The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. The link provided will take you to the beginning of that print page. You may need to scroll forward from that location to find the corresponding reference on your e-reader.
Aaronovitch, David, 235
abortion, xxiii, 213, 237, 286, 326
Abraham Lincoln, USS, 455
absurdist theatre, 175–6
Abu Ghraib jail, 456
Acheson, Dean, 76
acid rain, 348
Adenauer, Konrad, 7, 8, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63, 157, 160
and the Spiegel-Affair, 60–61, 225
advertising, 149
aerosols, 348
and NATO, 446–7
Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghan War, 445–9, 519
and Islamic resurgence, 458
and Muslim anti-Western feelings, 457, 479
Soviet invasion of, 309–10, 323
United Front/Afghan Northern Alliance, 446
African National Congress, 397
agriculture
and the EEC, 161
Common Agricultural Policy, 163, 164, 166
employment drop, and drain from countryside, 137, 416
EU farming subsidies, 163, 544
in post-communist countries, 416
privatization of former collective farms, 416
productivity rise with mechanized intensive farming, 136
Albania, 109
Bulgaria, 108
collectivization, 16, 104, 106, 109, 112, 121, 123, 128
Czechoslovakia, 112
Romania, 106
AIDS, 343
Albania, 85, 105, 252, 308, 396–7, 417
collectivization of agriculture, 109
cultural revolution, 252
departure from Warsaw Pact, 252
and the EU, 480
industrial production, 415
purges, 109
and religion, 207
and the Stalinist clamp, 108
university attendance, 205
and the Warsaw Pact, 9
and Yugoslavia, 108–9
Albanian ethnic cleansing, 411
Albanian Kosovan police, 403
Kosovo Liberation Army, 410
and Milošević’s Kosovan speech, 403
Yugoslavia’s ethnic Albanians, 400, 403, 410–11
Aldermaston March, 25–6
Aldrin, Buzz, 197
Alfa Romeo, 346
Algeria
emigrants, 138
fascism, 231
and France, 17, 30, 65, 66, 76, 77, 79–83, 139, 231, 520, 543
Front de Libération Nationale (FLN), 80–81, 82
Althusser, Louis, 219
Amazon, 463
Amazonian rainforests, 348
American Pop Art, 173
Amin, Hafizulla, 309
Amsterdam, 234
Treaty of, 429
Andersch, Alfred, 177
Andorra, 40
Andreotti, Giulio, 372, 434, 435
Andropov, Yuri, 312, 315, 316, 335
Anglican Church, 208
clergy against British nuclear deterrent, 25
Animals (band), 195
anti-colonialism, 43, 67, 68, 72, 77–8, 80, 82, 160, 297
Arab, 73
antisemitism
centrality to Nazi ideology, 225
Soviet, 90
Soviet view of capitalist imperialist cause of, 185
Wagner’s, 171
Antonioni, Michelangelo, 200
Arab Spring, 512
Arabs
and 1973 oil crisis and effects on Western economies, 135, 167–8, 250, 262–72
and Israel:
1936–39 revolt, 71
1948–9 Arab-Israeli War, 72
1949 armistice, 72
1967 Six-Day War, 167–8
1973 Arab-Israeli War, 135
hostility with rising numbers of Jewish immigrants to Palestine, 71
and Oslo Peace Process, 439
jihadists fighting in Afghanistan, 310
pan-Arabism, 73
and petro-dollars, 272
architecture
brutalism, 174–5
and the shadow of the past, 173–5
and ‘social classicism’, 175
‘socialist’, 174–5
Arkan (Željko Ražnatović), 401
armaments production, Soviet, 88–9
Armstrong, Neil, 197
Aron, Raymond, 181
art
abstract expressionism, 173
American influence, 173
American Pop Art, 173
avant-garde, 172, 173, 177, 200, 202
film see cinema
music see music
Nouveau Réalisme, 173
and the shadow of the past, 173
tastes transcending national boundaries, 461–2
theatre see theatre
Assad, Bashar al-, 513
Aston Martin, 152
asylum-seekers, 433, 512, 513–19, 533 see also refugees
Atari, 342
Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 42, 480
Athens
Polytechnic, 295
protests, 508
atomic energy see nuclear power/atomic energy
Atta, Mohamed, 441
Attlee, Clement, 11
Auschwitz extermination camp, 111, 170, 179, 190, 351, 408
trials, 225
and credit ratings agencies, 498–9
France, 291
Portugal, 299
and protest movements, 499, 502
and Stiglitz, 497
under Thatcher, 282
and Iraq War, 454
2016 presidential election, 549
2017 election, 551–2
antipathy to immigrants from former Yugoslavia and Turkey, 478
Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP), 256, 281, 552
Austrian State Treaty, 9
Christian Democrats, 51, 52, 53
coalition government, 1947–66, 53
consolidation of democracy, 45, 52–3
and the Council of Europe, 41
economy see economy: Austria
and the EU, 431
Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), 281, 347–8, 438, 552
and Hitler, 52–3
Hungary’s opening borders to Austria for East Germans, 358
and the migrant crisis, 514, 515, 518, 552
nationalism, 347–8
patronage, 53
reluctance in acknowledging part in Nazi catastrophe, 352
social and economic reforms and democracy, 256–7
and ‘threat’ from Islam to national culture, 524
tourist trade, 153
unemployment, 493
Waldheim Affair, 352
authoritarianism, 40, 42–3, 53, 132, 146, 224–5, 227, 396–7, 542, 547, 548
anti-authoritarian ’68ers, 234, 237–8
Chinese model of economic liberalism and political authoritarianism, 394
and the countryside, 306
and democracy’s triumph in southern Europe, 263, 293–307
military inter-war support, 306–7
and recession, 501–2
Russian, under Putin, 483–4
Soviet, 97, 101 see also Stalinism
in Soviet successor-states, 419
totalitarian see totalitarianism
and youth protest, 305
automation, 556–7
automobile industry, 152, 204, 291, 459, 556 see also cars
Ayer, A. J., 181
clashes with Armenians in Baku, 384–5
Baader, Andreas, 228, 229, 230
Baader-Meinhof Group (Red Army Faction), 228, 229–30, 255, 448
baby boom generation, xxii, 131–2, 150–51, 215–16
and ‘68ers’, 220
Baghdad, 455
Baker, James, 375
Baku, 384–5
Balfour, Arthur, 71
Balfour Declaration, 70–71
agricultural employment, 416
household electricity, 149
refugees passing through, 513
and the Stalinist clamp, 105, 106–9
Baltic states, 85, 89, 185, 249, 323, 324, 382, 383–4, 385, 389, 390 see also Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
agricultural employment, 416
fear of Russian expansion, 525
industrial production, 416
national identity, 531
struggle for independence, 383–4, 385
transition to capitalism, 417
unemployment, 493
Bangladesh, 70
banks
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 487, 489–92, 494, 500, 504–5
and automation, 556
Bank of England, 497
British banking system, 499
ECB see European Central Bank
investment, 487, 489, 490, 543
European Investment Bank, 161
Ireland, 492
off-shore/foreign banking for tax purposes, 463
online banking, 556
stability worries, 547
US Federal Bank, 489
Bao-Dai, 77
Barbados, 75
Barbie, Klaus, 352
Barcelona terrorist attacks, 522
Bardot, Brigitte, 199
Barnier, Michel, 538
Basque separatists/ETA, 255, 300, 301, 304, 448, 468
Bassa, Giorgio, 179
Basutoland, 75
Battaglia, Roberto, 186
Christian Social Union (CSU), 60, 289, 474, 516, 551
Bay of Pigs debacle, 16
Bayreuth, 171–2
Bechuanaland, 75
Beckett, Samuel, 176
Beijing
Nixon’s visit, 261
Tiananmen Square massacre, 355, 359, 362
‘quality of life’, 465
Belgium, 52, 257, 500–501 see also Benelux countries
car ownership, 151
Christian Democrats, 51
Christian People’s Party, 257
Christian Socialists, 52
and Congo independence, 67–8
constitutional monarchy, 40
and the Council of Europe, 41
foreign-born population, 139
industrial relations, 143
and Iraq War, 453
jihadist networks, 457
and the Korean War, 4
monarchy, 52
‘pillarized’ subcultures, 52, 280–81
social security, 146
Bell, Daniel, 216
Belorussia, 389
Ben-Ali, Zine al-Abidine, 512–13
Ben-Gurion, David, 71
Benelux countries, 39, 154, 155, 157–8, 266, 429, 453, 464 see also Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands/Holland
social welfare, 464
Bentley, 152
Bérégovoy, Pierre, 434
Bergman, Ingmar: The Seventh Seal, 200
Beria, Lavrenti, 90, 91, 92, 111, 114, 118
Berkeley, University of California, 220
Berlin
airlift, 14
Brandenburg Gate reopening, 369–70
Checkpoint Charlie, 1961 flashpoint, 18–19
Cold War tensions over, 13–20, 30
East Berlin, 14, 17–20, 115, 116, 175, 185, 239, 327, 359, 370, 379
and East German population drain into West Berlin, 15–16, 113–14, 138, 361–2, 370
Gorbachev’s visit, 359
Museum of German History, 185
reopening of Brandenburg Gate, 369–70
Stalinallee (later Karl-Marx-Allee), 175
East Berliners, 14, 15, 17, 115, 369–70
Alexanderplatz 1989 demonstration, 360
and the fall of the Wall, 360–63
street party at German unification, 381
terrorist attacks, 521
Wall see Berlin Wall
West Berlin, 14, 15–18, 19, 20, 30, 55, 174, 370
authoritarianism, 227
drain of East German population into, 15–16, 113–14, 138, 361–2, 370
and the fall of the Wall, 360–63
foreign ‘guest’ workers in, 138
Neue Nationalgalerie, 174
police, 226–7
Reagan in, 340
Shah of Iran’s visit, 226
student protests/riots, 227, 240
Western cultural influences supplied to East Germany through, 240
Berlin Wall
closing of border and building of, 16–20, 21, 59, 119, 138, 250
