Notes

Preface to the Second Edition

1	Steven Englund, ‘Monstre Sacré: The Question of Cultural Imperialism and the Napoleonic Empire,’ The Historical Journal, 51, 1 (2008) pp. 215–50, 216.
2	Geoffrey Ellis, The Napoleonic Empire (Basingstoke, second edition 2003) pp. xii–xiii.
3	Rasmus Glenthøj and Morten Nordhagen Ottosen, Experiences of War and Nationality in Denmark and Norway, 1807–1813 (Basingstoke, 2014).
4	Karen Hagemann, ‘Mannlicher Muth und Teutsche Ehre’: Nation, Militär und Geschlecht zur Zeit der Antinapoleonischen Kriege Preußsens (Berlin, 2002).
5	Ute Planert, Der Mythos vom Befreiungskrieg. Frankriech Kriege und der deutsche Süden. Alltag, Wahrnehmung, Deutung, 1792–1841 (Frankfurt, 2007).
6	Johan Joor, De Adelaar en het Lam. Onrust, opruiling en onwilligheid in Nederland ten tijde van het Konininkrijk Holland en de Inliving bij het France Keizerrijk (1806–1813) (Amsterdam, 2000).
7	Nicola-Peter Todorov, L’administration du royaume de Westphalie de 1807 à 1813. Le département de l’Elbe (Sarrbrücken, 2011). Todorov’s work nuances the Marxist-influenced work of Helmut Berding, which saw the Napoleonic reforms has largely negated and undermined by the creation of the majorats: Napoleonische Herrschafts- und Gesellschaftspolitik im Königreich Wstfalen, 1807–1813 (Frankfurt, 1973).
8	Carolina Castellano, Il mestiere di giudice. Magistrati e sistema giuridico tra i francesi e i Borboni (1799–1848) (Bologna, 2004).
9	Adele Robbiati Bianchi (ed.), La formazione del primo Stato italiano e Milano captiale 1802–1814 (Cesano Maderno, 2006).
10	Annie Jourdan, La Révolution, une exception française? (Paris, 2004).
11	Marta Lorente and Carlos Garriga (eds) Cádiz 1812 (Madrid, 2007). José M. Portillo Valdés, Crisis Atlántica. Autonomía e Independencia en la crisis de la monarquía espangola (Madrid, 2006).
12	Review by Philip Dwyer of The Napoleonic Empire and the New European Political Culture (eds Michael Broers, Peter Hicks and Agustín Guimera) (Basingstoke, 2012): Napoleon Series Discussion Forum: http://www.napoleon-series.org.
13	Natalie Petiteau, Guerriers du Premier Empire. Expériences et memoires (Langres, 2011) is perhaps the most innovative of her books in this area.
14	Alan Forrest, The Legacy of the French Revolutionary Wars. The Nation-in-arms in French Republican memory (Cambridge, 2009).
15	Englund, ‘Monstre sacrée,’ pp. 231–50.
16	Jane Burbank and Frederick Cooper, Empires in World History. Power and the Politics of Difference (Princeton, 2010). Timothy Parsons, The Rule of Empires: those who built them, those who endured them, and why they always fail (Oxford, 2010).
17	Among them: Roberto M. Dainotto, Europe (In theory) (Durham, 2007).
18	Napoléon Bonaparte. Correspondance générale (Paris, 2004 – ongoing) 10 volumes to date.

