3.

30. Vivian B. Mann, Jerrilynn D. Dodds, and Thomas F. Glick, eds., Convivencia (New York: G. Braziller in association with the Jewish Museum, 1992).

31. Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Early African Church,” by H. Leclercq, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01191a.htm.

32. Colin H. Roberts, Manuscript, Society, and Belief in Early Christian Egypt (London: Published for the British Academy by Oxford Univ. Press, 1979); Birger A. Pearson and James E. Goehring, eds., The Roots of Egyptian Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986); C. Wilfred Griggs, Early Egyptian Christianity (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1990); Douglas Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993); Birger A. Pearson, Gnosticism and Christianity in Roman and Coptic Egypt (New York: T. and T. Clark International, 2004).

33. The prayer is quoted from “Japan’s Crypto-Christians,” Time, January 11, 1982, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,925197,00.html. Ann Harrington, Japan’s Hidden Christians (Chicago: Loyola Univ. Press, 1992); Stephen Turnbull, The Kakure Kirishitan of Japan (Richmond, UK: Curzon/Japan Library, 1998).

34. Barrett, Kurian, and Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia., 2nd ed.

35. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism.

36. Philip Jenkins, God’s Continent (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2007).

37. For dhimmitude, see Bat Ye’or, Decline of Eastern Christianity.

38. Deborah Solomon, “Questions for Katharine Jefferts Schori,” New York Times, November 19, 2006; Gina Piccalo, “Devout Catholic Answers a Call to Challenge Church,” Los Angeles Times, June 22, 2007. Compare James Carroll, Constantine’s Sword (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001).

2. CHURCHES OF THE EAST

1. Georgina Herrmann and Hugh N. Kennedy, Monuments of Merv (London: Society of Antiquaries, 1999); Edmund O’Donovan, The Merv Oasis (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1883).

2. For scholarship at Merv, see Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 275. Margaret Dunlop Gibson, ed., The Commentaries on the New Testament of Isho'dad of Merv, 6 vols. (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2005; first published 1903); Clemens Leonhard, Ishodad of Merw’s Exegesis of the Psalms 119 and 139–147 (Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 2001).

3. W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984).

4. Peter Llewellyn, Rome in the Dark Ages (New York: Praeger, 1970); Chris Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005); Julia M. H. Smith, Europe After Rome (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005).

5. R. N. Swanson, ed., The Church and Mary (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 2004).

6. “The earliest Christian hymnbook” is quoted from Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:52. For the history of music, see William Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), 175–78. John Meyendorff, ed., Ephrem the Syrian (New York: Paulist Press, 1989); Javier Teixidor, Bardesane d’Édesse (Paris: Le Cerf, 1992); R. J. Schork, Sacred Song from the Byzantine Pulpit (Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida, 1995).

7. Bede, Ecclesiastical History, book 4, chap. 2, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.iv.ii.html; Geoffrey Wainwright and Karen Westerfield Tucker, eds., The Oxford History of Christian Worship (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).

8. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 304.

9. Richard C. Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999).

10. Peter Green, Alexander to Actium (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990).

11. McCrindle, Christian Topography, 149–52.

12. Frances Wood, The Silk Road (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002); Susan Whitfield and Ursula Sims-Williams, eds., The Silk Road (Chicago: Serindia Publications, 2004).

13. Richard L. Kalmin, Jewish Babylonia Between Persia and Roman Palestine (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).

14. For Egypt’s role as a hub of trade and communication, see Roger S. Bagnall, Egypt in Late Antiquity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993); Christopher Haas, Alexandria in Late Antiquity (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1997).

15. Judah B. Segal, Edessa “The Blessed City” (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970); Steven K. Ross, Roman Edessa (London: Routledge, 2001); Robert Doran, Stewards of the Poor (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2006).

16. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 277. Nina G. Garsoïan, Thomas F. Mathews, and Robert W. Thomson, eds., East of Byzantium (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, Center for Byzantine Studies, 1982); Thomas J. Samuelian and Michael E. Stone, eds., Medieval Armenian Culture (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1984); Nina G. Garsoïan, Church and Culture in Early Medieval Armenia (Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1999); Vrej Nersessian, Treasures from the Ark (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2001).

17. Adriano Alpago-Novello, Vahtang Beridze, and Jacqueline Lafontaine-Dosogne, Art and Architecture in Medieval Georgia (Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium: Institut Supérieur d’Archéologie et d’Histoire de l’Art, Collège Érasme, 1980); Antony Eastmond, Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1998). For Adiabene, see Joel Thomas Walker, The Legend of Mar Qardagh (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2006).

18. The quote about Cyriacus is from B. T. A. Evetts, ed., History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria (first published 1907–15), http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/severus_hermopolis_hist_alex_patr_03_ part3.htm. For the power of the see of Alexandria, see http://www .tertullian.org/fathers/severus_hermopolis_hist_alex_patr_04_part4.htm. P. L. Shinnie, Medieval Nubia (1954), http://rumkatkilise.org/nubia.htm. Elizabeth Isichei, A History of Christianity in Africa (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995); Bengt Sundkler and Christopher Steed, A History of the Church in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000); Sir Laurence Kirwin, Studies on the History of Late Antique and Christian Nubia (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum, 2002); Derek A. Welsby, The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia (London: British Museum, 2002). For the influence of Alexandria, see Stephen J. Davis, The Early Coptic Papacy (Cairo and New York: American Univ. in Cairo Press, 2005).

19. Donald Crummey, “The Ethiopian Orthodox Tawahedo Church,” in Cambridge History of Christianity: Eastern Christianity, ed. Michael Angold (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006), 457–62. Isichei, History of Christianity in Africa; Sundkler and Steed, History of the Church in Africa.

20. “No country in the world” is from Father Jeronimo Lobo, “Voyage to Abyssinia,” http://lobo.thefreelibrary.com/Voyage-to-Abyssinia/3–4. See also Isichei, History of Christianity in Africa, 52.

21. Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelek, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1932); Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270–1527 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972).

22. Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 141. For the threat to the Nile, see Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia.

23. Walls, “Eusebius Tries Again.” W. A. Wigram, An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2004; first published 1909).

24. W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of the Monophysite Movement (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1972); Cornelia B. Horn, Asceticism and Christological Controversy in Fifth-Century Palestine (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).

25. Patrick T. R. Gray, The Defense of Chalcedon in the East (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1979); E. W. Brooks, ed., A Collection of Letters of Severus of Antioch, 2 vols. (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 1985–2003); Jan-Eric Steppa, John Rufus and the World Vision of Anti-Chalcedonian Culture (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2002); Ramsay MacMullen, Voting About God in Early Church Councils (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2006).

26. Mark Dickens, “The Church of the East” (1999), http://www.oxuscom.com/ch-of-east.htm; Wilhelm Baum and Dietmar W. Winkler, The Church of the East (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003); Christoph Baumer, The Church of the East (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006).

27. Stephen Gero, Barsauma of Nisibis and Persian Christianity in the Fifth Century (Louvain, Belgium: Peeters, 1981).

28. McCrindle, Christian Topography.

29. For the Christian landscape of Palestine in the Byzantine and early Muslim period, see Yoram Tsafrir, ed., Ancient Churches Revealed (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1993). Compare Brouria Bitton-Ashkelony and Aryeh Kofsky, The Monastic School of Gaza (Leiden and Boston: E. J. Brill, 2006).