deaths at, 19–20
fall of, 360–64, 369, 370, 393
and Gorbachev, 340
illustrating technicolour west and grey east, 193
Berlinguer, Enrico, 285
Berlusconi, Silvio, 435, 436, 469, 502, 503
Berners-Lee, Tim, 461
Bernstein, Leonard, 173
Berry, Chuck, 194
Bevan, Aneurin, 25
Beveridge Plan, 145
Bevin, Ernest, 11
Biermann, Wolf, 279
Bild-Zeitung, 227
Bill Hayley & His Comets: ‘Rock Around the Clock’, 193
Bin Laden, Osama, 441, 444, 445, 457
Binatone, 342
birth control see contraception
Bitterfeld, 116
Björling, Jussi, 173
black economy/market
Italy, 272
Soviet, 98
Black Madonna, 207–8
Blair, Tony, 437, 438, 439, 441, 469–70, 471–2, 473, 474
European admirers, 437
and Iraq War, 451, 452, 453, 471, 472
support of Bush and ‘war on terror’, 441, 445, 451–2, 453
Blocher, Christoph, 438
blousons noir, 195
Blum, Léon, 64
Böhm, Karl, 173
Böll, Heinrich, 29, 177–8, 230
Bologna railway station bombing, 223
bookselling, 463
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 254, 399, 400, 401
Croats in, 400
Dayton agreement, 410–11
declaration of independence, 407
and the EU, 480
joint control agreement between Serbs and Croats, 410
Muslims, 401, 404, 406, 407–8, 409
NATO forces in, 410
‘quality of life’, 465
Serbs in, 400
Bossi, Umberto, 436
Boulez, Pierre, 172
Bowie, David, 342
Boy George (George Alan O’Dowd), 342
Bracher, Karl Dietrich, 188
Brando, Marlon, 195
Brandt, Willy, 165, 228, 256, 259–60, 289, 378
Brandys, Kazimierz, 277
Bratislava, 112
Breivik, Anders Behring, 522
Bremer, Paul, 456
Brenan, Gerald, 42
Brendon, Piers, 70
Bretton Woods system, 57, 167, 264, 265
and Cameron’s attempted negotiations with EU, 534
and the Customs Union, 537
EU reactions, 537–8
and EU reform, 558
factors leading to, 532–3
formal notification to Tusk, 537
and Northern Ireland, 536, 537
referendum campaigns, 533–6
and the Single Market, 537
Brezhnev, Leonid, 22, 86, 100, 244, 245, 251, 260, 278, 308–9, 312
Brezhnev Doctrine, 245–6, 334, 335–6
Bridge on the River Kwai, 199
Brighton bombing, 284
Britain and the United Kingdom
and the 1973 oil crisis, 267, 269, 270, 272
2017 general election, 550
and Afghan War, 445–9
Balfour Declaration, 70–71
banking system, 499
Beveridge Plan, 145
‘Butskellism’, 50
car industry, 152
car ownership, 151
child poverty reduction, 470
cinema, 199
attendance, 198
class conflict, 284
coal production, 142–3
and the Cold War, 23–7
and the Commonwealth, 50, 69, 76, 138–9, 142–3, 162, 165
Communist Party, 50
Conservative Party, 51, 256, 270, 271, 437
1951–64 Conservative governments, 49, 51
and 2017 general election, 550
and the banking crisis, 504–5
and Churchill, 50
Maastricht rebels, 428
and trade unions, 50
as a constitutional monarchy, 40
monarchy’s popularity, 49
contraceptive Pill, 212
and the Council of Europe, 41
de-industrialization, 344–5, 465–6, 470
deregulation, 343–4
devolution, 471
distinctiveness from continental Europe, 166
economy see economy: UK
and the EDC, 8
and the EEC/Common Market, 51, 143, 160, 162, 164–7, 353, 372
emigrants, 139
empire see British empire
and the EU:
Brexit see Brexit
Cameron’s attempted negotiations before referendum, 534
long-term relationship problems leading to Brexit, 532
membership fee, 535–6
membership referendum, 532, 536 see also Brexit
and migrants, 476–8, 532–3, 535
and Turkey’s membership, 480
and the European Coal and Steel Community, 7–8
Euroscepticism, 353, 437, 507, 533
Falklands War, 282–3
food banks, 506
and France see France: and the UK
and Greek colonel’s rule, 295
housing see housing: UK
and the Hungarian insurrection, 28
immigrants see migration/immigration: to UK
industrial decline in north, 465–6
industrial relations see industrial relations: UK
inequality see inequality: UK
protests, 453
jihadi targets, 457–8, 471, 521
labour movement, 344
Labour Party, 49, 50, 51, 256, 270, 283, 344
and 2017 general election, 550
and the banking crisis, 504, 505
Beveridge Plan, 145
and the British nuclear deterrent, 24–6
and EU referendum, 535
under Foot, 281
Race Relations Act, 140
SDP split from, 281–2
Wilson administration, 271–2
Liberal Democrats, 534
Liberal Party, 49
literature, 179–80
living standards, 532
manufacturing industry shrinkage, 344
MI5, 523
MI6, 273
middle class see middle class: UK
Middle East mandates, 70–71
and the migrant crisis, 515
and French border controls, 514
military spending, 141
national identity, 535
national insurance, 145
and NATO, 50
neo-liberalism, 272, 273–5, 283–5, 464, 470
‘New Wave’ in, 201
NHS see National Health Service
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 21, 26
nuclear weapons, 10–11, 23, 24–7, 50, 84
and the CND see Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
off-shore oil, 268, 272, 273, 347, 494–5
parliamentary democracy, 49
post-war view of history of Second World War, 190–92
pride in victory over Nazism, 49, 179
privatization, 285, 343–4, 345
‘quality of life’, 465
Race Relations Act, 140
racism, 139–40
rationing, 50
shipbuilding, 344
Social Democracy see Social Democracy: UK
social security, 145, 146, 470
steel production, 142–3
student protests, 235
Suez crisis, 10, 27–8, 73–5, 159–60
‘swinging Britain’, 195–6
taxation see taxation: UK
terrorist attacks see terrorism: UK
Thatcherism, 282–5, 293, 343–5
trade see trade: UK
trade unions see trade unions: UK
UKIP, 506–7, 524, 532–3, 534, 535, 550
and the UN Security Council, 84
unemployment see unemployment: UK
universities, 234–5
and the US see United States of America: British relations
Vietnam War protests, 235–6
welfare state, 50
winter of discontent (1978–9), 271–2
working class, 140, 201, 470, 532–3 see also trade unions: UK
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 25, 197
and Burma, 69
and Ceylon, 69
and India, 69–70
and Kenya, 72
and Malaya, 72
Middle East mandates, 70–71
renamed the Commonwealth, 141 see also Commonwealth of Nations
and the Suez crisis, 10, 27–8, 72–5, 159–60
winding up/decolonization, 50, 68–72, 75–6
British Guiana, 75
Britten, Benjamin: War Requiem, 172
Brussels
terrorist attacks, 521
Treaty of, 154
brutalism, architectural, 174–5
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 310
Heroes’ Square, Nagy commemoration, 357
Soviet tanks and troops in, 125, 126, 127
West German embassy, 358
Bulganin, Nikolai, 90, 92, 96–7
Bulgaria, 85, 105, 248, 396, 417
Agreement Guaranteeing a Peaceful Transition to Democratic Society, 366
attitudes to Gorbachev reforms, 327
austerity politics, 502
cinema attendance, 198
Communist Party, 366
corruption, 396, 422, 476, 502
democracy’s triumph, 365–6
discrimination against Turkish and Roma minorities, 423–4
economy see economy: Bulgaria
emigrants with UK work permits, 477
jihadist networks, 457
and perestroika, 327
pluralist politics, 421
Politburo, 327
‘quality of life’, 465
Social Democrats, 422
Socialist Party, 366
and the Stalinist clamp, 105, 107–8
strikes legalized, 366
Turkish minority, 327
Union of Democratic Forces, 365
and the Warsaw Pact, 9
Bullock, Alan: Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, 191
Burma, 69
Burton, Richard, 200
Bush, George H. W., 372, 374, 375, 439
‘axis of evil’ speech, 450
and Blair, 441, 445, 451–2, 453
and Iraq War, 450, 451, 452, 453, 455–6
Butler, R. A. (Rab), 50
Caetano, Marcello, 297
Cagol, Margherita, 224
Calais ‘Jungle’, 514–15
Callas, Maria, 173
Cameron, David, 506, 533–4, 536
Cameroun, 82
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND), 25–6, 311
Aldermaston March, 25–6, 29, 31–2
Greenham Common ‘peace camp’, 311
campsites, 153
Camus, Albert, 176
Canada
addition to G6 nations, 280
British migrants to, 139
economy, 134
capital punishment, xxiii, 300
capitalism
abrupt transition from socialism in post-communist countries, 413–17
communist struggle against, 183, 185 see also Cold War
Western Marxism in conflict with capitalist liberal democracy, 216
and consumerism see consumerism
deregulated, 343–4 see also deregulation; privatization
destructive force of, xvi
and disillusionment, xv, 422, 423, 424
and the European post-war economic boom, 135, 147 see also economy: European post-war boom, 1950–73
and fascism, 225
globalized finance capitalism, 499
and inequality, 145
and the mixed economy, 147
and racism, 185
robber-baron, 418
caravans, 153
carbon emissions, 144, 348, 549
low-carbon economy, 553
Caribbean, 442
Carrero Blanco, Luis, 301–2
Carrington, Peter, 6th Baron, 406
automobile industry, 152, 204, 291, 459, 556
factory production, 204
fuel-efficient, 269
Catalan independence, 561
Catalonia, 347
Catholicism/Catholic Church
and abortion, 213
and the Anglican Church, 208
clerical celibacy, 210
contraception ban, 210, 212–13
and Francoism, 300
and human rights, 300
and liberation theology, 209
and national identity, 207
pilgrimages and shrines, 207–8
Poland, 122, 128, 207, 276–7, 330, 332