Introduction

1	In addition to Napoleon’s own memoirs, written and dictated on St Helena, the crucial ‘founder texts’ of the myth are ‘the four evangelists of St Helena’, as Jean Tulard has named them: Las Cases, Montholon, Gougard, and Bertrand. For a modern anthology: Napoléon à St-Hélène, ed. J. Tulard (Paris, 1981). Later, under the Second Empire, came the highly selective Correspondance de Napoléon Ier, 32 vols (Paris, 1858–70).
2	For a useful attack on the more recent literature of this kind: C.J. Esdaile, ‘The Napoleonic period: some thoughts on recent historiography’, European History Quarterly, 23 (1993) pp. 415–32. The classic, D. Chandler, The Campaigns of Napoleon: The Mind and Method of History’s Greatest Soldier (London, 1966), a monument in its own field, follows this path. A.J. Guérard, Napoleon, (Eng. trans., London, 1957), sets the modern pattern for many popular lives, in English and French, dwelling on the personal aspects and the romantic image.
3	Chateaubriand, Napoléon, ed. C. Melchior-Bonnet (Paris, 1969) collects his disparate writings on Napoleon. Tolstoy’s portrait of Napoleon is in War and Peace. G. Lefebvre, Napoléon (Paris, 1st edn 1941, 2nd edn 1965).
4	For the span of classic judgements, see P. Geyl, Napoleon. For and Against (Eng. trans., London, 1949). For a sneering, if inspired attack by an intellectual, E. Ludwig, Napoleon (Berlin, 1926).
5	R. Holtman, Napoleonic Propaganda (New York, 1950).
6	In contrast, J. Godechot entitles his chapter on the regime, in Les Institutions de la France sous la Révolution et l’Empire (Paris, 1968), simply ‘La dictature militaire’.
7	J. Tulard, Napoléon, ou le mythe du sauveur (Paris, 1977).
8	J. Tulard, Le Grand Empire (Paris, 1981).
9	See also, the brilliant F. Bluche, Le Bonapartisme. Aux origines de la droite autoritaire (1800–1850) (Paris, 1980).
10	M. Lyons, Napoleon and the Legacy of the French Revolution (London, 1994). G. Ellis, The Napoleonic Empire (London, 1991).
11	L. Bergeron, France under Napoleon (Eng. trans., Princeton, 1972).
12	Typical of this is V. Cronin, Napoleon (London, 1971).
13	See especially, J.J. Sheehan, German History, 1750–1866 (Oxford, 1990). S.J. Woolf, A History of Italy, 1700–1860 (London, 1979). S. Schama, Patriots and Liberators. Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1813 (New York, 1977). G.H. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain, 2 vols (New York, 1965), and for the major examples in English.
14	For a full discussion, see pp. 269–70.
15	C.J. Esdaile, The Wars of Napoleon (London, 1995) and D.G. Wright, Napoleon and Europe (London, 1984) are important correctives to this.
16	Bluche, Le Bonapartisme, for the attack on ‘factionalism’ and the regime as ‘above party’.
17	The Autobiography of Goethe. Truth and Poetry from My Own Life, 2 vols (Eng. trans., London, 1900) pp. 383–6.
18	F. Markham, Napoleon (London, 1963).
19	See especially, W. Callahan, ‘The origins of the conservative Church in Spain, 1789–1823’, European History Review, 10 (1980) pp. 199–223.
20	Esdaile, The Wars. S.J. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe (London, 1991).
21	A. Macintyre, After Virtue. A Study in Moral Theory (London, 1981).
22	Among the major contributions: G. Ellis, Napoleon’s Continental Blockade. The Case of Alsace (Oxford, 1981); L. Bergeron, Banquiers, négociants et manufacturiers parisiens du Directoire à l’Empire (Paris, 1978); and Les ‘masses de granit’. Cent mille notables du Premier Empire (Paris, 1979).
23	P.W. Schroderer, The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848 (Oxford, 1994).
24	M. Ozouf, L’Homme régéneré (Paris, 1991).
25	I. Woloch, The New Regime. Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789–1820s (New York, 1994) p. 28.
26	N. Hampson, Prelude to Terror (Oxford, 1988) pp. 87–8.
27	A. Patrick, ‘The approach of French revolutionary officials to social problems’, Australian Journal of French Studies, 18 (1981).
28	On the legal profession: M.J. Fitzsimmons, The Parisian Order of Barristers and the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1987). On the crafts and unskilled trades: M.D. Sibalis, ‘Corporatism after corporations: restoring the guilds under Napoleon I and the Restoration’, French Historical Studies, 15 (1988) pp. 718–30. For the wider perspective: Woloch, The New Regime.
29	J.A. Lynn, ‘Towards an army of honour: the moral evolution of the French army, 1789–1815’, French Historical Studies, 16 (1989) pp. 152–73. A. Forrest, Soldiers of the French Revolution (Durham and London, 1990). S.F. Scott, The Response of the Royal Army to the French Revolution (Oxford, 1978).
30	T.C.W. Blanning, The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars (Harlow, 1986) p. 122.
31	L. Hunt, D. Lansky and P. Hanson, ‘The failure of the liberal republic in France, 1795–1799: the road to Brumaire’, Journal of Modern History, 51 (1979) pp. 734–59, 752–3.
32	C. Lucas, ‘The First French Directory and the rule of law’, French Historical Studies, (1977) pp. 231–60.
33	C. Lucas, ‘The rules of the game in local politics under the Directory’, French Historical Studies, 16 (1989) pp. 345–71. I. Woloch, The Jacobin Legacy. The Democratic Movement under the Directory (Princeton, CT, 1970). W.R. Fryer, Republic or Restoration in France? 1794–1797 (Manchester 1965).
34	Hunt, Lansky and Hanson, ‘The failure of the liberal republic’, pp. 758–9.

Chapter 1. Conquest, 1799–1807

1	O. Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns (Wilmington, D.E., 1987) pp. 65–8.
2	Cited in K.A. Roider, ‘The Habsburg foreign ministry and political reform, 1801–1805’, Central European History, 22 (1989), pp. 160–82, 165–6.
3	Ibid., pp. 173–4.
4	Chandler, Campaigns, p. 333.
5	J. Morvan, Le Soldat impérial, 2 vols (Paris, 1904) i, p. 289 takes a more critical view of the value of these exercises.
6	Ibid. ii, pp. 507–8.
7	See especially J.A. Lynn, ‘Toward an army of honour: the moral evolution of the French Army, 1789–1815’, French Historical Studies, 16 (1989).
8	G. and J.S. de Silva Dias, Os Primordios da Maçonaria em Portugal, 4 vols (Lisbon, 1980) vol. I, tom. ii, pp. 423–30.
9	M. Bruguière, ‘“Remarques sur les rapports”, financiers entre la France et l’Allemagne du Nord à l’époque napoléonienne: Hambourg et “le parti de la paix”’ Francia, 1 (1973) pp. 467–81.
10	Cited in J. Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder: British Foreign Aid in the Wars with France, 1793–1815 (Cambridge, MA, 1969).
11	O. Connelly, Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Grande Armée (New York, 1988) pp. 113–14.
12	J.R. Elting, Swords around a Throne: Napoleon’s Grande Armée (New York, 1988) pp. 113–14.
13	Ibid., pp. 113.
14	Cited in E. Kraehe, Metternich’s German Policy, 2 vols (Princeton, NJ, 1963 and 1988) i, p. 57.