30. For Egypt’s Christian landscape around 1200, see B. T. A. Evetts, ed., The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and Some Neighbouring Countries (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1895). Gawdat Gabra, Coptic Monasteries (Cairo: American Univ. in Cairo Press, 2002). Massimo Capuani, with Otto F. A. Meinardus and Marie-Helene Rutschowscaya, Christian Egypt (Cairo: American Univ. in Cairo Press, 2002). For Saint Antony, see Elizabeth S. Bolman, ed., Monastic Visions (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2002). Otto F. A. Meinardus, Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2007).

31. For Saint Catherine’s, see Thomas F. Mathews, David Jacoby, Justin Sinaites, Robert S. Nelson, and Kristen M. Collins, Holy Image, Hallowed Ground (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2006). Françoise Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” in Angold, Cambridge History of Christianity, 399.

32. Andrew Palmer, Monk and Mason on the Tigris Frontier (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990).

33. Quoted from “The School of Nisibis,” http://www.nestorian.org/the_ school_of_nisibis.html.

34. Other metropolitan sees included Arbela, Kirkuk, Basra, and Jundaisapur (Gundeshapur). The catholicos had his main residence in Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia.

35. Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Melitene,” http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10166a.htm. For Amida, see Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Asceticism and Society in Crisis (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990).

36. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 100.

37. Oswald H. Parry, Six Months in a Syrian Monastery, Being a Record of the Visit to the Head Quarters of the Syrian Church in Mesopotamia, with Some Account ofthe Yazidis or Devil Worshippers of Mosul and el Jilwah, Their Sacred Book (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2002; first published 1895). For the monasteries as they exist today, see, for instance, http://www.morgabriel.org; https://www.deirmarmusa.org/; and Stephen Griffith, “The Situation in Tur Abdin” (2001), http://sor.cua.edu/Pub/StephenGriffith/Visit SETurkeyNov2001.html.

38. E. A. Wallis Budge, ed., The Book of Governors (London: Kegan Paul, 2003; first published 1893).

39. For the Hunnish translation, see Zachariah of Mitylene, “Syriac Chronicle,” http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zachariah12.htm. The story of the tattoos is from Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 267.

40. Mingana, Christianity in Central Asia, 11–12; and 73–74 for the church in 650.

41. For “merchants,” see Foltz, Silk Road, 62. For nom, see Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 284. Christopher Dawson, The Mongol Mission (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1955); Wassilios Klein, Das nestorianische Christentum an den Handelswegen durch Kyrgyzstan bis zum 14 Jahrhunderts (Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2000); Mark Dickens, “Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia” (2001), www.oxuscom.com/Nestorian_Christianity_in_CA.pdf. Zsuzsanna Gulácsi, Mediaeval Manichaean Book Art (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2005); Roman Malek and Peter Hofrichter, eds., Jingjiao: The Church of the East in China and Central Asia (Sankt Augustin, Germany: Institut Monumenta Serica, 2006). “The Work of the Academy Project: Turfan Studies,” http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/Forschung/Forschungsprojekte/turfan forschung/en/blanko.2005–03–02.3373813525.

42. Mingana, Christianity in Central Asia, 13; Wallis Budge, Book of Governors.

43. Procopius History of the Wars 8. 17.1–7.

44. Mingana, Christianity in Central Asia; Frits Holm, My Nestorian Adventure in China (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2001).

45. Quoted by T. V. Philip, “East of the Euphrates,” http://www.religiononline.org/show chapter.asp?title=1553&C=1363.

46. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, vol. 1. Stephen G. Haw, Marco Polo’s China (London: Routledge, 2006). James D. Ryan, “Conversion vs. Baptism?” in Varieties of Religious Conversion in the Middle Ages, ed. James Muldoon (Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida, 1997), 146–70. Herbert Franke and Denis Twitchett, eds., The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994). For the Franciscan missions, see Lauren Arnold, Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures (San Francisco: Desiderata Press, 1999).

47. Mingana, Christianity in India, 6, and 27 for the Indian priest. McCrindle, Christian Topography.

48. Leslie Brown, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982); Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1984); Leonard Fernando and George Gispert-Sauch, Christianity in India (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2004).

49. The “thirty thousand families” quotation is from Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 4. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:302 (“the islands…inside Java”), 1:459–62. Susan Visvanathan, The Christians of Kerala (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993); Antony Kariyil, Church and Society in Kerala (New Delhi, India: Intercultural Press, 1995).

50. For the Jacobites, see Ian Gillman and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, Christians in Asia Before 1500 (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1999), 71.

51. Samuel N. C. Lieu, Manichaeism in Mesopotamia and the Roman East (Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill, 1994); Yuri Stoyanov, The Other God (New Haven, CT: Yale Nota Bene, 2000); Lilla Russell-Smith, Uygur Patronage in Dunhuang (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2005).

52. Mingana, Christianity in Central Asia, 15–16; Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, vol. 1.

53. Elaine Sanceau, The Land of Prester John (New York: Knopf, 1944).

54. David B. Barrett, World Christian Encyclopedia, 796. Muldoon, Varieties of Religious Conversion; Richard Fletcher, The Barbarian Conversion (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1999); Martin Carver, ed., The Cross Goes North (York, England: York Medieval Press, 2004).

3. ANOTHER WORLD

1. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 141. “The sweet aroma” is from “The Order of the Hallowing of the Apostles,” http://www.cired.org/liturgy/apostles.html. Compare Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Scenting Salvation (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2006); Christine Chaillot, “The Ancient Oriental Churches,” in Wainwright and Tucker, Christian Worship; and F. E. Brightman, Eastern Liturgies (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2004).

2. Wallis Budge, Book of Governors, 27. Arthur Vööbus, History of Asceticism in the Syrian Orient, 3 vols. (Louvain, Belgium: Secrétariat du Corpus SCO, 1958–88); Theodoret of Cyrrhus, History of the Monks of Syria (Collegeville, MN: Cistercian Publications, 1985); Peter Brown, Society and the Holy in Late Antiquity (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1989); James E. Goehring, Ascetics, Society, and the Desert (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1999); David Brakke, Demons and the Making of the Monk (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2006).

3. For stylites, see Amir Harrak, ed., The Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n, A.D. 488–775 (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1999), 294. “A religion of intense moral seriousness” is from Walls, “Eusebius Tries Again.” The passage about Bar Sauma is from E. A. Wallis Budge, The Monks of Kûblâi Khân, Emperor of China (London: Religious Tract Society, 1928). Susanna Elm, Virgins of God (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994).

4. For Mother Sara, see E. A. Wallis Budge, ed., The Laughable Stories (New York: AMS Press, 1976), 40; and 136 for the two women. For Shirin, see Sebastian P. Brock and Susan Ashbrook Harvey, Holy Women of the Syrian Orient (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1987), 177–81. Pieternella Van Doorn-Harder, Contemporary Coptic Nuns (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1995); Lynda L. Coon, Sacred Fictions (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1997); Alice-Mary Talbot, ed., Holy Women of Byzantium (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1996). Laura Swan, The Forgotten Desert Mothers (New York: Paulist Press, 2001); Rebecca Krawiec, Shenoute and the Women of the White Monastery (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002).

5. Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York: Random House, 1999); Elaine Pagels, Beyond Belief (New York: Random House, 2003); Karen King, What Is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2003).

6. G. E. H. Palmer, Philip Sherrard, and Kallistos Ware, eds., The Philokalia, 4 vols. (London: Faber and Faber, 1983–95). For Ephraem, see Smith, Early Mysticism, 86.

7. Norman Russell, The Doctrine of Deification in the Greek Patristic Tradition, new ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).