and social welfare, 47
and television, 200
terrorist attack against French Catholic priest, 521
West Germany, 29
Caucasus, 314, 324, 382, 384, 457, 522, 542
Ceauşescu, Elena, 367
Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 107, 252–3, 325–7, 366, 367
censorship, 112, 124, 184, 245, 246, 295, 301
French television embargo on Le Chagrin et la Pitié, 186
and Lady Chatterley’s Lover, 212
Obscene Publications Act, 212
Ceylon, 69
Chad, 82
Chagall, Marc, 173
Charbonnier, Stéphane, 520
Charlie Hebdo attack, 520
Chernenko, Konstantin, 312, 316
Chernoblyl disaster, 320–21, 348–9, 553
Chervenkov, Vulko, 107–8
child-abuse scandals, 561
child benefit, 292
child-mortality rates, 137
child poverty, 470
child rearing, 210
child welfare, 146
Chile, 302
China, xvi, 319, 397, 548, 553
communist victory of, 1949, 2
economy see economy: China
and Germany, 494
and Japan, 2
Nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-Shek, 2, 4
Tiananmen Square massacre, 355, 359, 362
and the UN, 3
and the US:
Nixon’s visit to Beijing, 261
Soviet concerns over, 261, 308
and the USSR, 15, 127, 252, 261, 308, 319
Chirac, Jacques, 291, 345, 434, 445, 453
Christian Church see Church
Christian Democracy, 47–8, 51–6, 60, 187, 228, 256, 258, 285–6, 289, 352
Belgium, 51
Christian Democratic Student League, 221
Hungary, 331
Italy see Italy: Christian Democrats
Luxembourg, 51
Switzerland, 51
West Germany, 47, 56, 60, 221, 228, 256, 289
Christian Socialists
Belgium, 52
West Germany, 60
Church
Anglican see Anglican Church
Catholic see Catholicism/Catholic Church
child-abuse scandals, 561
influence:
diminishing, 48, 203, 206–7, 208, 210
post-war high levels of attendance and, xxiii
and nuclear weapons, 25, 29, 31, 33
Protestant see Protestantism/Protestant Church
and sex see sex and sexuality: and the Church
and urbanization, 206
women’s ordination, 208
Churchill, Winston, 5, 50, 74, 114
and European integration, 154
and the hydrogen bomb, 11
The Second World War, 191
state funeral, 83
CIA
and Afghan invasion by USSR, 310
Bay of Pigs debacle, 16
and bin Laden, 445
Congress for Cultural Freedom funding, 181
and Greece, 44
and the Shah of Iran, 226, 273
cigarettes, 149
cinema, 104, 193, 198–201, 351–2
American dominance in Europe, 198, 199
Hungarian exposure to Western, 239–40
tastes transcending national boundaries, 461
West German ‘new cinema’, 202
civic society, 365
civil society, 329–30, 482, 511, 562
class, 555–6
loss of industrial close-knit class identities, 346
erosion of class-based parties/societies, 347, 555–6
middle see middle class
working see working class
Clay, Lucius D., 17
climate change/control, 549, 553 see also carbon emissions
Clinton, Bill, 437, 445, 450, 474
clothing shortages, xxii
coal, 142–3, 157, 158, 290, 344, 553
ECSC see European Coal and Steel Community
mining in UK, 283
miners’ strikes, 270–71, 283–4
Russian, 527
Cocacolonization, 202
Cochran, Eddie, 194
Cohn-Bendit, Daniel (‘Danny the Red’), 218, 231, 238
Cold War, 1–39
and the, 1955 Geneva summit meeting, 10
and Britain, 23–7
and conservatism’s success, 49
and Cuban Missile Crisis, xxi, 20–21, 35, 99
as determiner of new geography, 38
and concept of Western Europe, 40–41
expectations with, 398
and global politics, 397
and Western self- congratulation, 392
and European integration, 154–60
fear, fatalism, and living with the bomb, 22–36
and Germany:
importance in ending Cold War, xxiv
West Germans under threat to world peace, 27–30
Gorbachev and the end to, 337–8, 354, 363, 390
and the Iron Curtain see Iron Curtain
and the Korean War, 2–5
and nuclear weapons, 4–5, 22–36, 308–9, 311
and anti-nuclear movements, 23, 25–6, 28–36, 311, 328 see also Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND)
and Cuban Missile Crisis, 20–21
fear, fatalism, and the bomb, 22–36 see also nuclear weapons
flashpoint of 1983, 317
SALT see SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)
stationed in East Germany, 309, 317, 328
stationed in West Germany, 14, 15
propaganda, 15
‘second Cold War’, 263, 310–12, 328
and Suez crisis, 10, 27–8, 73–5, 76, 126, 127, 159–60
totalitarianism in Western analysis of, 180
and West German democracy, 58
Yugoslavia’s neutrality, 102
Collins, John, 25
Cologne disturbances, 2015 New Year’s Eve, 516–17
colonialism see imperialism/colonialism
Combat, 176
COMECON, 268
Comecon organization, 107
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 163, 164, 166
Common Market see European Economic Community (EEC)/European Community/Common Market
Commonwealth of Independent States, 390, 395
Commonwealth of Nations, 50, 69, 75–6, 138–9, 142–3, 162, 165
Immigration Act, 139
communications revolution, 443 see also computers; internet; mobile phones; social media
and transnational relations, 461
communism
anti-communist propaganda, 49
and anti-nuclear movements, 30
British Communist Party, 50
China, 2
vs Christian Democracy, 53, 187
and the Cold War see Cold War
Congresses see Soviet Union: Congresses of the Communist Party
Czech Communist Party, 110–11, 242, 246
economics, 132
electoral defeat in, 1989 USSR elections, 324
‘end of history’ with triumph of liberal democracy over, 393–4
fall of see Soviet Union: collapse of
fear of, 33
France, 64, 66, 158, 232, 257, 259
‘Eurocommunism’, 257
Marxist splinter groups, 259
and Greece, 44
and guaranteed employment, 380
Hungary’s Communist Party, 123, 124, 330, 331, 357
ideology, Marxist-Leninist, 105, 115
Italy:
anti-communism, 187
Communist Party see Italy: Communist Party
resistance to fascism, 186–7
Leninism see Leninism
loss of revolutionary raison d’être, 130
Marxism see Marxism
and the mass media, 33
Poland’s estrangement from, 277, 355–6
and dissolution of Communist Party, 355–6
Portugal, 298
‘real existing’ socialism in communist countries, 250, 255, 363
Romania’s ‘national communism’, 252–3, 326
in San Marino, 40
Slovak Communist Party, 242
and social welfare, xxii
Spain’s Communists, 303
Stalin on introducing communism to Poland, 120
Stalinist see Stalinism
struggle against capitalism see capitalism: communist struggle against
transition-phase investigation and ‘lustration’ of former communist functionaries, 422
Truman’s ‘doctrine’ against, 43–4
US backing for European anti-communist leaders/countries, 44, 78
US efforts to contain spread in Indochina, 219 see also Vietnam: Vietnam War
utopianism vision, 183
and West Germany, 58
Yugoslavia see Yugoslavia: communism
computer technology, 342, 443, 463, 556
Romania, 466
software expertise, 460
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), 308
Confucius, 546
Congo, 67–8
Middle Congo, 82
Congress for Cultural Freedom (US), 181
conservatism, 45, 256, 258, 280–81, 437, 469
Britain’s turn to, 49, 281–5 see also Britain and the United Kingdom: Conservative Party
and Christian Democracy, 47–8, 51–6
and the Cold War, 49
Greek New Democracy party, 295
neo-conservatism, 397, 450, 454
triumphalist American, 394
self-congratulation on winning Cold War, 392
socialist/conservative divisions in Western Europe, 47
and stability/desire for ‘normality’, 48
in USSR, 314, 315–17, 318, 319
Constantine II of Greece, 294
Constitution for Europe, 481
consumer spending, 128, 145, 325, 341, 347, 459, 472, 503, 505
and cheap credit, 470
and personal debt, 470
arsonist attack protesting the ‘terror’ of, 227–8
the consumer society, 147–53
Contact Group, 411
Romanian ban, 326
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 41
Cook, Robin, 455
Corbyn, Jeremy, 535
corruption
charges for figures in GDR regime, 374
child-abuse scandals, 561
under communist regimes, 421
cover-up scandals involving police, 561
Czech Republic, 422
Greece, 509
in privatization process, 422
Romania, 396, 422, 424, 466, 476
under Ceauşescu’s regime, 326
scandals undermining trust in politicians, 561
Slovakia, 422
of Soviet officials, 323
in Soviet successor-states, 418, 419, 421–2
Spain, 507
Council of Europe, 41, 44, 46, 155, 483, 484
Coventry Cathedral, 172
credit cards, 341
credit ratings agencies, 498–9
cyber, 557
international, 557–8
Crimea
annexation by Russia, 525–7, 531
and Russia’s international status, 531
and the Ukraine, 485–6, 525–7, 531
Croatia/Croats, 253, 399–400, 401, 402
Bosnian joint control agreement between Serbs and Croats, 410
Croatian Democratic Union Party, 403
Croats in Serbia, 400
and the Dayton agreement, 410–11
declaration of independence, 405
and the EU, 479–80
mutual hatred between Croats and Serbs, 405
national identity, 254
Serbian minority in Croatia, 400, 404, 405, 410
and the Ustaše fascist militia, 402, 405
and the wars in Yugoslavia, 404–10, 413
Zagreb Spring, 254
Croce, Benedetto, 181
cruise missiles, 309, 311, 339
Cuba, 397
and the Bay of Pigs debacle, 16
Guantanamo Bay detention camp, 456
Missile Crisis, xxi, 20–21, 35, 99