Chapter 2. Consolidation, 1799–1807

1	F. Bluche, Le Bonapartisme, on the theory. E.A. Whitcomb, ‘Napoleon’s prefects’, American Historical Review, 69 (1974); and J.-P. Bertaud, ‘Napoleon’s officers’, Past and Present, 111 (1986) pp. 90–107, for the practice.
2	I. Woloch, The New Regime. Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789–1820s, (New York and London, 1994) p. 55.
3	Ibid., pp. 56–7.
4	Bertaud, ‘Napoleon’s officers’, p. 107.
5	J.I. Halperin, L’Impossible Code Civil (Paris, 1992) pp. 264–5.
6	R.B. Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution (Philadelphia, PA, 1967) p. 88.
7	P.M. Jones, Politics and Rural Society. The Southern Massif Central, c. 1750–1880 (Cambridge, 1985) p. 154, sets this alongside the great reforms of the 1790s.
8	R.M. Berdahl, The Politics of the Prussian Nobility: the Development of a Conservative Ideology, 1770–1848 (Princeton, NJ, 1988).
9	Fitzsimmons, Parisian Order of Barristers, pp. 147–53.
10	Woloch, New Regime, pp. 118–19.
11	Ibid., p. 127.
12	C. Langlois, Le Diocèse de Vannes au XIXe siècle, (Paris, 1974), ‘Complots, propagandes et répression policière en Bretagne sous l’Empire, 1806–1807’, Annales de Bretagne, 78 (1957). On conscription, A. Forrest, Conscripts and Deserters (Oxford, 1988) pp. 220–3.
13	L. Bergeron and G. Chaussinand-Nogaret, Les Masses de Granit. Cent mille notables du Premier Empire (Paris, 1979).
14	G. Ellis, ‘Rhine and Loire: Napoleon’s elites and social order’, in Beyond the Terror, (Cambridge, 1983) eds G. Lewis and C.M. Lucas, pp. 232–67, 246.
15	Ellis, ‘Napoleonic elites’, p. 266.
16	R.J.P. Kain and E. Baignet, The Cadastral Map in the Service of the State. A History of Property Mapping (Chicago and London, 1984) pp. 228–31.
17	Cited in Kain and Baignet, Cadastral Map, p. 228.
18	M-N. Bourguet, Déchiffrer la France. La statistique départmentale à l’époque napoléonienne (Paris, 1989) pp. 301–6.
19	E. d’Hauterive, La Police Secrète du Premier Empire, 4 vols (Paris, 1908–64) i, p. 59.
20	Cited in A. Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat, 4 vols (Paris, 1903–14) i, p. 2.
21	J.C. Martin, La Vendée et la France (Paris, 1987) p. 335.
22	Woloch, New Regime, p. 390. Tulard, Napoleon, p. 225.
23	Schroeder, Transformation, p. 233.
24	On the Kingdom of Italy: A. Grab, ‘Army, state and society: conscription and desertion in Napoleonic Italy (1803–1814)’, Journal of Modern History, 67 (1995) pp. 25–54, 50. On the Pyrénées Orientales: M. Brunet, Le Roussillon. Une société contre l’État, 1780–1820 (Toulouse, 1986) pp. 307–21.
25	See the map and figures in Forrest, Conscripts and Deserters, p. 88.
26	Holtman, Napoleonic Revolution, p. 87. Almanach National, 1802.
27	G. Lewis, The Second Vendée. The Continuity of Counter-revolution in the Department of the Gard, 1789–1815 (Oxford, 1978) pp. 114, 117.
28	On the Van: M. Agulhon, La Vie Sociale en Provence Intérieure au lendemain de la Révolution (Paris, 1970) pp. 369–404. On Piedmont, M. Broers, ‘Policing Piedmont, 1797–1821’, Criminal Justice History, 16 (1994) pp. 1–47.
29	Brunet, Le Roussillon. P. Sahlins, Forest Rites. The War of the Demoiselles in Nineteenth Century France, (Cambridge, MA, 1994) pp. 20–1. A. Forrest, Deserteurs et Insoumis sous la Révolution et l’Empire, (Paris, 1988) pp. 214, 226, 239–41.
30	I. Woloch, ‘Napoleonic conscription, state power and society’, Past and Present, 111 (1986) pp. 101–29.
31	Woloch, ‘Napoleonic conscription’, pp. 120–1.
32	L. Antonielli, I Prefetti dell’Italia Napoleonica (Milan, 1983), p. 456.
33	On Piedmont: M.G. Broers, ‘The restoration of order in Napoleonic Piedmont, 1796–1814’ (Unpubl. D.Phil, thesis, Oxford, 1986). On the Kingdom of Italy: Antonielli, Prefetti. On the Pyrénées Orientales: Brunet, Le Roussillon, pp. 297–321. On France as a whole: Forrest, Déserteurs et Insoumis, especially Chapter 9.
34	Woloch, New Regime, pp. 218–19.
35	Sheehan, German History, p. 261.
36	L.E. Lee, ‘Baden between revolutions: state-building and citizenship, 1800–1848’, Central European History, 24 (1991) pp. 248–67.
37	D. Moran, Toward the Century of Words: Johann Cotta and the Politics of the Public Realm in Germany, 1795–1832 (Berkeley, CA, 1990) p. 73.
38	C. Anderson, ‘State-building in early nineteenth century Nassau’, Central European History, 24 (1991) pp. 222–47.
39	Woloch, ‘Napoleonic conscription’, p. 122.
40	Cited in S. Schama, Patriots and Liberators, Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1803 (New York, 1977) p. 356.
41	Archives Nationales de Paris, BB(5) (Organisation Judiciaire, Cour de Turin) 304, Jourde to the Minister of Justice, 29 messidor, Year IX/18 July 1801.
42	Cited in Sheehan, German History, p. 356. Also cited in K. Epstein, The Genesis of German Conservatism (Princeton, NJ, 1966) p. 607.
43	Cited in C. Zaghi, Potere, Chiesa e Società, studi e ricerche sull’Italia giacobina e napoleonica (Naples, 1984) p. 527.
44	M. Dunan, Napoléon et l’Allemagne, le système continental et les débuts du Royaume de Baviére, 1806–1810 (Paris, 1942) p. 100.
45	See, for example, the definition of its economic connotations by F. Furet, ‘Feudal system’, in A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (Eng. trans., Cambridge, MA, and London, 1989) eds F. Furet and M. Ozouf, p. 687.
46	Cited in J.J. Gagliardo, Reich and Nation (Bloomington and London, 1980) p. 230.
47	Cited in Anderson, ‘State-building in early nineteenth century Nassau’, p. 235.
48	Cited in A. Valente, Gioacchino Murat e l’Italia meridionale (Turin, 1965) p. 278.
49	Cited in P. Villani, Mezzogiorno tra riforme e rivoluzione (Rome and Bari, 1973), p. 209.
50	Cited in C. Schmidt, Le Grand Duché de Berg (1806–1813) (Paris, 1905) p. 184.
51	Schmidt, Berg, pp. 195–6.
52	The major works by these historians dealing with the Continental System are: Ellis, Napoleon’s Continental Blockade; Bergeron, France under Napoleon. Francois Crouzet has written copiously on this topic; his major contribution in English is: ‘Wars, blockade and economic change in Europe, 1792–1813’, Journal of Economic History, 24 (1964). His seminal work is L’Économie Britannique et le Blocus Continental (Paris, 1987 edn).
53	Ellis, Napoleonic Empire, p. 96.
54	Bergeron, France under Napoleon, p. 173.