8. Alphonse Mingana, ed., Early Christian Mystics (Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons, 1934); John Chryssavgis, John Climacus (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2004).

9. For Cosmas, see Harrak, Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n, 156. “I find the proof” and “they do not accept” are from Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 82; “is only received and believed” is from 81.

10. Amanda Porterfield, Healing in the History of Christianity (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005).

11. William Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1894); Ignatius Aphram I. Barsoum, The Scattered Pearls, 2nd rev. ed. (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2003).

12. Adam H. Becker, Fear of God and the Beginning of Wisdom (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2006). For Cassiodorus, see Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 574. For the 1026 debate, see Herman Teule, “La renaissance syriaque (1026–1318),” Irenikon 75, nos. 2 and 3 (2002): 174–94.

13. The quotes from Severus Seboukt are from http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/severus_sebokht_constellations_01_intro.htm. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 275.

14. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:354–55. O’Leary, Greek Science; Rubenstein, Aristotle’s Children; Matti Moosa, The Maronites in History, 2nd ed. (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2005).

15. Richard J. Saley, The Samuel Manuscript of Jacob of Edessa (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998); Sidney H. Griffith, ed., Yahya ibn 'Adi: The Reformation of Morals (Provo, UT: Brigham Young Univ. Press, 2002); Gibson, Commentaries.

16. Badger, Nestorians and Their Rituals, 2:361–79.

17. Abdulmesih BarAbrahem, “Patriarch Michael the Great,” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 12, no. 2 (1998), www.jaas.org/edocs/v12n2/Bar Abrahem.pdf. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 313.

18. Quoted in Badger, Nestorians and Their Rituals, 2:361–79.

19. The remark about Bar-Hebraeus’s accomplishments is from Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Bar Hebræus,” http://www.newadvent.org/cathen02294a.htm. Arent Jan Wensinck, ed., Bar Hebraeus’s Book of the Dove (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1919); Ján Bakos, ed., Le candélabre des sanctuaires de Gregoire Aboulfaradj dit Bar Hebraeus (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1930). Ernest A. Wallis Budge, ed., The Chronography of Gregory Abu-'l Faraj, the Son of Aaron, the Hebrew Physician, Commonly Known as Bar Hebraeus (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1932). Wallis Budge, Laughable Stories.

20. Elise Antreassian, ed., The Fables of Mkhitar Gosh (New York: Ashod Press, 1987).

21. Sidney H. Griffith, “Christians and Christianity,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Qur’ān, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001), 307–15.

22. E. A. Wallis Budge, The Book of the Bee (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886), http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/bb/bb48.htm.

23. “The Doctrine of Addai” (1876), http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/addai_2_text.htm. Amir Harrak, ed., The Acts of Mār Māri the Apostle (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2005).

24. Wallis Budge, Book of the Bee.

25. Walther Bauer, Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity (London: SCM Press, 1972), 20. Bauer was one of many modern scholars to reject the Nestorian succession story.

26. Richard Bauckham, Jude and the Relatives of Jesus in the Early Church (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1990).

27. Badger, Nestorians and Their Rituals. Sébastien de Courtois, Forgotten Genocide (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2004), 10.

28. Mingana, Christianity in Central Asia, 41–42.

29. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:74. William L. Petersen, Tatian’s Diatessaron (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994); Sebastian Brock, The Bible in the Syriac Tradition (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006).

30. Philip Jenkins, Hidden Gospels (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001).

31. Gibson, Commentaries.

32. Michael E. Stone, ed., Armenian Apocrypha Relating to Adam and Eve (Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill, 1996). Michael E. Stone, Adam’s Contract with Satan (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 2002); Margaret Dunlop Gibson, ed., Apocrypha Sinaitica (London: C. J. Clay, 1896); E. A. Wallis Budge, ed., Legends of Our Lady Mary, the Perpetual Virgin and Her Mother Hanna (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1933).

33. Gibson, Commentaries, 1:xxix.

34. Bar-Hebraeus is quoted from George Lane, “An Account of Gregory Bar Hebraeus, Abu al-Faraj, and His Relations with the Mongols of Persia.” Hugoye 2, no. 2 (1999), http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol2No2/HV2N2GLane.html. For Solomon, see Wallis Budge, Book of the Bee, http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/bb/bb58.htm.

35. Wallis Budge, Book of Governors, 26; Robert C. Hill, Reading the Old Testament in Antioch (Leiden and Boston: E. J. Brill, 2005).

36. E. A. Wallis Budge, The Book of the Cave of Treasures (London: Religious Tract Society, 1927).

37. Gibson Commentaries.

38. James C. Russell, The Germanization of Early Medieval Christianity (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996).

39. For “all the Buddhas” see Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:310. Ralph R. Covell, Confucius, the Buddha, and Christ (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1986); Irene Eber, Sze-Kar Wan, Knut Walf, and Roman Malek, eds., The Bible in Modern China (Sankt Augustin, Germany: Institut Monumenta Serica, 1999); Martin Palmer, The Jesus Sutras (London: Piatkus, 2001); Ray Riegert and Thomas Moore, eds., The Lost Sutras of Jesus (Berkeley, CA: Seastone, 2003); Russell-Smith, Uygur Patronage in Dunhuang; Malek and Hofrichter, Jingjiao.

40. John Damascene [pseud.], Barlaam and Ioasaph, trans. G. R. Woodward and Harold Mattingly, Loeb Classical Library 34 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1914). D. A. Scott, “Medieval Christian Responses to Buddhism,” Journal of Religious History 15 (1988): 165–84.

41. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:430–34. Wallis Budge, Monks of Kûblâi Khân; James A. Montgomery, The History of Yaballaha III and of His Vicar Bar Sauma (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1927); Paul Bedjan, The History of Mar Jab-Alaha and Rabban Sauma (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press 2007). Stephen Andrew Missick, “The Assyrian Church in the Mongolian Empire as Observed by World Travelers in the Late 13th and Early 14th Centuries,” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 13, no. 2 (1999): 85–104, http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v13n2/missick.pdf.

42. Budge, Monks of Kûblâi Khân.

43. Budge, Monks of Kûblâi Khân.

44. “Exercised ecclesiastical sovereignty” is from Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:434. For Maragha, see Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 387.

4. THE GREAT TRIBULATION

1. Quoted in Donald P. Little, “Coptic Conversion to Islam Under the Bahri Mamluks, 692–755/1293–1354,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 39 (1976): 568. For Al-Maqrizi’s fifteenth-century account of earlier persecutions, see Evetts, Churches and Monasteries, 328–40.

2. Karen Armstrong, Muhammad (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1992), 22. Compare Karen Armstrong, Holy War, 2nd ed. (New York: Anchor Books, 2001).

3. Bat Ye’or, Decline of Eastern Christianity; Andrew G. Bostom, ed., The Legacy of Jihad (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2005).

4. Andrew Wheatcroft, Infidels (New York: Penguin Putnam, 2003); Richard Fletcher, The Cross and the Crescent (New York: Allen Lane, 2003); A. G. Jamieson, Faith and Sword (London: Reaktion, 2006); Hugh Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2007).

5. Holme, Christian Churches in North Africa.

6. David M. Olster, Roman Defeat, Christian Response, and the Literary Construction of the Jew (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1994); Walter E. Kaegi, Heraclius (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003).

7. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 297. Walter E. Kaegi, Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992); Michael D. Bonner, Aristocratic Violence and Holy War (New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society, 1996); Michael D. Bonner, ed., Arab-Byzantine Relations in Early Islamic Times (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate/Variorum, 2004); Nadia Maria El Cheikh, Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2004). For the tenth-century campaigns, see Alice-Mary Talbot and Denis F. Sullivan, eds., The History of Leo the Deacon (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2005).

8. For Arabs and Syrians, see Harrak, Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n. Robert G. Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1997).

9. For violence between Christian sects, see Michael Gaddis, There Is No Crime for Those Who Have Christ (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2005). Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002).

10. Choksy, Conflict and Cooperation.

11. Sidney H. Griffith, The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque (Princeton Univ. Press, 2007); “The Arabs to whom God has given” is from Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 41; “Justice flourished” is from Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 299; “the hearts of Christians” is from Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:325. G. J. Reinink, Syriac Christianity Under Late Sasanian and Early Islamic Rule (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2005). See also the valuable essays collected in Emmanouela Grypeou, Mark Swanson, and David Thomas, eds., The Encounter of Eastern Christianity with Early Islam (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2006). Barnaby Rogerson, The Heirs of Muhammad (New York: Overlook, 2007).

12. “And the Lord abandoned” is from Evetts, History of the Patriarchs. “The God of vengeance” is from Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 39–40. “Employed for the administration” is from Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 382. Nick Ford, Jerusalem Under Muslim Rule in the Eleventh Century (New York: Rosen, 2004).

13. For Sarakenophron, see Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 299; Andrew Louth, St. John Damascene (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2002); and Frederic H. Chase, Jr., ed., Joannes of Damascus: Writings (Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 1970). “They are just” is from Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 48.

14. Harrak, Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n, 147–48; and 150–52 for the campaign of 717–18. Nehemia Levtzion, “Conversion to Islam in Syria and Palestine, and the Survival of Christian Communities,” in Conversion and Continuity, ed. Michael Gervers and Ramzi Jibran Bikhazi (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1990), 289–312. For issues of conversion and interfaith relations in the early centuries of Islam, see Robert Hoyland, introduction to Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society, ed. Robert Hoyland (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), xiii–xxx.

15. For Egyptian persecutions, see Evetts, History of the Patriarchs, which is the source for the decree in which Muslim authorities “commanded the monks.” Hugh Kennedy, “Egypt as a Province in the Islamic Caliphate,” in The Cambridge History of Egypt, ed. Carl F. Petry (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998), 1:62–85; Walter Beltz, ed., Die koptische Kirche in den ersten drei islamischen Jahrhunderten (Halle: Institut für Orientalistik, Martin-Luther-Universität, 2003); Jill Kamil, Christianity in the Land of the Pharaohs (New York: Routledge, 2002).

16. For the fates of the holy desert, see Evetts, ed., History of the Patriarchs.. Terry G. Wilfong, “The Non-Muslim Communities,” in Petry, Cambridge History of Egypt, 1:175–97.

17. For tax protests, see Harrak, Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n, 273–74. For martyrs, see Mark Swanson, “The Martyrdom of ‘Abd al-Masih,” in Syrian Christians Under Islam, ed. David Thomas (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001), 107–20. Kenneth Baxter Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988); Jessica A. Coope, The Martyrs of Córdoba (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1995).

18. Anthony O’Mahony, “Coptic Christianity in Modern Egypt,” in Angold, Cambridge History of Christianity, 489 n. 9; Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 46–47; Youssef Courbage and Philippe Fargues, Christians and Jews Under Islam (London and New York: Tauris, 1997). Anne-Marie Eddé, Françoise Micheau, and Christophe Picard, Communautés chrétiennes au pays d’Islam du debut de VIIe siècle au milieu du XIe siècle (Paris: SEDES, 1997). For debates over the origin of Umaric codes, see Albrecht Noth, “Problems of Differentiation Between Muslims and Non-Muslims,” in Hoyland, Muslims and Others, 103–24.

19. Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 381–82.

20. Griffith, Church in the Shadow of the Mosque; For legal autonomy, see Hoyland, introduction to Muslims and Others, xv–xvi; Michael G. Morony, “Religious Communities in Late Sasanian and Early Muslim Iraq,” in Hoyland, Muslims and Others, 1–24; and Néophyte Edelby, “The Legislative Autonomy of Christians in the Islamic World,” in Hoyland, Muslims and Others, 37–82. For “Islam rested as lightly as a mist” and “local Christian elites,” see Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 306. For the new Christ figure, see Harrak, Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n, 248–52. Michael G. Morony, Iraq After the Muslim Conquest (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1984); Robert Schick, The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1995); Chase F. Robinson, Empire and Elites After the Muslim Conquest (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000). For the fluidity of social and religious arrangements, see Steven A. Epstein, Purity Lost (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2006).

21. The quote about Christian primates is from Wolf, Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain. “May God—praised be He” is from Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 375–76.

22. Mingana, Timothy’s Apology for Christianity; “thou art empowered” is quoted from Alphonse Mingana, ed., A Charter of Protection Granted to the Nestorian Church in AD 1138 (Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press, 1925).

23. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 316; Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia; David Thomas, ed., Syrian Christians Under Islam (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001); David Thomas, ed., Christians at the Heart of Islamic Rule (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003). “Hunt down what is contradictory” is quoted from Hoyland, introduction to Muslims and Others, xviii.

24. Harrak, Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n, 322–24. For the caliphate, see Hugh N. Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates, 2nd ed. (New York: Pearson/Longman, 2004); and Hugh N. Kennedy, When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2005).

25. Richard Bulliet, Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 131. Michael Morony, “The Age of Conversions,” in Gervers and Bikhazi, Conversion and Continuity, 135–50. Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests, also suggests that Islamization and Arabization were “a gradual, almost entirely peaceful result of the fact that more and more people wanted to identify with and participate in the dominant culture of their time” (376).

26. Stephen O’Shea, Sea of Faith (New York: Walker and Company, 2006).

27. What follows draws heavily on Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism. For the older world of Anatolia, see Ramsay MacMullen, Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100–400 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1986); and Raymond Van Dam, Becoming Christian (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2003).

28. The sack of Melitene is quoted from Mark Dickens, “Medieval Syriac Historians’ Perceptions of the Turks” (MPhil diss., Aramaic and Syriac Studies, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Cambridge, 2004), 22. “Everywhere the Christians” is from Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 172.

29. Michael the Syrian is quoted from Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 157. Joseph Tarzi, “Edessa in the Era of Patriarch Michael the Syrian,” Hugoye 3, no. 2 (2000), http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol3No2/HV3N2 Tarzi.html.

30. Ernest A. Wallis Budge, introduction to Chronography of Gregory Abu-'l Faraj. For the Muslims and the monasteries, see Elizabeth A. Zachariadou, “The Great Church in Captivity,” in Angold, Cambridge History of Christianity, 155. Rosemary Morris, Monks and Laymen in Byzantium, 843–1118 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995); Michael Angold, Church and Society in Byzantium Under the Comneni, 1081–1261, new ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000).

31. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 195.

32. For the church’s tradition of charitable activities, see Susan R. Holman, The Hungry Are Dying (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001); and Richard Finn, Almsgiving in the Later Roman Empire (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).

33. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 177–78.

34. Christopher Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004); Christopher Tyerman, God’s War (New York: Allen Lane, 2006). See also James M. Powell, ed., Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100–1300 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1990); Janet Shirley, ed., Crusader Syria in the Thirteenth Century (Aldershot, UK, and Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1999); Michael Gervers and James M. Powell, eds., Tolerance and Intolerance (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press, 2001); and Christopher MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East (Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2007). For mob action in Egypt around 1200, see Evetts, Churches and Monasteries, 116–18.