culture, 169–214
‘1968’ and cultural change, 236–8
‘alternative’, 202–3, 234 see also counter-culture
American influences on Europe, 442
architecture see architecture
art see art
avant-garde, 172, 173, 177, 200, 202
breaking with the past, 192–203
and its values, 203–14
and the Church, 206–10
Catholic Church, 193, 200, 207–10
cinema see cinema
clash of cultures, 555
between Western and Islamic values, 443, 524
Congress for Cultural Freedom (US), 181
counter-culture, 195
sexual revolution and youth counter-culture, 211–12
cultural Cold War, 180–81, 184–92
‘decadent’ Western, 193
differences:
diminishing across Europe, 461–2
and human rights, 440
East German clamp down on Western cultural influences, 240
East German cultural relaxation in the, 1960s, 251
European parties seeing threat from Islam to national culture, 524
European shared, 169
and generation, 192, 193–6, 346
generational revolt, 216–38 see also student protests/riots
hippie see hippie culture
Hungary’s warning of ‘Muslim threat’ to Christian culture, 515
Islamist target of Western culture, 448
lessening gap between ‘high’ and ‘popular’, 192–3
looking to the future, during economic ‘good times’, 169–70
multiculturalism, xxiii, 443, 468, 479, 546, 555
music see music
postmodern, 340–41
progressive cultural changes, 541–2
repressive upholding of nationalistic cultural values, 306
role of popular culture in reuniting Europe, 417
Romanian changes in, 1960s and 70s, 252–3
and the shadow of the past, 170–84
and despair/nihilism, 170, 179
Soviet cultural thaw, 172, 248
Soviet political culture and Gorbachev, 322
subcultures:
and political allegiance in Italy, 53
of popular music, 342
theatre see theatre
uses and abuses of the past, 184–92
and values see values
Yugoslavian cultural activities in, 1960s, 104
Culture Club, 342
Curcio, Renato, 224
currency devaluation, 167, 292, 423, 494
Customs Union, EU, 537
cybercrime, 557
Cyprus, 44
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 493, 496
and the Council of Europe, 41
and the EEC, 164
and the EU, 475
Greek and Turkish Cypriot struggle, 44, 75, 295, 296
attitudes to Gorbachev reforms, 327, 328–9
Charter, 77 signatories, 279, 328–9
Civic Forum, 364–5
collectivization of agriculture, 112
Communist Party, 110–11, 242, 246
constitution of, 1960, 113
corruption, 422
and the EU, 475
jihadist networks, 457
and the migrant crisis, 517
democracy’s triumph, 364–5, 369
Five-Year Plan (1956), 112
Germans expelled from, 138
Gorbachev’s reduction of armed forces in, 323
ice-hockey team, 246
industrial production, 415–16
latent democratic traditions, 86
‘lustration’ of former communist functionaries, 422
Prague Spring see Prague Spring
purges, 111
show trials, 243
Soviet invasion of, 239, 240, 245–7, 252, 254, 259, 422
1990 withdrawal of troops, 365
split into Czech Republic and Slovakia, 417, 424
and the Stalinist clamp, 105, 109–13
strikes, 110
‘velvet divorce’, 368–9
Visegrád agreement, 424
and the Warsaw Pact, 9
and West Germany, 260
Częstochowa, 207–8
Dabčevič-Kučar, Savka, 254
Dąbrowska, Maria, 120
Dahomey, 82
Dahrendorf, Ralf, 204
Dalton, Hugh, 71
Dam Busters, 199
dance-rock, 342
Daniel, Yuli, 101
Danish National Bank, 490
Danube-Black Sea Canal, 106
Dave Clark Five, 195
Dayton agreement, 410–11
de-industrialization, 344–5, 347, 418, 465–6, 470
de Gaulle, Charles, 18, 30, 51, 64–5, 156, 161, 162–3, 233–4, 545
at Churchill’s funeral, 83
death, 258
ending French colonialism, 81–3
wartime memoirs, 186
Dean, James, 195
Defferre, Gaston, 259
deflation/deflationary policy, 272, 275, 279, 281, 292, 293, 492, 497
deforestation, Amazonian, 348
Dej, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-, 106–7, 252
democracy
‘68ers and democratization, 236–7
Adenauer’s ‘Chancellor democracy’, 224–5
and Afghan War, 447
Christian see Christian Democracy
and civil society, 329–30
consolidation, and the moulding of Western Europe, 40–66, 83–4
with anti-Soviet feeling, 49
and the Cold War, 58
with Council of Europe, 41
with US support, 41, 43–4, 544
democratic forms used to undermine democratic substance, 542, 561
diminishing trust in pillars of, 561
and disillusionment, xv, 422, 423, 424
‘end of history’ with triumph of liberal democracy over communism, 393–4
and the future of Europe, 561–2
Germany’s success story, xxiv, 45, 47, 55–63, 290
Greece and the triumph of, 263, 294–6, 305–7
Hungary’s Alliance of Young Democrats, 331
and Islamist terror, 441, 444–58
parliamentary, 49, 293, 298, 303, 307
pluralist see pluralist politics/democracy
Portugal and the triumph of, 263, 296–9, 305–7
and the power of the people, 354–97
and referenda see referenda
represented by Social Democratic parties, 47 see also Social Democracy
resilience with international cooperation, 279–80
Romania’s slow transition to, 367–8
and the Soviet Union’s fall see Soviet Union: collapse of
Spain and the triumph of, 263, 299–307
suppressed and latent democratic traditions, 86
transition of former Soviet republics to, 398–9, 413–25, 544
triumphs in southern Europe, 263, 293–307
university democratization, 236
weakness in post-war Southern Europe, 41–2
Western Europe’s advance of social democracy in, 1960s and 70s, 255–61
demographic change, 136–7, 554
Deng Xiaoping, 319
Denmark
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
anti-nuclear sentiment, 32
car ownership, 151
constitutional monarchy, 40
contraception, 212
and the Council of Europe, 41
Dansk Folkeparti, 438
divorce rate, 211
and the EEC, 165
homosexuality, 213
industrial relations, 143
and Iraq War, 454
and the migrant crisis, 514, 518
Social Democrats, 257, 280, 469
and ‘threat’ from Islam to national culture, 524
unemployment, 493
deregulation, 343–6, 356–7, 414, 463, 504 see also privatization
and the ‘Big Bang’, 504
devaluation of currency, 167, 292, 423, 494
di Stefano, Giuseppe, 173
Dien Bien Phu, battle of, 78
dietary problems, 149
Dinamo Zagreb, 401
distribution chains, 460–61
Djilas, Milovan, 104
Dortmund, 228
dot-com bubble, 463
Douglas, Keith, 179
Draghi, Mario, 496
clothing shortages, xxii
drugs, 195
Dubček, Alexander, 242, 243–5, 246, 365
Dubrovnik, 406
Dulles, John Foster, 12
Duran Duran, 342
Dutch East Indies, 67
Dutch empire, 67
Dylan, Bob, 216
e-mail, 443
East India Company, 442
East Timor, 299
economic and monetary union, 154, 164, 265, 266, 373, 427
currency union:
in Europe, 427–9, 430 see also Euro
UK’s opt-out from European, 428
in unified Germany, 377–9, 380
and the EEC see European Economic Community (EEC)/European Community/Common Market
and the ERM see European Exchange Rate Mechanism
and the EU see European Union
German currency union, 377–9, 380
growing levels of convergence between Western economies and those of former communist countries, 417
and Maastricht see Maastricht Treaty
Treat of Fiscal Union, 498
Werner Report, 265
economic migrants, 138–9, 151, 467–8, 512, 554
economics
austerity see austerity
communist, 132
deflationary policy see deflation/deflationary policy
EU rules on government debt/deficit levels, 498
exchange rates see exchange rates
Friedman and freemarket self-regulation, 273–4
Keynesian, 134, 263, 267, 274, 279, 292–3, 510–11
market, 489 see also market economies
monetarist, 273–5
and Thatcherism, 282–5
and monetary union see economic and monetary union
neo-Keynesian, 497–8
neo-liberal see neo-liberalism
quantitative easing, 497
‘Reaganomics’, 274
taxation see taxation
Thatcherite, 282–5, 293, 343–5
and the 1973 oil crisis, 168, 262–72, 297, 302
and the, 1979 oil crisis, 273, 288–90
austerity see austerity
Austria, 53, 136, 141, 264, 281, 499
and the dollar, 265
Belarus, 419
black see black economy/market
Bulgaria, 136, 327, 366, 416, 475–6
and austerity politics, 502
Canada, 134
Central European growth in, 1990s, 424
model of economic liberalism and political authoritarianism, 394
consumer spending see consumer spending
currency devaluation, 167, 292, 423, 494
currency ‘snake’ system, 266
deflation see deflation/deflationary policy
deregulation see deregulation
Eastern command economy, 88, 133, 135, 247, 318, 322, 329
economic disparities with widening of EU, 475–6
economic modernization attempts combined with social reforms, 237
economic union see economic and monetary union
Europe and the, 2007–8 financial crisis and aftermath, 487, 488, 489–511, 543, 555
and European current prosperity, 542
European growth in late, 1990s, 439
European post-war boom, 1950–73, xxii, 41, 46, 48, 131–68
and the consumer society, 148–53
and a culture looking to the future, 169–70
Eastern Europe’s ‘silver age’, 133
and international markets, 134–5
and the liberalization of trade, 135
and migration, 137–8
and move towards integration, 153–67
and prosperity in Western Europe, 131–2, 147–53
southern parts excluded from full benefits, 132