Chapter 3. Collaboration and Resistance: The Napoleonic State and the People of Western Europe, 1799–1808

1	J. Moore, A View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland and Germany (Dublin, 1779). Cited in T.C.W. Blanning, The French Revolution in Germany (Oxford, 1983) p. 249.
2	Archives Nationales de Paris (ANP), F(1)E (Pays Annexés) 87/8, Prefect, dept. Taro, to the Minister of the Interior, 10 December 1808.
3	ANP F(1)E (Pays Annexés) 87/8, Administrator-General, Parma, to the Minister of the Interior, 23 July 1806.
4	ANP F(1)E (Pays Annexés) 86, Lt. Lacroix to Lebrun, Administrator-General, Liguria, undated (c.1806).
5	Cited in G.P. Gooch, Germany and the French Revolution (London, 1965 edn) p. 198.
6	M. Cuaz, Le Nuove di Francia: l’immagine della rivoluzione francese nella stampa periodica italiana (Turin, 1990) p. 13.
7	Cited in Blanning, Germany, p. 88.
8	ANP AF(IV), 945, Minister of Religion (Cultes) to Napoleon, 18 June 1806.
9	Archivio di Stato di Bologna, (ASB) Sezzione Preffetura del Reno, Titolo xxiv, Articolo 19 (Soppressione dei Conventi) Prefect, dipt, del Reno to Min della Polizia, Milan, 6 July 1810.
10	Cited in G. De Rosa, ‘La vita religiosa nel Mezzogiorno durante la dominazione francese’, Pratiques Religieuses, dans l’Europe révolutionnaire, eds P. Larou and R. Darteville (Paris, 1988) pp. 103–11.
11	ANP AF(IV) (Cultes, 1807–1809) 1046, Dossier II (1808) Minister of Religion (Cultes) to Napoleon, April 1808.
12	Archivio di Stato di Genova (ASG), Preffetura Francese, Pacco 78, Fasciolo 106 (Culto), Sub-prefect of Novi to Prefect, dept. Gênes, 6 August 1811.
13	Archivio di Stato di Firenze (ASF) Buon Governo, 461, (1808), Archbishop of Pisa to President of the Buon Governo, 1 April 1808.
14	De Rosa, Pratiques Religieuses, p. 63.
15	ANP AF(IV), 1303, ‘Vues de l’Organisation du Culte Catholique’, 3 June 1811.
16	ANP F(1)E (Pays Annexés), 74 (Piémont) ‘Rapport de la Boulinière et Cappelle sur le Piemont’, 1806.
17	Cited in Schmidt, Berg, pp. 221–2.
18	On Germany: T.C.W. Blanning, ‘German Jacobins and the French Revolution’, Historical Journal, 23 (1980) pp. 985–1002, forcefully redresses the unbalanced views of W. Grab, Ein volk muss seine Freiheit selbst eroben: Zur Geschichte der deurschen Jakobiner, 2 vols (Berlin, 1975, 1981). On Italy, M. Broers, ‘Revolution as vendetta: Napoleonic Piedmont, 1800–1814’, Historical Journal, 33 (1990), for views close to those of Blanning.
19	Cited in Blanning, ‘German Jacobins’, p. 993.
20	Cited in Antonielli, Prefetti, p. 254.
21	ANP F(1)E (Pays Annexés), 78 (Piémont), ‘Memoire sur le Piémont’, an XI (1802).
22	ANP BB(18) (Justice Criminelle et Correctionelle) 841 (dept. Sesia), Prefect, dept. Sesia, to the Minister of the Interior, 8 March 1809.
23	Among the better, standard works, Holtman, Napoleonic Revolution, pp. 179–93, incorporates many of these misconceptions. H. Kohn, ‘Napoleon and the age of nationalism’, Journal of Modern History, 22 (1950), encapsulates them. For a clear expression of more recent, realistic views, at a general level, Wright, Napoleon and Europe, pp. 71–3.
24	Schama, Patriots, p. 473.
25	Cited in Broers, ‘Revolution as vendetta’, ii, p. 802.
26	Cited in Antonielli, Prefetti, p. 68.
27	G. Pedlow, The Survival of the Hessian Nobility, 1770–1870 (Princeton, NJ, 1988).
28	Ibid.
29	For the most recent discussion of this, see Ellis, Napoleonic Empire, pp. 72–81, for his critique of the view of Jean Tulard, the major exponent of the concept of ‘amalgame’, Ellis cites in his favour the important article, Whitcomb, ‘Napoleon’s prefects’.
30	G. Lewis, ‘Political brigandage and popular disaffection in the southeast of France, 1795–1804’, in Beyond the Terror, pp. 195–231, 231.
31	Cited in Anderson, ‘State-building in early nineteenth century Nassau’, p. 239.
32	An apt phrase coined by L.S. Flockerzie, ‘State-building and nation building in the “Third Germany”: Saxony after the Congress of Vienna’, Central European History, 24 (1991) pp. 268–92, 290.
33	Lee, ‘Baden between revolutions’, p. 252.
34	Cited in P. Verhaegen, La Belgique sous la domination française, 1792–1814, 5 vols (Brussels, 1923–1929).