35. The deportations are described in Reinhart Dozy, Spanish Islam (London: Chatto & Windus, 1913). See also Charles Reginald Haines, Christianity and Islam in Spain (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, 1889); Bernard F. Reilly, The Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992); and Brian A. Catlos, The Victors and the Vanquished (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2004). For the supposed tolerance of Islamic Spain, see, for instance, Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World (New York: Little, Brown, 2002); and Chris Lowney, A Vanished World (New York: Free Press, 2005).

36. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 181; Michael Prawdin, The Mongol Empire (New Brunswick, NJ: AldineTransaction, 2006; first published 1940).

37. Lane, “Account of Gregory Bar Hebraeus.” Hulegu’s wife is quoted from Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 151–55. Mingana, Christianity in Central Asia, 18–19; Dawson, Mongol Mission; Isenbike Togan, Flexibility and Limitation in Steppe Formations (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998).

38. Solomon is quoted from E. A. Wallis Budge, Book of the Bee. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 159, 151. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995). Peter Jackson, “The Crisis in the Holy Land in 1260,” English Historical Review 95 (1980): 481–513.

39. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 147–55; Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:424.

40. Dickens, “Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia,” 16. Devin A. DeWeese, Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1994).

41. Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 386; Peter Thorau, The Lion of Egypt (London: Longman, 1992); Thomas F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades (Rowan & Littlefield, 2005), 181–82.

42. Little, “Coptic Conversion to Islam”; Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia.

43. Evetts, Churches and Monasteries, 329–31, and 340 for “at Suyut….” Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 177.

44. M. Perlmann, “Notes on Anti-Christian Propaganda in the Mamluk Empire,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 10 (1942): 843–61.

45. For “hibernation,” see O’Mahony, “Coptic Christianity in Modern Egypt,” 490.

46. The account by Al-Maqrizi can be found in Evetts, Churches and Monasteries, 305–25.

47. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 163–66.

48. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 169–70.

49. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 163–71; for “The persecutions and disgrace,” see Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:476, 1:487.

50. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 172; for Persia, see Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 387–88.

51. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 297–98, 344–48. H. A. R. Gibb, ed., Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354 (London: Broadway House, 1929), 133–34.

52. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism.

53. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 445.

54. The historian quoted is Dickran Kouymjian, “Armenia from the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom (1375) to the Forced Emigration Under Shah Abbas (1604),” in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, ed. Richard Hovannisian (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 2:1–50. Angus Stewart, The Armenian Kingdom and the Mamluks (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002); Razmik Panossian, The Armenians (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2006).

55. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:478.

56. Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 142–154; Shinnie, Medieval Nubia; Peter Grossmann, “Christian Nubia and Its Churches,” http://www.numibia.net/nubia/christian.htm.

57. “A systematic campaign” is from Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa, 1450–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 137; Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia, new ed. (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002).

58. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia.

59. Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1989). For Aragon, see David Nirenberg, Communities of Violence (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1996). Michael D. Bailey, Battling Demons (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 2003).

60. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 180. Ross E. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta, rev. ed. (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2005). Adolf Reifenberg, The Struggle Between the Desert and the Sown (Jerusalem: Hebrew Univ. Press, 1955); Arie S. Issar and Mattanyah Zohar, Climate Change: Environment and History of the Near East (New York: Springer, 2007).

61. Stuart J. Borsch, The Black Death in Egypt and England (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 2005).

62. Justin Marozzi, Tamerlane (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2006).

63. Dale A. Johnson, “Tamerlane: The Mongol Raider of Mor Gabriel Monastery,” http://www.socdigest.org/articles/02jan06.html; Dickens, “Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia,” 17.

5. THE LAST CHRISTIANS

1. “An Appeal from Mar Eshai Shimun XXI, Catholicos Patriarch of the Assyrians, to All the Christian Churches” (1933), http://www.edessa.com/histdocs/appeal1933.htm.

2. R. S. Stafford, The Tragedy of the Assyrians (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006).

3. Raphael Lemkin, “Acts Constituting a General (Transnational) Danger Considered as Offences Against the Law of Nations,” http://www.preventgenocide.org/lemkin/madrid1933-english.htm. Raphael Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of International Law, 1944).

4. Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream (New York: Perseus Books, 2006); Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies.

5. Dennis P. Hupchick, The Bulgarians in the Seventeenth Century (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1993).

6. Wheatcroft, Infidels. O’Shea, Sea of Faith. For Muslim slaving ventures in the West, see Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); and Giles Milton, White Gold (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005).

7. For the rayah, see Bostom, Legacy of Jihad, 66. Anton Minkov, Conversion to Islam in the Balkans (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2004). Hupchick, Bulgarians in the Seventeenth Century. Some accounts of forced conversion are controversial and may be based on bogus documents: Maria Todorova, “Conversion to Islam as a Trope in Bulgarian Historiography, Fiction and Film,” Eurozine (2003), http://www.eurozine.com/articles/2003–11–04-todorova-en.html. Suphan Kirmizialtin, “Conversion in Ottoman Balkans,” History Compass 5, no. 2 (2007): 646–57.

8. H. T. Norris, Islam in the Balkans (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1993); Mark Pinson, ed., The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1996).

9. Stephen C. Neill, A History of Christian Missions, rev. ed. (London: Penguin, 1990); R. Pochia Hsia, ed., Cambridge History of Christianity: Reform and Expansion 1500–1660 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006); and MacEvitt, Crusades and the Christian World of the East.

10. Chidester, Christianity, 332.

11. Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 169; Alastair Hamilton, The Copts and the West, 1439–1822 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).

12. Lobo, “Voyage to Abyssinia.” Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 159.

13. Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 28.

14. John Joseph, Muslim-Christian Relations and Inter-Christian Rivalries in the Middle East (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 1983); John Joseph, The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000); Hastings, Church in Africa.

15. K. S. Mathew, ed., Maritime Malabar and the Europeans, 1500–1962 (London: Greenwich Millennium, 2003); Ines G. Zupanov, Missionary Tropics (Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 2005). For a depressing list of some of the works lost, see Mingana, Christianity in India, 68.

16. Courbage and Fargues, Christians and Jews Under Islam; Edhem Eldem, Daniel Goffman, and Bruce Masters, The Ottoman City Between East and West (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999).

17. Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982); Speros Vryonis, “The Experience of Christians Under Seljuk and Ottoman Domination,” in Gervers and Bikhazi, Conversion and Continuity, 185–216; Bruce Masters, Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001); Zachary Karabell, People of the Book (London: John Murray, 2007).

18. Zachariadou, “Great Church in Captivity,” 183–84; Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 310; Oded Peri, Christianity Under Islam in Jerusalem (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001); Mark Mazower, Salonica, City of Ghosts (New York: Random House, 2005). For the traveler, see George A. Bournoutian, ed., The Travel Accounts of Simeon of Poland (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2007).

19. Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002), 85; Avedis K. Sanjian, The Armenian Communities in Syria Under Ottoman Dominion (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1965).

20. Nomikos Michael Vaporis, Witnesses for Christ (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2000); Zachariadou, “Great Church in Captivity,” 182.

21. “God perpetuate the empire” is from Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church (London: Penguin, 1964), 105–6. Stefano Carboni, Venice and the Islamic World, 828–1797 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2007); Benjamin Arbel, Bernard Hamilton, and David Jacoby, eds., Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204 (London: Frank Cass, 1989).