and technology, 134
and West Germany’s ‘economic miracle’, 6, 56–7, 131, 134, 136, 147, 152
European proportion of world, 459
European Union:
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis and aftermath, 487, 488, 489–511, 543, 555
in 2007 before the crisis, 491
growth from mid 1990s, 430
growth in Eurozone, 2017, 551
exchange rates see exchange rates
Finland, 465
floating currencies, 167, 265, 266
foreign investment in Europe, 461
France, 132, 143–4, 286–7, 547
and the 1973 oil crisis, 267, 286–7, 290–92
and the 1979 oil crisis, 292
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 490, 496, 503–4
austerity politics/measures, 291, 503–4
devaluation of the franc, 167, 292
Mitterrand’s Keynesian failure, 292–3
move to economic liberalism, 291–2
recession (1964), 144
Friedman and freemarket self-regulation, 273–4
Germany, Federal Republic, 264, 272, 286–90
and the 1973 oil crisis, 270, 286–7
and the 1979 oil crisis, 288–90
currency ‘snake’ system, 266
currency union with GDR, 377–9, 380
and the dollar, 265
‘economic miracle’, 6, 56–7, 131, 134, 136, 147, 152
and European reconstruction, 155
inflation, 267, 270, 288, 290, 292
recession 1966–7, 143
‘social market economy’, 147
social spending, 289
with unification, 377–9, 380–81
Germany, GDR, 114, 250–51, 252, 268, 370, 380
currency union with Federal Republic, 377–9, 380
Federal aid withdrawal, 377
imbalance with Federal Republic, 370, 377
Germany, united:
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 494, 499, 500
and ‘Agenda 2010’, 473–4
as Europe’s strongest economy, xxiv, 425, 500
malaise through 1990s, 432–3
recession in early 1990s, 433
under Schröder, 472–4
as ‘sick man of Europe’, 472–3
and structural reforms, 498
global capitalism and the economies of southern Europe, 306
global post-war growth, xxv, 133–4
globalized, 348, 438, 443, 459–67 see also globalization
and the 2007–8 financial crisis and aftermath, 487, 489–511
and the gold standard, 264, 265
governmental mismanagement, 499, 509, 528–9
Great Depression, 134
Greece, 132, 135, 136, 306, 491, 547
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 492–4, 496, 507, 508–11
and austerity politics, 508–11
EU/IMF bailouts, 493, 496, 508, 509, 510, 511
under ‘rule of the colonels’, 294
Hungary, 264, 268, 330, 358, 416–17
austerity, 417
inflation, 358
inflation see inflation
and investment, 134
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 491, 492, 493, 507
Italy, 132, 141, 143, 264, 270, 272, 285–6, 346, 352, 491
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 494, 496
and austerity politics, 502–3
black economy, 272
‘economic miracle’, 158
forced out of ERM, 434
IMF bail out, 280
mid-1980s, 286
recession, 272
‘second economic miracle’, 286
Lithuania, 494
market economies see market economies
Marshall Plan and European recovery, 6, 135, 155, 187
migrants sustaining economies suffering from low birth rates, 554
mixed, 147
Moldova, 419
New Economic Mechanism of Soviet satellites, 248, 250–51
Northern Ireland, 466
partnership of public and private sectors, 134
Poland, 250, 268, 276, 277, 332, 333–4, 416, 475
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 474, 500
Balcerowicz Plan, 356–7
on becoming a republic, 356–7
currency devaluation, 494
debts written off, 414–15, 417
deregulation, 356–7
‘shock therapy’, 417
Portugal, 132, 135, 297, 306, 465, 491
and the 1973 oil crisis, 297
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 493, 496, 507
austerity, 299
and austerity politics, 507
colonial empire’s drain on economy, 297, 299
inflation, 297
recession see recession
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
and austerity politics, 502
inflation, 416
national debt and IMF conditions, 325
Russia, 418, 419–20, 466, 484, 530
economic sanctions, 526, 527, 529, 530
Russian-dominated economic zone after fall of USSR, 418–19
Social Democrats and state regulation of, 280
Soviet Union/bloc, 88, 97, 132–3, 135–6, 247, 248, 312, 316, 318, 321–2
exports to the West, 323
German offer of support in return for cooperation on unification, 376
Gorbachev and economic reform, 318–20, 323–4
growth gap with Western economies, 325
military spending, 99, 132, 312, 316
weakening in 1970s, 276, 279, 316
weakening in early 1980s, 316
and the 1973 oil crisis, 302
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 492, 493, 496, 507
and austerity politics, 507
in states of former Soviet bloc, 413–19, 459
Sweden, 143, 264, 495, 498, 500
Switzerland, 143, 264, 265, 272, 500
‘tiger economies’, 460
and trade see trade
UK, 50–51, 132, 136, 141, 162, 256, 264, 293
and the 1973 oil crisis, 267, 269, 270, 272
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 489–90, 499, 504–7, 532
austerity politics/measures, 282, 505–7, 532
‘Black Wednesday’ withdrawal from ERM, 436
and Brexit, 535
and Brown, 467
currency devaluation, 167
and EU migrants, 476–7
IMF bail out, 280
inflation see inflation: UK
leaving the ‘snake’, 266
under Major, 436
under New Labour, 470–71
opt-out from Euro, 428
recovery in mid-1990s, 437
and the winter of discontent, 271–2
dominance of the dollar, 264
escalating national debt with arms race, 311–12
and Italy, 286
military spending, 5, 12, 17–18, 264, 274, 392
‘Reaganomics’, 274
recession (1990–91), 432
Washington Consensus programme, 414
Yugoslavia, 103, 136, 253–4, 269, 400
and ethnic conflict, 400
Edschmid, Kasimir, 61–2
education
Afghan opposition to secular education, 309
anti-authoritarian change with ‘1968’, 237
in computer skills, 342
disadvantaged poorly educated, with globalization, 462
higher/university, 205–6 see also universities
secondary, 205
Soviet, 97
Egypt, 513
and the British empire, 72–5
Suez crisis, 10, 27–8, 73–5, 76, 126, 127, 159–60
Eichmann, Adolf, 190
Eisenhower, Dwight David, 10, 15
at Churchill’s funeral, 83
Eisenhüttenstadt, 150
Ekberg, Anita, 200
electoral systems
‘first past the post’, 49, 524
proportional representation, 49, 51
electricity, 149
rationing, 269
electronic games, 342
Elizabeth II, 326
coronation, 196
employment
agricultural drop in, 137, 416
and automation, 556–7
and economic competitiveness, 467
full, 61, 131, 133, 135, 143, 145, 146–7, 204, 221, 267
guaranteed under communism, 380
and cheap foreign labour, 138
disadvantaged immigrant workers, 462–3
loss and change with de-industrialization, 344–5, 346
patterns, 150
seasonal, 462–3
self-employment, 461
trend towards white-collar work in service sector, 287–8
unskilled employees, 138, 287–8, 462, 543, 555
West German prerequisite of loyalty to constitution for state employment, 229
women’s, 148, 150, 210, 211, 346–7, 462
working conditions, 222, 237, 300, 428, 495
working hours, 204–5, 292, 332, 437, 556
youth, 292
energy see also coal; electricity; fracking; gas
atomic see nuclear power/atomic energy
prices, 466
rationing, 269
tax changes to prioritize clean energy, 472
Engels, Friedrich, 130
England
EU referendum result, 536
‘Middle England’, 470
northern alienation, 345
patriotism, 180
southern support of Thatcher, 284
English language, 478
environment
damage, 348–9
from acid rain, 348
from carbon emissions and global warming/climate change, 144, 348, 549, 553
from fracking, 554
to ozone layer, 348
Green movement see Green movement
growing public awareness of environmental issues, 348–9
Paris Accords on climate control, 549, 553
Enzensberger, Hans Magnus, 202
epic theatre, 175
Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip, 519
attempted military coup against, 517
ERM see European Exchange Rate Mechanism
Essex, University of, 235
Estonia, 85, 323, 324, 383, 384, 385, 390 see also Baltic states
discrimination against Russian minorities, 424
and the EU, 475
industrial production, 416
and NATO, 396
pluralist politics, 421
unemployment, 493
ETA (Basque Homeland and Freedom), 300, 301, 304, 448, 468
Ethiopia, 397
ethnic cleansing, 137–8, 408, 410, 411, 413
ethnic conflict
football and ethnic rivalry, 401
scapegoating ethnic minorities, 423–4, 499, 506–7, 509
Soviet, 324
Yugoslavia see Yugoslavia: ethnic conflict
ethnic nationalism, 399, 401, 403
Euro, xxiv, 461, 486, 492, 496, 511
launch, 430
Eurobonds, 510
European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), 161, 164
European Central Bank (ECB), 427, 492, 496, 497, 499
Outright Monetary Transactions, 496
European Coal and Steel Community, 7–8, 156, 158–60, 544
High Authority, 158–9
merger with EEC and Euratom, 164
European Commission, 492, 517, 558
and the Troika, 508
European Convention on Human Rights, 155, 483
European Council, 280, 481, 537, 558
European Defence Community (EDC), 7–8, 59, 159
European division, 1–39, 83–4, 340, 353
Iron Curtain see Iron Curtain
and the Stalinist clamp on Eastern Europe see Stalinism: clamp of