Chapter 4. Crisis, 1808–11

1	F. Pesendorfer, Fernando III e la Toscana in età napoleonica (Italian trans., Florence, 1986) p. 131.
2	A. Latrielle, Napoleon et le St. Siège (1801–1808), (Paris, 1935) p. 447.
3	Ibid., p. 448.
4	Ibid., p. 567.
5	C. Nardi, Napoleone e Roma: la politica della Consultà Romana (Rome, 1989) p. 53.
6	It should be stated that some historians have interpreted the French interventions in both Etruria/Tuscany and Spain as part of premeditated policy to eradicate the Bourbon dynasty by Napoleon. The lack of concrete evidence for this view is further contradicted by the actual course of events. If such a concerted plan of action existed, it took a very long time to emerge. For a recent assertion of the ‘plot theory’, especially in a Spanish context, see: D. Hilt, The Troubled Trinity, Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs (Tuscaloosa, AL, 1987). The opposite view is concisely put by J.R. Aymes, La Guerra de la Independencia en España, 1808–14 (Madrid, 1980), also published in French as La Guerre d’Indépendance Espagnole, (1808–1814) (Paris, 1973).
7	The Spanish word junta literally means ‘committee’; it was used in this period, as it still is in Spain, Portugal and Latin America, to describe a ruling body, usually thrust into power by convulsed circumstances.
8	Aymes, La Guerre d’Indépendance, p. 72.
9	G.H. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain, 2 vols (1965), New York i, p. 143.
10	Cited in Aymes, La Guerre d’Indépendance, p. 20.
11	A. Martinez del Velasco, La Formación de la Junta Central (Pamplona, 1972) pp. 41–2.
12	Cited in H. Jüretschke, Los Afrancesados en la Guerra de la Independencia (Madrid, 1962) p. 72.
13	M. Ardit, ‘La crisi politica de l’antic regim (1793–1813)’, pp. 195–215, in M. Ardit (ed.) Historia del Pais Valencia, IV, Fins a la crisi de l’Antic Regim (Barcelona, 1990) pp. 205–8.
14	The term is that of Miguel Artola-Gallego, probably the leading historian of the Spanish War of Independence. This concept is central to three of his major studies: Los Origenes de la España Contemporanea, 2 vols (Madrid, 1959), Antiguo Regime y Revolucion Liberal (Madrid, 1978) and La España de Fernando VII, vol. XXXIII of Historia de la España, ed. R. Menendez Pidal (Madrid, 1978).
15	The traditional view is effectively undermined by X. Castro Perez, ‘Réaction et idéologie en Galicie pendant la guerre d’Indépendance’, Les Résistances à la Révolution, eds F. Lebrun and R. Dupuy (Paris, 1987) pp. 295–301.
16	Cited in D. Francis, Portugal, 1715–1808 (London, 1985) p. 268.
17	Cited in H.V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (Cambridge, 1966) p. 251.
18	Cited in A. Do Carmo Reis, As Revoltas do Porto contra Junot (Lisbon, 1991) p. 77.
19	Reis, As Revoltas do Porto, pp. 65–70.
20	Ibid., p. 67.
21	L.A. de Oliveria Ramos, Da Ilustracao ao Liberalismo (Porto, 1979) pp. 92–3.
22	Ibid., p. 100.
23	Reis, As Revoltas do Porto, pp. 101–19.
24	Aymes, La Guerre d’Independance, p. 24.
25	Moniteur Universel, 14 July 1808. Cited in Aymes, La Guerre d’Indépendance, p. 11.
26	Cited in Jüretschke, Los Afrancesados, pp. 88–9. The entire text is cited pp. 84–9.
27	Martinez del Velasco, La Formación, p. 167.
28	Morvan, Le Soldat, i, p. 485.
29	Ibid., i, pp. 151–9.
30	Morvan, Le Soldat, i, pp. 322–3. Elting, Swords, pp. 61–3. The major accounts of the Spanish campaign by Chandler, Campaigns, and Connelly, Blundering, do not mention the logistical organization.
31	Chandler, Campaigns, p. 646.
32	E. de la Lama Cereceda, J.A. Llorente, un ideal Burguesia (Pamplona, 1991).
33	Cited in J.A. Vann, ‘Habsburg policy and the Austrian War of 1809’, Central European History, 7 (1974) pp. 291–310, 305.
34	H. Lahouque, The Anatomy of Glory: Napoleon and his Guard (Eng. trans., London, 1962) pp. 150–1.
35	Chandler, Campaigns, pp. 732–5. Connelly, Blundering, p. 134. Elting, Swords, pp. 62–3. Morvan, Le Soldat, i, pp. 159, 325–31.
36	Dunan, Napoléon, p. 243.
37	Cited in Kraehe, Metternich, i, p. 104.
38	Cited in J. Cannon, Aristocratic Century: The Peerage in Eighteenth Century England (Cambridge, 1984) p. 166, and in L. Colley, Britons. Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (Bath, 1992) p. 150.
39	T.C.W. Blanning, ‘The French Revolution and the modernization of Germany’, Central European History, 22 (1989) pp. 109–29.
40	R. Biecki, ‘L’effort militaire polonais’, 1806–1815’, Revue de l’Institut Napoléon, 132 (1976) pp. 147–64, 157.
41	Dunan, Napoléon, p. 245.
42	Ibid., p. 244.
43	Ibid., p. 235.
44	Cited in F.G. Eyck, Loyal Rebels, Andreas Hofer and the Tyrolean Revolt of 1809, (London, 1986) p. 1.
45	Dunan, Napoléon, p. 236.
46	Ibid., p. 267.
47	Ibid., p. 270.
48	Ibid., p. 270.
49	In English see Grab, ‘Array, state and society’, and ‘State power, brigandage and rural resistance in Napoleonic Italy’, European History Quarterly, 25 (1995) pp. 39–70.
50	C. Bullo, ‘Dei movimenti insurrezionali del Veneto sotto il dominio napoleonico, e specialmente del brigantaggio politico del 1809’, Nuovo Archivio Veneto, 17 (1899) pp. 66–101, 84.
51	Ibid., pp. 81–2.
52	L. Valenete, La Corte Speciale per i delitti di Stato del dipartimento del Reno (1809–1811) (Unpbl. Tesi di Laurea, Bologna, 1973) pp. 29, 36 note 2.
53	Antonielli, Prefetti, p. 506, note 62.
54	Archivio de Stato, Bologna, Titolo xx (Polizia), Busta 807 (1809), Prefect, dept. Reno, to Minister of the Interior, Milan, 18 October 1809.
55	Ibid., Sindaco of Crespellano to Prefect, dept. Reno, 10 October 1809.
56	See especially Valenete, Murat, pp. 137–48.
57	Valenete, Murat, and U. Caldora, Calabria Napoleonica, (Naples, 1960) are representative of this view.
58	D. Alexander, Rod of Iron: French Counterinsurgency Policy in Aragon during the Peninsular War (Wilmington, DE, 1985) p. ix.
59	Tulard, ‘Simeon’, p. 567.
60	Antonielli, Prefetti, p. 507.
61	Schama, Patriots, p. 599.
62	Ibid., p. 603.