22. Quoted in Ware, Orthodox Church, 96.

23. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 141. For spells and folk magic, see Hermann Gollancz, ed., The Book of Protection (London: Henry Frowde/Oxford Univ. Press, 1912). For the Catholic comment, see Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Syriac Language and Literature,” http://www.newadvent. org/cathen/14408a.htm. Sir Austen Henry Layard, Nineveh and Its Remains: With an Account of a Visit to the Chaldæan Christians af Kurdistan, and the Yezidis, or Devil-Worshippers (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1849); Badger, Nestorians and Their Rituals; Parry, Six Months in a Syrian Monastery.

24. These remarks are drawn from articles in the Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/index.html; and from Eldem, Goffman, and Masters, Ottoman City.

25. Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “Diocese of Amida,” http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01429c.htm.

26. Barrett, Kurian, and Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia.

27. The British traveler was Robert Curzon, Visits to Monasteries in the Levant (London: John Murray, 1850), liii. Efraim Karsh and Inari Karsh, Empires of the Sand (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1999).

28. Finkel, Osman’s Dream, 460.

29. Efraim Karsh, Islamic Imperialism (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2006), 97; Leila Tarazi Fawaz, An Occasion for War (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1994); Leila Tarazi Fawaz, Merchants and Migrants in Nineteenth-Century Beirut (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1983); Ussama Makdisi, The Culture of Sectarianism (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2000).

30. Finkel, Osman’s Dream; John Joseph, The Nestorians and Their Muslim Neighbors (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1961).

31. The account of the Armenian massacres is from Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries (New York: Morrow Quill, 1977), 457–60, which includes the quote about “the murderous winter.” Sébastien de Courtois, Forgotten Genocide (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2004), 106; Gökhan Çetinsaya, Ottoman Administration of Iraq, 1890–1908 (London: Routledge, 2006).

32. Jonathan Frankel, The Damascus Affair (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996). Ronald Florence, Blood Libel (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 2004). Salo Baron, “The Jews and the Syrian Massacres of 1860,” Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 4 (1932–33): 3–31.

33. Karsh and Karsh, Empires of the Sand.

34. The account of Diyarbakir is from Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 81. Karsh, Islamic Imperialism, 113–18; Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris (New York: HarperCollins, 2003); Donald Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005); David Gaunt, Massacres, Resistance, Protectors (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006).

35. Lord Bryce is quoted from Joseph Naayem, Shall This Nation Die? (New York: Chaldean Rescue, 1920), http://www.aina.org/books/stnd.htm. Yonan Shahbaz, The Rage of Islam (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006).

36. Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2001); Bruce Clark, Twice a Stranger (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2006).

37. “Appeal from Mar Eshai Shimun.” (see Chap. 5, note 1.)

38. Speros Vryonis, The Mechanism of Catastrophe (New York: Greekworks. com, 2005). For Edessa’s Christian population, see Tarzi, “Edessa.”

39. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 84.

40. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 81–82 for Lucine; 91.

41. This account of contemporary Middle Eastern Christians is drawn from several sources: Robert Brenton Betts, Christians in the Arab East, rev. ed. (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1978); Kenneth Cragg, The Arab Christian (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991); Andrea Pacini, ed., Christian Communities in the Arab World (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998); and Anthony O’Mahony, “Syriac Christianity in the Modern Middle East,” in Angold, Cambridge History of Christianity, 511–35.

42. Sami Zubaida, “Contested Nations,” Nations and Nationalism 6, no. 3 (2000): 363–82; Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004); Reeva S. Simon and Eleanor H. Tejirian, eds., The Creation of Iraq, 1914–1921 (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2004).

43. Robert M. Haddad, Syrian Christians in Muslim Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1970); Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 154. Barbara L. Carter, The Copts in Egyptian Politics (London: Croom Helm, 1986); Sana Hasan, Christians Versus Muslims in Modern Egypt (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003); Maya Shatzmiller, ed., Nationalism and Minority Identities in Islamic Societies (Montreal: McGill-Queens Univ. Press, 2005). For Armenian contributions to modernizing and national movements in Iran, see Cosroe Chaqueri, ed., The Armenians of Iran (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1998).

44. Samih K. Farsoun and Naseer H. Aruri, Palestine and the Palestinians, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2006). Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 317.

45. For more recent relations between the faiths, see Chad F. Emmett, Beyond the Basilica (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1995); Charles M. Sennott, The Body and the Blood (New York: Public Affairs, 2001); and Raphael Israeli, Green Crescent over Nazareth (London: Frank Cass, 2002).

46. Jenkins, God’s Continent.

47. John H. Watson, Among the Copts (Eastbourne, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2000); Pieternella van Doorn-Harder and Karl Vogt, eds., Between Desert and City (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2004); O’Mahony, “Coptic Christianity in Modern Egypt,” 488–510.

48. Suha Rassam, Christianity in Iraq (Leominster, England: Gracewing Publishing, 2005).

49. Sandro Magister, “The Last Mass of Father Ragheed, a Martyr of the Chaldean Church,” http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/dettaglio.jsp?id= 145921&eng=y.

6. GHOSTS OF A FAITH

1. For the peasants visiting the priest, see Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 78–79. Harrington, Japan’s Hidden Christians; Turnbull, Kakure Kirishitan.

2. Gretchen D. Starr-LeBeau, In the Shadow of the Virgin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2003); David Coleman, Creating Christian Granada (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 2003); L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2005); Benjamin Ehlers, Between Christians and Moriscos (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2006). For crypto-Jews, see Jonathan I. Israel, Diasporas Within a Diaspora (Boston, MA: E. J. Brill, 2002); Janet L. Jacobs, Hidden Heritage (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002); Stanley M. Hordes, To the End of the Earth (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2005).

3. Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 6–7.

4. For the Copts, see Febe Armanios and Bogaç Ergene, “A Christian Martyr Under Mamluk Justice,” Muslim World 96, no. 1 (2006): 115–45. The preacher is quoted from Perlmann, “Notes on Anti-Christian Propaganda,” 858–59. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 441. The most systematic study of crypto-Christianity is in Stavro Skendi, “Crypto-Christianity in the Balkan Area Under the Ottomans,” Slavic Review 26, no. 2 (1967): 227–46; Skendi also describes the Linovamvakoi. Compare Noel Malcolm, “Crypto-Christianity and Religious Amphibianism in the Ottoman Balkans,” in Religious Quest and National Identity in the Balkans, ed. Celia Hawkesworth, Muriel Heppell, and Harry Norris (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), 91–109; and H. T. Norris, Popular Sufism of Eastern Europe (New York: Routledge, 2006).

5. Skendi, “Crypto-Christianity in the Balkan Area,” 228, 232.

6. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain; Kathleen Hughes, The Church in Early Irish Society (London: Methuen, 1966).

7. Molly Greene, A Shared World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2000).

8. John K. Nelson, A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1996), 30–32

9. Bede, Ecclesiastical History, bk. 1 vol. 30, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.v.i.xxix.html.

10. Alex Metcalfe, Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003).

11. Finbarr Barry Flood, The Great Mosque of Damascus (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001); Béatrice Caseau, “Sacred Landscapes,” in Interpreting Late Antiquity, ed. G. W. Bowersock, Peter Brown, and Oleg Grabar (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2001), 48.

12. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 197. For Amida, see “The Chronicle of Edessa,” http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chronicle_of_edessa.htm, fn. 29.

13. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 78.

14. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 486.