European Economic Community (EEC)/European Community/Common Market, 7, 39, 51, 135, 141, 143, 156, 157, 158, 160–67, 306, 543, 544–5
and the 1973 oil crisis, 268
aid for states of former Soviet bloc, 415
associate status countries, 164
and the Bosnian War, 407
change of name to European Union, 415, 428 see also European Union
and Common Agricultural Policy, 163, 164, 166
and Delors, 353
following collapse of USSR, 396–7
and German unification, 372–4
and Maastricht see Maastricht Treaty
merger with Euratom and European Coal and Steel Community, 164
and political union, 353
single currency issue, 372, 373
Single European Act, 352–3
Single Market see Single Market
and the UK, 51, 143, 160, 162, 164–7, 353, 372
European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), 417, 427, 434, 436
European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism (EFSM), 493
European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), 493
European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 162, 297
European identity, 425, 482, 544–6, 555
European integration, xxiv, 7–8, 39, 50
and the Cold War, 154–60
economic and monetary see economic and monetary union
and the EEC see European Economic Community (EEC)/European Community/Common Market
and the EU see European Union
ever-closer union aim, 164, 425
and fall of Iron Curtain see Iron Curtain: fall of
and Maastricht see Maastricht Treaty
and new situation following fall of USSR, 394–7
stepping stones towards, 153–67
US backing for, 155
and the Schuman Plan, 7, 156–9
European Investment Bank, 161
European Monetary System, 266
European Parliament, 163, 353, 481, 558
elections, 482
Green members, 348
European rebuilding, post-war, xxv, 83–4
architecture, 174–5
and consolidation of democracy see democracy: consolidation, and the moulding of Western Europe
and the economic boom see economy: European post-war boom, 1950–73
Soviet reconstruction see Soviet Union: post-war reconstruction
and the Stalinist clamp on Eastern Europe see Stalinism: clamp of
and the West German economy, 155
European Regional Development Fund, 465, 482, 491
European Stability Mechanism (ESM), 493
European Union (EU)
achievements, 482
agreement in, 1990 between Mitterrand and Kohl for, 373
ambivalence towards EU with threat of terrorism, and the migrant crisis, 524–5
asylum-seekers, 433
and Brexit see Brexit
Constitution for Europe, 481
Customs Union, 537
economy see economy: European Union
Eurobarometer surveys, 481–2
and European identity, 545–6 see also European identity
European Regional Development Fund, 465, 482, 491
freedom of movement principle/issues, 476–8, 534
and the future, 558–62
immigration support, 438
introduction of citizenship of member states, 428
and Maastricht see Maastricht Treaty
membership hopes for former communist countries, 418, 424–5
migrants:
crisis see migration/immigration: crisis (from 2015)
Muslim migrants, 479
preceding entity see European Economic Community (EEC)/European Community/Common Market
prophecies concerning end of, 548
rules on government debt/deficit levels, 498
and Russia see Russia: and the EU
Single Market see Single Market
split over Iraq War, 453–4
and Turkey, 480–81, 517–19, 536
and the UK see Britain and the United Kingdom: and the EU
and Ukraine, 528–9
and the Visegrád Group, 424
widening of, 430–31, 459, 475–6, 479–80, 484, 486
challenges following, 475–83
as world’s largest trading bloc, 459
Euroscepticism, 353, 437, 507, 533
Eurozone, 491–9, 548, 551, 559
unemployment, 493
ERM see European Exchange Rate Mechanism
European Monetary System, 266
and the gold standard, 264, 265
‘snake’ system, 266
existentialism, 181–2
Explorer rockets, 12
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 348
Falklands War, 282–3
family allowances, 146
famine, Soviet Union, 88
Fanfani, Amintore, 54
Farage, Nigel, 533
fascism, 39, 49–50, 172, 183, 185 see also Nazism
in Algeria, 231
antifascism, 175, 177, 182–3, 186, 218, 285
and capitalism, 225
collaboration, 186
French student activists and fascism in Algeria, 231
historians on Italian society under, 187
Italian literature reflecting legacy of, 178–9
‘Left Fascism’ (Habermas) of student movement, 227
fatalism, 22, 27, 33, 36, 176, 523
fatalistic nihilism, 179
and fear, living under the bomb, 22–36
Fatima, 207
Faymann, Werner, 515
Fechter, Peter, 19–20
Federal Bank, US, 489
Felice, Renzo de, 187
Fellini, Federico: La Dolce Vita, 200
Fidesz (Alliance of Young Democrats), 331, 423, 501
Fight against Atomic Death (Kampf dem Atomtod), 29–30
Filipovic, Zlata, 407
film see cinema
financial deregulation see deregulation
financial speculation, 463
Fini, Gianfranco, 436
Finland, 9–10, 38, 40, 46, 147, 257
economy, 465
and the EU, 431
Finnish People’s Democratic League, 257
Finns Party, 500
Greens, 349
and the migrant crisis, 518
nationalism, 500
women’s employment, 150
Fischer, Fritz: Griff nach der Weltmacht, 189, 192
Fitch Ratings, 498
food
foodstuffs, 460
Romania, 325
Soviet rationing, 323–4
Foot, Michael, 281
football, 197
and ethnic rivalry, 401
European Championship, 197
European Cup, 197
FA Cup (1953), 196n
hooliganism, 401
World Cup, 197
Foucault, Michel, 219
Fox, Liam, 536
fracking, 553–4
and the 1973 oil crisis, 267, 286–7
2017 presidential elections, 549–50
agricultural employment drop, 137
and Algeria, 17, 30, 65, 66, 76, 77, 79–83, 139, 231, 520, 543
anti-Muslim feelings, 479
austerity politics, 503–4
birth rates, 137
car industry, 152
cinema, 198–9
attendance, 198
‘New Wave’, 202
collapse of Fourth Republic, 63–6
Common Programme for Government, 259
Communists see communism: France
constitution, 77
contraception, 212
and the Council of Europe, 41
creation of Fifth Republic, 66, 81
cult of resistance, 185–6, 230–31
economy see economy: France
empire see French empire
and the EU:
and Constitution for Europe, 481
and EU reform, 558
and Turkey’s membership, 480
fascist collaboration, 186
Front National, 348, 434, 438, 504, 524, 549–50
Gaullists, 64, 66, 158, 258, 291, 292, 293
German relations, 156, 157, 160, 161, 265, 426–7, 544, 550, 551
healthcare, 437
industrial modernization, 345
industrial relations, 65, 143, 220, 232–3
and the International Energy Agency, 268
investment in training, 345
demonstrations, 453
jihadist networks, 457
La République En Marche, 550
and the migrant crisis, 514–15
Mouvement Républicain Populaire (MRP), 64
National Assembly, 8, 64, 66, 79, 292, 345, 503, 550
‘New Society’ promises, 258–9
nuclear power, 291
nuclear weapons, 23, 30–31, 84
poverty, 503
privatization, 437
of banks, 345
‘quality of life’, 465
Rally for the Republic (RPR), 291
Rassemblement du Peuple Français, 65
Social Democrats, 469
social welfare/security, 146, 292, 437, 464
costs, 434
Socialists, 64, 291, 292, 348,, 434, 503
state support for public services, 345
steel industry, 291–2
student protests see student protests/riots: France
and the Suez crisis, 10, 27–8, 72–5, 76
taxation see taxation: France
terrorist attacks, 458, 520–21, 533
‘third way’ under Jospin, 437
tourist trade, 153
border controls agreement, 514
and the UN Security Council, 84
unemployment, 290, 292, 293, 433–4, 503
Union of French Democracy (UDF), 291
and the US, 78, 162, 163, 180, 454
Vichy regime, 63, 76, 186, 213, 230
wages, 292
women’s representation in politics, 437
working class unemployment, 433–4
working hours, 437
Franceschini, Alberto, 224
Franco, Francisco, General, 42, 203, 300, 301, 302
French Algeria, 17, 30, 65, 66, 76, 77, 79–83
Madagascan rebellion, 77
and the Suez crisis, 10, 27–8, 72–5, 76, 159–60
French Guinea, 82
French Sudan, 82
fridges, xxii, xxiii, 97, 150, 151, 251
Friedman, Milton: Capitalism and Freedom, 273–4
Frings, Josef, 29
Front de Libération Nationale (FLN), 80–81, 82
FSB, 420
Fukushima disaster, 553
Fukuyama, Francis, 393–4
Fulbright, William, 18
G6 (Group of Six), 280
G7 (Group of Seven), 280, 559–60
Gabon, 82
Gaddafi, Muammar al-, 512–13
Gaitanides, Johannes, 61
Gambia, 75
gardens/gardening, 205
Garton Ash, Timothy, xiv, 328, 336, 409
fracking, 553–4
Russian, 553
Gaulle, Charles de see de Gaulle, Charles
Gaullists, 64, 66, 158, 258, 291, 292, 293
gays see homosexuality
Lenin Shipyard strike, 332
General Agreement on Tariff and Trade, 43, 57
generational revolt, 216–38 see also student protests/riots
genetic mapping, 554
Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 340, 359, 375, 377, 378, 425
Georgia (Caucasian state), 90, 94, 324, 383, 390
Russian military intervention, 483, 484–5
Gerasimov, Gennady, 335
Germany
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
2017 elections, 551
Adenauer’s ‘Chancellor democracy’, 224–5
‘Agenda, 2010’, 473–4
Alternative für Deutschland (AfD), 500, 524, 551
and asylum-seekers, xxiv, 433, 514, 515–17, 518, 533
and Cologne disturbances, 2015 New Year’s Eve, 516–17