Chapter 5. Coercion: The Europe of the Grand Empire, 1810–14

1	Antonielli, Prefetti, pp. 419, 530.
2	J. Vidalenc, ‘L’industrie dans les départements normands à la fin du Ier Empire’, Annales de Normandie, 7 (1957) pp. 281–307, 282–3.
3	Ibid., pp. 179–201, 199.
4	R. Durand, Le Département des Côtes-du-Nord sous le Consulat et l’Empire (1800–1815), 2 vols (Paris, 1926) i, pp. 165, 176–9.
5	Ibid., i, pp. 365–486.
6	Ibid., ii, pp. 457–68.
7	Cited in P. Butel, ‘Le port de Bordeaux sous le régime des licences, 1808–1815’, Révue de l’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 19 (1972) pp. 128–48, 129.
8	C. Bonnet, ‘L’impact de la Révolution et de l’Empire sur la démographie Provençale. L’exemple des Bouches-du-Rhône’, Annales du Midi, 101 (1989) pp. 14–28. Agulhon, La Vie sociale, p. 438.
9	Agulhon, La Vie sociale, pp. 416–17.
10	Lewis, Second Vendée, pp. 156–64.
11	Agulhon, La Vie sociale, p. 420.
12	Brunet, Le Roussillon, p. 307.
13	Ibid., p. 481.
14	Ibid., pp. 363–8.
15	J-F. Soulet, Les Premiers Préfets des Hautes-Pyrénées (1800–1814) (Paris, 1965) pp. 178–83.
16	Soulet, Les Premiers Préfets, p. 186.
17	Brunet, Le Roussillon, pp. 355–62.
18	Ibid., pp. 476–8.
19	Ibid., pp. 480–4.
20	Jones, Politics and Rural Society, pp. 12–18, fig. 2, p. 16.
21	J. Labasse, Le Commerce des soies à Lyon sous Napoléon et la crise de 1811 (Paris, 1957). G. Ellis, Napoleon’s Continental Blockade, pp. 268–72. P. Viard, L’Administration Préfectorale dans le département de la Côte d’Or sous le Consulat et le Premier Empire (Paris, 1914) pp. 80, 268–70, 283.
22	S. Charléty, ‘La vie politique à Lyon sous Napoléon Ier’, Révue de l’Histoire de Lyon, (1905) pp. 371–85, 372. Viard, L’Administration Préfectorale, pp. 85–96.
23	R. Marx, ‘De la Pré-révolution à la Restauration’, in Histoire de l’Alsace, ed. P. Dollinger (Toulouse, 1970) pp. 328–76, 330–2.
24	An example of this, destined to be a classic point of departure for the topic: F. Braudel, The Identity of France, vol. i, History and Environment (Eng. trans., London, 1988), especially pp. 288–95.
25	P. Gonnet, ‘Les Cents Jours à Lyon’, Révue de l’Histoire de Lyon, (1908) pp. 24–39. R.S. Alexander, Bonapartism and Revolutionary Tradition in France, The Fédérés of 1815 (Cambridge, 1991) pp. 156–62.
26	J. Tulard, Paris et son administration (1800–1830) (Paris, 1976) p. 236.
27	Ibid., p. 295.
28	R. Chartier, ‘Les deux France. Histoire d’une géographie’. Cahiers d’Histoire (1978) pp. 393–415.
29	B. Lepetit, ‘Sur les dénivellations de l’espace économique en France, dans les années 1830’, Annales ESC (1986) pp. 1243–72.
30	For the seminal expression of this: Braudel, The Identity of France. More recently, X. de Planhol, An Historical Geography of France (Eng. trans., Cambridge, 1994).
31	F. Furet and M. Ozouf, Lire et écrire, l’alphabétisation des français de Calvin à Jules Ferry, 2 vols (Paris, 1977).
32	J. Queniart, ‘Les apprentissages scolaires élémentaires au XVIIIe siècle: faut-il réformer Maggiolo?’, Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, (1977) pp. 3–27.
33	Lepetit, ‘Sur les dénivellations’, p. 1268.
34	Agulhon, La Vie Sociale, p. 412.
35	Cited in M-N. Bourguet, ‘Race et folklore. L’image officielle de la France en 1800’, Annales ESC, (1986) pp. 802–23, 808, 815.
36	Bourguet, Déchiffrer la France, pp. 238–86.
37	Ibid., pp. 306–8.
38	Bourguet, ‘Race et folklore’.
39	S. Kaplan, ‘Réflections sur la police du monde du travail, 1700–1815’, Revue Historique, 261 (1979) pp. 17–77, 76–7.
40	L. Bergeron and G. Chaussinand-Nogaret, Les Masses de Granit. Cent mille notables du Premier Empire, (Paris, 1979) pp. 62–4.
41	M.D. Sibalis, ‘Corporatism after the corporations: the debate of the restoration of the guilds under Napoleon I and the Restoration’, French Historical Studies, 15 (1988) pp. 718–30.
42	M. P. Fitzsimmons, The Parisian Order of Barristers and the French Revolution, (Cambridge, MA, 1987), pp. 154–87.
43	A. de Musset, La Confession d’un Enfant du Siècle, (Paris, 1960 edn) pp. 1–2.