15. Jenkins, God’s Continent, 270.

16. Mingana, Timothy’s Apology for Christianity. John of Damascus, Writings, vol. 37 of The Fathers of the Church (Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 1958), 153–60. Hoyland, Seeing Islam.

17. The story of Bahira is widely cited, but see, for instance, O’Leary, Greek Science. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:326. Kenneth Baxter Wolf, “The Earliest Latin Lives of Muhammad,” in Gervers and Bikhazi, Conversion and Continuity, 89–101; John Victor Tolan, Saracens (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2002). For Islam as a Jewish messianic movement, see Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Hagarism (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977). For Dante, see Jenkins, God’s Continent, 267.

18. For the illusory crucifixion, see Quran 4: 157. Richard Bell, The Origin of Islam in Its Christian Environment (London: Macmillan, 1926); Geoffrey Parrinder, Jesus in the Qur’ān (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1977); Gustave E. von Grunebaum, Islam and Medieval Hellenism (London: Variorum Reprints, 1976); William E. Phipps, Muhammad and Jesus (New York: Continuum, 1996); John C. Reeves, ed., Bible and Qur’ān (Leiden: Brill, 2004). Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 281, 290.

19. Christoph Luxenberg, The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran (Berlin: Hans Schiler, 2007), 104; see also Christoph Luxenberg, Die syro-aramäische Lesart des Koran, 2nd ed. (Berlin: Hans Schiler, 2004). Peter von Sivers, “The Islamic Origins Debate Goes Public,” History Compass 1 (2003): 1–16; Christoph Burgmer, Streit um den Koran (Berlin: Schiler Verlag, 2004). Ibn Warraq, ed., The Origins of the Koran (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1998). Luxenberg’s comment on Arab schools is from Sandro Magister, “The Virgins and the Grapes,” http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7025&eng=y.

20. Magister, “Virgins and the Grapes.” For the meaning of Quran, see Luxenberg, Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran, 104; for the Eucharist, 322–23. For the grapes, see Luxenberg, Syro-Aramäische Lesart des Koran, 255–74. For quran and qeryana, see William A. Graham, “The Earliest Meaning of ‘Quran,’” Die Welt des Islams 23 (1984): 361–77.

21. François Nau, Les Arabes chrétiens de Mésopotamie et de Syrie du VIIe au VIIIe siècle (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1933); J. Spencer Trimingham, Christianity Among the Arabs in Pre-Islamic Times (London: Longman, 1979); Elizabeth Key Fowden, The Barbarian Plain (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1999). One prolific author in this area is Irfan Shah” d, whose books include Byzantium and the Semitic Orient Before the Rise of Islam (London: Variorum Reprints, 1988) and Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1995–2002).

22. McCrindle, Christian Topography.

23. For Jabr, see Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:326.

24. Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, 1:279; Axel Moberg, ed., The Book of the Himyarites (Lund, Sweden: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1924); Irfan Shahid, The Martyrs of Najran (Brussels: Société des Bollandistes, 1971).

25. Griffith, “Christians and Christianity,”, 307–15; Nadia Maria El Cheikh, Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2004).

26. Quran 5: 82–83. “A Bilingual Papyrus of a Protocol,” http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Papyri/enlp1.html.

27. Meir M. Bar-Asher and Aryeh Kofsky, The Nusayri-‘Alawi Religion (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002); Malise Ruthven, Islam in the World (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).

28. Kenneth Parry, Depicting the Word (New York: E. J. Brill, 1996); Alice-Mary Talbot, ed., Byzantine Defenders of Images (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1998); Leslie Brubaker and John Haldon, Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2001).

29. Oleg Grabar, The Dome of the Rock (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2006).

30. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 168; for seventh-century travelers, see Dennis Meehan ed., Adamnan’s De Locis Sanctis (Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1958), 98–99; Jerrilynn D. Dodds, Architecture and Ideology in Early Medieval Spain (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1990), 98.

31. Gülru Necipoglu, The Age of Sinan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2005).

32. For an extended argument about Christian-Muslim continuities, see Smith, Studies in Early Mysticism, 125–52.

33. Koschorke, Ludwig, and Delgado, History of Christianity, 159; Lobo, “Voyage to Abyssinia.”

34. Sidney H. Griffith, “Disputing with Islam in Syriac,” Hugoye 3, no. 1 (2000), http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol3No1/HV3N1Griffith.html.

35. Roberto Tottoli, “Muslim Attitudes Towards Prostration (suju-d),” Studia Islamica 88 (1998): 5–34; Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 105.

36. Nadia M. El-Cheikh, “Describing the Other to Get at the Self,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 40 (1997): 239–50; Liz James, ed., Women, Men, and Eunuchs (London and New York: Routledge, 1997). For the Mesopotamian case, see Harrak, Chronicle of Zuqnamp2;-n, 245.

37. For apologetics, see Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia. Gabriel Said Reynolds, A Muslim Theologian in the Sectarian Milieu (Leiden and Boston: E. J. Brill, 2004); Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 62–63. I owe this information about the Balkans to my colleague Tijana Krstic.

38. Dina Le Gall, A Culture of Sufism (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 2005).

39. Smith, Studies in Early Mysticism.

40. Chryssavgis, John Climacus.

41. Smith, Studies in Early Mysticism. For wool garments, see Mingana, Christianity in India, 35.

42. For Basra, see Mingana, Christianity in India, 5. Margaret Smith, Rabi'a the Mystic and Her Fellow-Saints in Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1928); Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 131.

43. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 130–31.

44. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 130–32; Karen Armstrong, Islam: A Short History (New York: Modern Library, 2000), 88; Tarif Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2001), 42. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Qur’ānic Christians (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991).

45. Khalidi, Muslim Jesus.

46. Valerie J. Hoffman, Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt (Columbia, SC: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 1995); Christopher S. Taylor, In the Vicinity of the Righteous (Boston: E. J. Brill, 1999); Richard J. A. McGregor, Sanctity and Mysticism in Medieval Egypt (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 2004).

47. Mary F. Thurlkill, Chosen Among Women (Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 2008).

48. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 369–77; Irène Mélikoff, Hadji Bektach: Un mythe et ses avatars (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998).

49. Tord Olsson, Alevi Identity (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 1998); Paul J. White and Joost Jongerden, eds., Turkey’s Alevi Enigma (Leiden: Brill, 2003); H. T. Norris, Popular Sufism of Eastern Europe (New York: Routledge, 2006).

50. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 385–87.

51. Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 402.

52. F. W. Hasluck, Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929); Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 339–341.

53. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 487–88. The archaeologist is Frederick Jones Bliss, The Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1912), 27–28.

54. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain, 188.

7. HOW FAITHS DIE

1. Mark Twain, Following the Equator (New York: AMS Press, 1971).

2. Jenkins, God’s Continent.

3. Thomas F. Glick, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2005); Metcalfe, Muslims and Christians. For intermarriage, see Gladys Frantz-Murphy, “Conversion in Early Islamic Egypt: The Economic Factor,” in Hoyland, Muslims and Others, 323–30.

4. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism.

5. Borsch, Black Death.

6. Quoted in Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 406.

7. Bat Ye’or, Decline of Eastern Christianity.

8. Caseau, “Sacred Landscapes,” 21–59.

9. H. A. R. Gibb, ed., Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354 (London: Broadway House, 1929), 147–49. For the Egyptian case, see Evetts, Churches and Monasteries, 318.