Bavaria see Bavaria
central importance of, xxiv–xxv
Christian Union, 289, 374, 376, 472, 500
and the Cold War see Cold War: and Germany
and Croatian independence, 406
democracy’s success story in, xxiv, 45, 47, 55–63, 290
East (GDR), 85
1953 uprising, 114–18
1989 change to constitution, 362, 374
1989 transfer/flow of citizens to Federal Republic, 358–9, 360–62, 374
Alliance for Germany, 378–9
attitudes to Gorbachev reforms, 327–8
and Brandt’s Ostpolitik, 165, 259–60
and Brecht, 175
clamp down on Western cultural influences, 240
corruption charges, 374
cultural relaxation in the 1960s, 251
Democracy Now, 363
Democratic Awakening, 363
democratic transition and route to reunification, 369–81
departure from Warsaw Pact, 381
East Berlin see Berlin: East Berlin
economy see economy: Germany, GDR
Eisenhüttenstadt’s creation, 150
end of regime, 359–64
factional disputes, 114
Five-Year Plan (1951–1955), 118
Gorbachev’s reduction of armed forces in, 323
Hungary’s opening borders to Austria for East Germans, 358
as ideological showcase of ‘real existing socialism’, 250, 363
industrial production, 118, 377, 415
latent democratic traditions, 86
Leipzig demonstrations against the regime, 359–60
living standards, 114, 115, 118, 251, 327–8
New Economic System, 250–51
New Forum, 363
Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), 379
population drain into West Berlin, 15–16, 113–14, 138, 361–2, 370
privatization, 380
security police, 118
Social Democratic Party, 374, 379
Socialist Unity Party (SED), 114, 115, 116, 117–18
Soviet dependency, 119
Soviet nuclear missiles stationed in, 309, 317, 328
Soviet reparations, 119
and the Stalinist clamp, 105, 113–19
State Security Service (Stasi), 117, 118, 226, 240, 251, 359, 360, 362, 421
strikes, 115–16
travel restriction lift, 360–61
unemployment, 380
women’s employment, 150
‘work norms’ increase, 115
East Germans of former GDR, 415, 433
dismantling institutional framework of former regime, 422
economy see entries at economy: Germany
and the EU:
and Eurobonds, 510
expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe, 138
Free Democratic Party (FDP), 288–9, 551
French relations, 156, 157, 160, 161, 265, 426–7, 544, 550, 551
healthcare insurance scheme, 433
and the Hungarian insurrection, 27–8
inequality, 465
and Iraq War, 453
demonstrations, 453
Islamist terror, 458
jihadist networks, 457
manufacturing industry, 494
Monti supported by, 502
Nazi see Nazism
neo-liberalism, 472–4
poverty, 474
‘quality of life’, 465
reunification, xxiv–xxv, 369–81
and armed forces/weapons commitment, 376
and the East German border, 376–7
and the EEC, 372–4
and fall of Berlin Wall, 360–64, 369, 370
and Kohl, 369, 370–71, 373–4, 375, 376, 378, 381
and reopening of Brandenburg Gate, 369–70
treaty, 381
and Russia, 553
Social Democratic Party (SPD), 551
Federal Republic, 8, 29, 55, 58, 60, 158, 228, 256, 288–9, 298, 551
Social Democrats see Social Democracy: Germany
social welfare, 433, 464, 473–4
‘third way’ under Schröder, 437, 472–4
trade see trade: Germany
unemployment see unemployment: Germany
and the US see United States of America: and Germany
West Germany/Federal Republic, 40
1989 transfer/flow of GDR citizens to, 358–9, 360–62, 374
Adenauer’s ‘Chancellor democracy’, 224–5
alienation of intellectuals, 202
Basic Law (1949 constitution), 56, 378, 429
Bavaria see Bavaria
Bonn made capital, 56
and Brandt’s Ostpolitik, 165, 259–60
as bulwark against USSR, 155
car industry, 152
Catholic Church, 29
Christian Democratic Student League, 221
Christian Democrats, 47, 56, 60, 221, 228, 256, 289
civil servants, 62
and coal, 155–6, 157, 290, 344
and the Cold War, 58
and communism, 58
consolidation of democracy, 45, 47, 55–63
and the Council of Europe, 41
and Czechoslovakia, 260
de-industrialization, 344
deregulation, 346
economy see economy: Germany, Federal Republic
emergency legislation and protest of 1968, and the student protest, 228
Extra-Parliamentary Opposition (APO), 226
Fight against Atomic Death, 29–30
Free Democratic Party (FDP), 288–9
French relations, 156, 157, 160, 161, 265
and Gorbachev, 338
grand coalition under Kiesinger, 225–6
and Greek colonel’s rule, 295
Gulf War cost contribution, 380–81
and the history of resistance, 187
Holocaust attitudes, awareness and writings, 177, 189, 350–51
housing, 149
immigrants, 138
industrial modernization, 345
industrial production, 57, 155–6
industrial relations, 141–2
industrialization damage to environment, 107
Institute of Contemporary History, 188
integration with Western European countries, 58, 59, 60, 61, 157
and International Authority for the Ruhr, 155–6, 157
investment in training, 345
and Italy, 272
Krefeld Appeal, 311
leisure, 205
literature, 177–8
national identity, 351
national insurance, 145
and NATO, 6–7, 8–9, 15, 28, 59, 60, 260
neo-Nazi NPD, 225–6
‘new cinema’, 202
and the New Left, 225
perceived continuities with Nazi past, 224–5, 351
Radicals’ Decree, 228–9
rearmament, 6–9, 15, 28, 59, 60, 119, 159–60
reflections on Nazism see Nazism: West Germans looking back on
reparations, 57
reversal of Allied denazification, and rehabilitation of former Nazis, 62–3
Social Democratic Party (SPD), 8, 29, 55, 58, 60, 158, 228, 256, 288–9, 298
social security, 146
Socialist German Student League, 221
Socialist Reich Party, 62
state support for public services, 345
stationing of US nuclear weapons, 14, 15
and steel, 6, 155–6, 157, 290, 344
Student Federation, 226, 227, 228
student protests, 217, 218, 224, 226–8
and the Suez crisis, 27–8
terrorism see terrorism: West Germany
tourist trade, 153
trade, 135
trade unions, 142, 267, 288–9, 290
and the US, 226, 229, 265, 351
and the Vietnam War, 229
war crimes statute of limitations, 350
wealth distribution, 148
West Berlin see Berlin: West Berlin
working class, 204
Ghana, 75
Gibraltar, 40
Gierek, Edward, 249–50, 277, 278
Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry, 287, 290–91, 481
Glenny, Misha, 405
Glitnir bank, 490
global warming, 549, 553 see also carbon emissions
globalization, xvi, xxiv, 347, 470, 543
and automation, 556–7
boom years, 463–4
and colonialism, 67
and discrimination, 462–3
environmental damage from, xxiv, 466
and EU challenges, 475–83
and European insecurity, xxiv, 468, 488 see also terrorism
expansion, and the race for growth, 466–7
and the Finns Party (Finland), 500
‘first’, 442
and global exposure, 442–87, 538
with television, 449, 456 see also television
and terrorism/war on terror, 441, 443, 444–58, 468, 488
in the two world wars, 442
globalized economy see economy: globalized
globalized finance capitalism, 499
globalized market economy, 438
immigrant labour issues, 462–3, 476–8
and individualism, 555–6
and inequality of wealth/income, xxiv, 462, 463–4
intensification with fall of Iron Curtain, xxv–xxvi
political challenges, 467–74
economic migrants, 138–9, 151, 467–8, 512, 514, 554
and the ‘race to the bottom’, 467
and Romania, 466
‘second’, 443
and security, 557–8
and technological change, xxv–xxvi, 543
and tourism/travel, 461
winners, losers, and the ambivalence of, 459–67
working class feeling ‘left behind’ by, 532–3
and world trade, 459–61
Gobbi, Tito, 173
Godard, Jean-Luc, 202
Goldsmith, Peter, Baron, 455
Gomułka, Władisław, 121–3, 128, 241, 249
Gonzáles, Felipe, 304
Good Friday Agreement, 468, 471
Goodwin, Fred, 491
Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergevich, xxvi, 312, 313–25, 336–8, 385–6, 392
and the African National Congress, 397
and the Berlin Wall, 340
and Bush, 372
and Ceauşescu, 326–7
and Crimean annexation, 527
East Berlin visit, 359
ebbing power with Soviet Union, 383, 386–7, 388–9
and end of Cold War, 337–8, 354, 363, 390
and German unification, 372, 374–6
and Kohl, 338, 339–40, 375, 376
and Mitterrand, 337
and nuclear disarmament, 316, 322, 338–40
popularity in Western Europe, 337–8
putsch against, 388–9
and Reagan, 322–3, 337, 339, 340
reforms see Soviet Union: Gorbachev factor/reforms
regrets for demise of Soviet Union, 390–91
renunciation of Brezhnev Doctrine, 335, 336
resignation as General Secretary of Communist Party, 390
and Solidarity, 333
and Soviet momentum for change, 325–37, 354, 363, 366
televised final defence of reforms and record, 390
and television, 338
and the US, 322–3, 337, 339, 340, 397
Warsaw Pact divisions over reforms of, 327–34
and Yeltsin, 382–3, 386–7, 389, 390
Gorbachev, Raisa, 338
Gori, 94
Gottwald, Klement, 110, 111, 243
Grachev, Pavel, 388–9
Gramsci, Antonio, 219
Grass, Günter, 178
Great Britain see Britain and the United Kingdom
abolishment of monarchy, 296
anti-nuclear movement and Marathon march, 31–2
civil war, 42
collapse of authoritarian regime, 263
and communism/anti- communism, 44
constitutional monarchy, 40
corruption, 509
and the Council of Europe, 41