44	J-K. Burton, ‘L’enseignement de l’histoire dans les lycées et les écoles primaires sous le Premier Empire’, Annales Historiques de la Révolution Française, (1972) pp. 98–109.
45	A. de Musset, La Confession, p. 2.
46	J. Nicholas, ‘Le ralliement des notables au régime impérial dans le département du Mont Blanc’, Révue de l’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, (1972).
47	Schama, Patriots, p. 625.
48	De Musset, La Confession, p. 622.
49	J. Vidalenc, ‘Les départements hanséatiques et l’administration napoléonienne’, Francia, (1973) pp. 414–50.
50	Cited in Vidalenc, ‘Les départements hanséatiques’, p. 430.
51	Nardi, Roma, p. 47.
52	A. Fugier, La Junte Supérieure des Asturias et l’invasion francaise (Paris, 1930) p. 40.
53	Jüretschke, Los Afrancesados, pp. 198–9.
54	Ardit, Historia del Pais Valencia, pp. 213–14.
55	Esdaile, The Spanish Army in the Peninsula War (Manchester, 1988) pp. 63–4.
56	J. Mercader Riba, Barcelona durante la Occupación Francesa (Madrid, 1946) pp. 274–95.
57	G. Gomez de la Serna, Jovellanos, el español perdido, 2 vols (Madrid, 1975) ii, p. 225.
58	M. Suarez, El proceso de la convocatoria a Cortes (1808–1810) (Pamplona, 1982) p. 74.
59	Aymes, La Guerra de Independencia, p. 77.
60	Ardit, Historia del Pais Valencia, iv, pp. 211–12.
61	Ollero de la Torre, Un riojano en las Cortes de Cadiz: el Obispo de Calahorra, Don Francisco Mateo Aguiriano y Gomez (Logroño, 1981) pp. 73–8.
62	Cited in Artola-Gallego, Los Origenes, i, p. 379.
63	Cited in Da Silva Dias, Os Primordios, vol. I, tom. ii, pp. 552–3, note 1.
64	N. Daupias d’Alcochette, ‘La Terreur Blanche à Lisbonne’, Annales Historiques de la Révolution française, 37 (1965) pp. 299–331, 300, note 1.
65	Da Silva Dias, Os Primordios, vol. I, tom. ii, p. 534.
66	D’Alcochette, ‘La Terreur Blanche’, pp. 300–1.
67	Da Silva Dias, Os Primordios, vol. I, tom. ii, pp. 553–8.
68	Ibid., p. 568.
69	Ibid., p. 531.
70	Ibid., p. 510.
71	The ‘orders of the day’ are analysed in Do Carmo Reis, As Revoltas do Porto, pp. 138–40.
72	Ibid., p. 124.
73	Woloch, New Regime, explores this across the period. On urbanism and the initial organization of the administration; M-V. Ozouf-Marignier, La Formation des départements: la répresentation du territoire français à la fin du XVIIIe siecle (Paris, 1989). T. Margadant, Urban Rivalries during the French Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 1992). On the Empire: S.J. Woolf, ‘L’administration centrale et le développement de l’urbanisme à l’époque napoléonienne’, in Ville et territoires pendant la periode napoléonienne, Collection de l’École Française de Rome, 96 (Rome, 1987) pp. 25–34.
74	M. Senkowska-Gluck, ‘Pouvoir et société en Illyrie napoleonienne’, Révue de l’Institut Napoléon, 136 (1980) pp. 57–78, 61.
75	P. Pisani, La Dalmatie de 1797 à 1815 (Paris, 1893) pp. 359–60.
76	Pisani, La Dalmatia, p. 234.
77	Ibid., p. 373.
78	Ibid., p. 385.
79	Senkowska-Gluck, ‘Pouvoir et société’, p. 61.
80	M. Senkowska-Gluck, ‘Illyrie sous la domination napoléonienne, 1809–1813’, Acta Polonia Historica, 41 (1980) pp. 99–121, 116.
81	G. Cassi, ‘Les populations Juliennes-Illyriennes pendant la domination napoléonienne, (1806–1814)’, Revue des Études Napoléonienne, xix (1930) pp. 193–212, 202–4.
82	Even the name given to these provinces, the classical name for the area, Illyria, was chosen simply because no adequate contemporary term existed to comprise all the different ethnic groups of the region. Illyria was simply a term of convenience, but indicative of French awareness of the complex character of the region. See Cassi, ‘Les populations Juliennes-Illyrian’, p. 197.
83	Schmidt, Berg, p. 407.
84	Ibid., p. 408.
85	Courvoisier, Le Maréchal Berthier et sa principauté de Neuchâtel (1806–1814) (Neuchâtel, 1959) p. 321.
86	Cited in P. Lebrun, M. Bruwier and J. Dhondt, Essai sur la révolution industrielle en Belgique 1770–1847 (Brussels, 1979) p. 317.
87	B. Grochalska, ‘L’économie polonaise et le renversement de la conjuncture (1805–1815)’, Revue de l’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, (1970) pp. 620–30, 624.
88	Ibid., pp. 628–9.