10. For Kairouan and its historical setting, see Douglas Sladen, Carthage and Tunis, 2 vols. (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1906). For Christian attempts to create their own landscape after the Reconquista, see A. Katie Harris, From Muslim to Christian Granada (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2007).

11. “One could visit a variety” is from Bethany J. Walker, “Commemorating the Sacred Spaces of the Past,” Near Eastern Archaeology 67, no. 1 (2004): 26–40. For the earlier creation of the Christian landscape, see John M. Howe, “The Conversion of the Physical World,” in Muldoon, Varieties of Religious Conversion, 63–80. For the critical role of pilgrimage, see Robert Ousterhout, ed., The Blessings of Pilgrimage (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1990); R. A. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991); David Frankfurter, ed., Pilgrimage and Holy Space in Late Antique Egypt (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998); Otto F. A. Meinardus, Coptic Saints and Pilgrimages (Cairo and New York: American Univ. in Cairo Press, 2002); Maribel Dietz, Wandering Monks, Virgins, and Pilgrims (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 2005); and Jaœ Elsner and Ian Rutherford, eds., Pilgrimage in Graeco-Roman and Early Christian Antiquity (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005). Looking at the destruction of the older sacred geography, many parallels come to mind from Christian Europe, especially in the age of the Reformation; see, for example, Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2005).

12. The quotation is from Shaikh Hasan Al Kafrawi, in Jacob Marcus, The Jew in the Medieval World (New York: Jewish Publication Society, 1938), 15–19. Bat Ye’or, Decline of Eastern Christianity.

13. For Damascus, see Frederick Jones Bliss, The Religions of Modern Syria and Palestine (New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1912), 29. For Urumia, see Thomas Laurie, Woman and Her Saviour in Persia (Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 1863).

14. Samir Khalil Samir and Jørgen S. Nielsen, eds., Christian Arabic Apologetics During the Abbasid Period, 750–1258 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994); Griffith, Yahya ibn 'Adi; Sidney H. Griffith, The Beginnings of Christian Theology in Arabic (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002); Sandra Toenies Keating, Defending the “People of Truth” in the Early Islamic Period (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2006); Grypeou, Swanson, and Thomas, Eastern Christianity. For Bible translation, see David Thomas, ed., The Bible in Arab Christianity (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2006).

15. Quoted in Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 48.

16. Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 315.

17. Lapidus, History of Islamic Societies.

18. Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 389.

19. Peter Alvar, quoted in Haines, Christianity and Islam in Spain, 118. Thomas E. Burman, Religious Polemic and the Intellectual History of the Mozarabs, c. 1050–1200 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994); Mar’a Angeles Gallego, “The Languages of Medieval Iberia and Their Religious Dimension,” Medieval Encounters 9, no. 1 (2003): 107–39.

20. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 90.

21. “Islam has blotted out” is from Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 160. Kublai Khan is quoted from A. C. Moule, Christians in China Before the Year 1550 (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1930), 156.

22. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 184.

23. Vryonis, Decline of Medieval Hellenism, 435.

8. THE MYSTERY OF SURVIVAL

1. The quote “in no part” is from Holme, Christian Churches in North Africa, 187. Isichei, History of Christianity in Africa; Bengt Sundkler and Christopher Steed, A History of the Church in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000).

2. For the conversion of the Berbers to Islam, see Elizabeth Savage, A Gateway to Hell, a Gateway to Paradise (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1997). Michael Brett, “The Spread of Islam in Egypt and North Africa,” in North Africa: Islam and Modernization, ed. Michael Brett (London: Frank Cass, 1973); Joseph Cuoq, L’église d’Afrique du Nord (Paris: Le Centurion, 1984); Mohammed Talbi, “Le Christianisme maghrébin,” in Gervers and Bikhazi, Conversion and Continuity, 313–51.

3. Holme, Christian Churches in North Africa. Mark A. Handley, “Disputing the End of African Christianity,” in Vandals, Romans and Berbers, ed. A. H. Merrills (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004), 291–310.

4. Holme, Christian Churches in North Africa, 253–54.

5. Robert C. Gregg, ed., The Life of Antony and the Letter to Marcellinus, by Athanasius (New York: Paulist Press, 1980). E. A. Wallis Budge, Coptic Martyrdoms (London: British Museum, 1914); Brown, Society and the Holy. For conditions in neighboring Palestine, see Jennifer L. Hevelone-Harper, Disciples of the Desert (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2005).

6. Micheau, “Copts, Melkites, Nestorians and Jacobites,” 373–403. Edward R. Hardy, Jr., Christian Egypt, Church and People (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1952); James E. Goehring and Janet A. Timbie, eds., The World of Early Egyptian Christianity (Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 2007); and Kamil, Christianity in the Land of the Pharaohs.

7. The quote is from Perlmann, “Notes on Anti-Christian Propaganda,” 847. Armanios and Ergene, “Christian Martyr Under Mamluk Justice,” 115–45. Georges C. Anawati, “The Christian Communities in Egypt in the Middle Ages,” in Gervers and Bikhazi, Conversion and Continuity, 237–51.

8. Bahaa ’Taher, Aunt Safiyya and the Monastery (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1996). Mark Gruber, Journey Back to Eden (New York: Orbis, 2002).

9. Yitzhak Hen, Culture and Religion in Merovingian Gaul, A.D. 481–751 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995); J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Frankish Church (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1983); Chris Wickham and Inge Lyse Hansen, The Long Eighth Century (Leiden: E. J. Brill 2000); Julia M. H. Smith, Europe After Rome (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005); Barbara Yorke, The Conversion of Britain (New York: Pearson/Longman, 2006).

10. Bede, Life of Cuthbert, chap. 3, in Two Lives of Saint Cuthbert, ed. Bertram Colgrave (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969), 162–65.

11. Leslie Webster and Michelle Brown, Transformation of the Roman World AD 400–900 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1997); Smith, Europe After Rome.

12. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages; Lester K. Little, ed., Plague and the End of Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007); William Rosen, Justinian’s Flea (New York: Viking, 2007).

13. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (London: Fontana/Collins, 1975), 1:34–35.

14. The traveler is quoted in Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World, 1:40. For the Maronites, see Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1985), 62

15. Daniel Power and Naomi Standen, eds., Frontiers in Question (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); David Abulafia and Nora Berend, eds., Medieval Frontiers (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2002).

16. Tamara Green, The City of the Moon God (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992).

17. Lewis, Emergence of Modern Turkey.

18. Barrett, Kurian, and Johnson, World Christian Encyclopedia.

9. ENDINGS AND BEGINNINGS

1. Shusaku Endo, Silence (London: Quartet, 1976), 97.

2. Quoted in Bostom, Legacy of Jihad, 611 (my emphasis).

3. For John of Córdoba, see Dodds, Architecture and Ideology, 90. Solomon is quoted from E. A. Wallis Budge, Book of the Bee. For apocalyptic interpretations, see Griffith, “Disputing with Islam in Syriac.”

4. R. Payne Smith, The Third Part of the Ecclesiastical History of John Bishop of Ephesus (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1860), http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ephesus_7_book6.htm.

5. George Minamiki, The Chinese Rites Controversy (Chicago: Loyola Univ. Press, 1985); Liam Matthew Brockey, Journey to the East (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2007).

6. Quoted in John Foster, The Church of the T'ang Dynasty (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1939), 115.

7. Browne, Eclipse of Christianity in Asia, 179, 182.

8. Jenkins, God’s Continent.

9. Thomas Babington Macaulay, “Ranke’s History of the Popes,” in Critical and Historical Essays (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1854), 128.