Chapter 6. Collapse: The Fall of the Empire, 1812–14

1	These figures drawn from Chandler, Campaigns, p. 807, by general consensus among historians, are the most reliable set of figures offered.
2	Chandler, Campaigns, pp. 852–3.
3	Berdhal, Prussian Nobility, pp. 107–38.
4	P. Paret, Yorck and the Era of Prussian Reform, 1807–1815 (Princeton, NJ, 1966) p. 139, note 58.
5	The title of a recent book by John Gagliardo, which traces the development of this change throughout the late eighteenth century.
6	J.R. Seeley, The Life and Times of Stein, 3 vols (Cambridge, 1878) 2, pp. 519, 527.
7	H. Seton-Watson, Nations and States, (London, 1977) pp. 15–88.
8	Kraehe, Metternich, i, pp. 213–16.
9	Anderson, ‘State-building in nineteenth century Nassau’, pp. 241–4.
10	Esdaile, Spanish Army, pp. 166–7.
11	Ibid., pp. 176–8.
12	J. Herrero, Los Origenes del pensamiento reaccionario español (Madrid, 1971) p. 385.
13	Ibid., pp. 393–4.
14	Ibid., p. 377.
15	R.P. Coppini, Il Granducato di Toscano dagli ‘anni francesi’ all’Unita, Storia d’Italia (Turin, 1993) xiii, p. 165.
16	F. Della Peruta, ‘War and society in Napoleonic Italy’, in Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento, eds J.A. Davis and P. Ginsborg (Cambridge, 1991) p. 48.
17	Antonielli, Prefetti, pp. 517–19.
18	Ibid., pp. 523–4.
19	Schama, Patriots, p. 636.
20	Ibid., pp. 642–3.
21	G.J. Renier, Great Britain and the Establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 1813–1815, (London and The Hague, 1930) pp. 132–53.
22	Verhaesen, La Domination française, iv, pp. 57–70.
23	Ibid., pp. 96–8.
24	Ibid., pp. 148–51.
25	Ibid., p. 152.
26	Renier, Great Britain and the Netherlands, pp. 236–8.
27	Ibid., p. 232.
28	M. Diefendorff, Businessmen and Politics in the Rhineland, 1789–1834 (Princeton, NJ, 1980) pp. 202–3.
29	Ibid., pp. 215–42.
30	D. Gates, Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War (London, 1986) pp. 459–67.
31	Chandler, Campaigns, pp. 955–6, 1003–4, for the accepted view. Even the usually critical Connelly praises this campaign: Blundering, pp. 195–8.
32	Connelly, Blundering, p. 197.
33	Chandler, Campaigns, p. 955.
34	See R.S. Alexander, Bonapartism and Revolutionary Tradition in France: the Fedérés of 1815 (Cambridge, 1991).
35	Biecki, ‘L’effort militaire polonais’, p. 163.

Conclusion

1	P. Mackesy, ‘Strategic problems of the British war effort’, in H.T. Dickinson, Britain and the French Revolution (London, 1979) pp. 152–3.
2	Forrest, Conscripts, pp. 220–3.
3	J. Mercader-Riba, Puigcerda, capital del department del Serge (Barcelona, 1971) pp. 18–19.
4	Ellis, ‘Napoleonic elites’, pp. 240–1.
5	M. de Rocca, Mémoires sur la guerre des français en Espagne (Paris, 1814) p. 43.
6	ANP, Archives Privées, Fonds Roederer, 29–AP–15, Mme. P. Roederer to Louis Roederer, undated (c.Dec 1812–Jan 1814).
7	S.C. Hughes, Crime, Disorder and the Risorgimento. The Politics of Policing in Bologna (Cambridge, 1994).
8	Diefendorff, Businessmen and Politics.
9	J. Engelbrecht, ‘The French Model and German Society: the impact of the Code Pénal on the Rhineland’, paper given to Coloque International: Révolutions et Justice pénale en Europe, (1780–1830), Louvain-la-Neuve/Namur, Belgium, 23–25 November 1995.
10	D. Beales, ‘Social forces and enlightened policies’, in Enlightened Absolutism. Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth Century Europe, ed. H.M. Scott (London, 1990) pp. 37–53.
11	‘De la Monarchie selon la Charte’, in Chateaubriand, Grands écrits politiques, ed. J.-P. Clément, 2 vols (1993, Paris) ii, pp. 386–7.
12	Chateaubriand, Napoléon, p. 412.
13	Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène, ed. J. Tulard (Paris, 1981) p. 6.