coup of, 1967 and ‘rule of the colonels’, 294–5, 305
Greek and Turkish Cypriot struggle, 44, 75, 295, 296
democracy’s triumph, 263, 294–6, 305–7
economy see economy: Greece
emigrants, 138
and the EU, 482
and Maastricht, 429
under German occupation, 42
Golden Dawn party, 508–9
household electricity, 149
Indignant Citizens (Indignados) anti-austerity movement, 508
and the Korean War, 4
and the migrant crisis, 513, 514, 517–18, 548
military as dominant political force, 307
military coup (1967), 44
population loss, 137
poverty, 493–4
Social Democrats, 469
student protests, 295
television, 197
unemployment, 493
Green movement, 238, 290, 348–9
Greenham Common ‘peace camp’, 311
Greenpeace, 348
Griffith Jones, Mervyn, 212
Griffiths, Peter, 139–40
Grillo, Beppe, 503
Grossman, Vassily, 184
Grósz, Károly, 331
Grundlach, Gustav, 29
Guantanamo Bay detention camp, 456
Guevara, Che, 218
Guillaume, Günter, 287
Guinea-Bissau, 299
Hager, Kurt, 328
Hahn, Otto, 28–9
Halbstarken, 195
Halle, 116
Hart, Judith, 298
Havel, Václav, 244, 279, 336, 364, 365
Hayek, Friedrich, 274
Hayle, Bill, 193
HBOS, 490
Healey, Denis, 271
healthcare
and ageing populations, 554
France, 437
and health tourists, 533
insurance, 433
medical advances, xxii, 170, 554
NHS (UK) see National Health Service
Soviet, 97
Heath, Edward, 164, 165, 256, 281
and the miners’ strike, 270, 271
heavy metal, 342
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 394
Heidegger, Martin, 181–2
Heinemann, Gustav, 29
Heisenberg, Werner, 28–9
Helsinki Accords, 308
Herrnstadt, Rudolf, 114
Heydrich, Lina, 62
Heydrich, Reinhard, 62
Heym, Stefan, 183
hip-hop, 342
and the peace movement, 237–8
and Austria, 52–3
Fischer on Hitler and the continuity of German history, 189
Hitler–Stalin Pact, 185
plot against, 187
and Wagner, 171
Western appeasement of, 185
HIV, 343
Hobsbawm, Eric, xvi, 22, 35, 392, 393
Hochhuth, Rolf: Der Stellertreter, 202
Hofer, Norbert, 549
Hoggart, Richard: The Uses of Literacy, 201
Holbrooke, Richard, 410
holidays, 205 see also tourism
Holland see Netherlands/Holland
Holly, Buddy, 194
Holocaust, 171, 181, 190, 225, 546, 559 see also Auschwitz extermination camp
exclusion from West German public debate, 189
German historical writing and public awareness concerning, 350–51
German literature exploring guilt concerning, 177
growing sensitivity towards racism, with public awareness of, 349–52
Lanzmann film, Shoah, 351–2
memoirs, 179
Memorial Museum, Washington D.C., 350
teaching, in US, 350
and Tudjman, 402
Holocaust (TV series), 350
homosexuality, xxiii, 212, 213, 472
and AIDS, 343
gay marriage, xxiii
gay rights, 213, 237, 502, 541
Honecker, Erich, 251–2, 278, 327–8, 359, 360, 362, 374
Horkheimer, Max, 218
Hornby, Lesley (Twiggy), 196
hotels, 153
household appliances see also fridges, television: sets, washing machines
and prosperity in Western Europe, 150, 151
and rising standard of living in GDR, 251
and women, 151
bought by foreign investors, 464
bubbles, 492
with electricity, 149
Italy, 149
people without, 506
Polish programme, 250
poor conditions for disadvantaged under globalization, 463
with running water, 149
shortages, 57, 97, 98, 136, 140, 149, 174, 345
UK, 149
council housing sell-off, 345
house-building programme in 1950s, 50
neglect of house-building, 506
sub-standard rented property, 506
West Germany, 149
Hoxha, Enver, 109
and the Catholic Church, 300
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 41
and the Council of Europe, 41, 155
European Convention on Human Rights, 155, 483
and independence movements/declarations, 67, 75–6
and Turkey, 518
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, xxiii, 41, 67
humanitarian interventionism, 411–12
Hungarian Democratic Forum, 331
Hungary, 38, 85, 87, 248–9, 395–6
1989 emergence as a republic, 357–8
Alliance of Young Democrats, 331
anti-Iraq War demonstrations, 453
attitudes to Gorbachev reforms, 329, 330–32
and recession, 501
censorship, 124
Christian Democratic People’s Party, 331
civil society, 329
Communist Party, 123, 124, 330, 331, 357
democratic forms used to undermine democratic substance, 542, 561
discrimination against Hungarians in Slovakia and Romania, 423
economy see economy: Hungary
exposure to Western pop music, 239–40, 249
Gorbachev’s reduction of armed forces in, 323
Hungarian Socialist Party, 357, 501
industrial production, 416
Jobbik party, 501
and the migrant crisis, 514, 515, 517, 518
mounting unrest in, 1956 under Soviet rule, 93
nationalism, 423
New Economic Mechanism, 248
opening borders to Austria for East Germans, 358
Petőfi Circle, 124
pluralist politics, 331, 358, 421
Politburo, 124
poverty, 417
Provisional Revolutionary Workers’ and Peasants’ Government, 126, 129
Social Democratic Party, 331, 422
and the Stalinist clamp, 105, 106, 123–8, 129–30
and Stockholm Peace Appeal, 34
strikes, 125
student demonstrations, 124
televisions, 197
trade unions, 331
transition-phase investigation of former communist functionaries, 422
transition to capitalism, 416–17
unemployment, 417
uprising against Soviet rule, 27–8, 96, 105, 107, 119, 123–8, 129
Soviet suppression of, 10, 28, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 125–7, 182, 329
Visegrád agreement, 424
and the Warsaw Pact see Warsaw Pact: Hungary’s membership
‘Windows to the West’, 239–40
Hussein, Saddam see Saddam Hussein
hydrogen bomb, 1, 5, 9, 11, 25, 34, 36
and the, 2007–8 banking/financial crisis, 490, 494, 500
2010 volcanic eruption, 490
and the Council of Europe, 41
homosexuality, 213
Independence Party, 500
identity politics, xxvi, 468, 561
IMF see International Monetary Fund
immigration see migration/immigration
imperialism/colonialism
anti-colonialism see anti-colonialism
British empire see British empire
European imperialist expansion in nineteenth century, 442
French empire see French empire
and globalization, 67
imperial retreat and end of empire, 50, 67–84, 542–3 see also anti-colonialism
Portuguese colonial empire, 297, 298–9
and racism, 185
racial supremacy doctrines, 67
UK’s imperial tradition, 142, 159–60 see also British empire; Commonwealth of Nations
and the Falklands, 282–3
and the Vietnam War, 217
income gap, xvi, 147, 462, 464, 555
independence movements/declarations, 67, 75–6, 80–82, 382, 384, 385, 386, 389–90, 405, 407, 410–11, 534, 561
United Kingdom Independence Party see Britain and the United Kingdom: UKIP
software expertise, 460
individualism, xxvi, 215–16, 347
and globalization, 555–6
individualization of leisure, 205, 341–3
post-industrial, 556
and postmodernism, 341
of women, 347
Indochina, 76, 77–9, 219 see also Vietnam
Indonesia, 442
industrial production, 266, 418 see also de-industrialization
and the 1973 oil crisis, 269, 270
Albania, 415
armaments, 88–9
and automation, 556–7
Baltic states, 416
cars, 204
coal, 142–3
Czechoslovakia, 415–16
decline in north Britain, 465–6
EEC, 161
Hungary, 416
and modernization, 345
moving production overseas for cheap labour, 460
Poland, 415
Romania, 415
Russia, 418
arms industry, 88–9
steel, 142–3
technology and specialized production, 287
UK, 142–3
industrial relations, 143
Belgium, 143
Denmark, 143
labour militancy, 143
Spain, 300
strikes see strikes
and student protests, 222, 232–4, 237
Sweden, 143
trade unions see trade unions
Heath and the miners’ strike, 270–71
labour militancy, 143
under Thatcher, 283–4
and the winter of discontent, 271–2
West Germany, 141–2
industrialization
and collectivization of agriculture, 104
Romania, 107
West German environmental damage from, 288
inequality
and capitalism, 145
Germany, 465
and globalization, xxiv, 462, 463–4
income gap, xvi, 147, 462, 464, 506, 555
Italy, 465
in living standards, 554 see also living standards
reduction in Eastern Europe, 133
Russia, 466
UK:
and austerity politics, 506
and home ownership, 463–4, 470–71
north-south, 465–6
under Thatcher, 284
in wealth distribution, 147–8, 471, 506
in wealth distribution, xxiv, 147–8, 462, 463–4, 465, 471, 506, 542, 554, 555
Yugoslavia, 253
inflation, 143–4, 265–6, 267, 275, 423, 434, 467
and the 1973 oil crisis, 263, 269–70
Bulgaria, 416
Hungary, 358
Moldova, 419
Portugal, 297
Romania, 416
Russia, 419–20
stagflation, 270, 273, 288, 293
in states of former Soviet bloc, 416
under Thatcher, 284
and unemployment, 270 see also stagflation
West Germany, 267, 270, 288, 290, 292
information technology, 288, 316 see also internet
giants, 543
economic insecurity and the 1973 oil crisis, 263 see also oil: crises: 1973 crisis and effects on Western economies
and globalization, xxiv, 468, 488
‘matrix of new insecurity’, xxv
new era of, 541–62
and terrorism, 523, 543, 548 see also terrorism
Institute of Contemporary History (Germany), 188
intellectuals
alienation of West German, 202
and Marxism, 181–4
intelligence networks, 557 see also CIA; MI6
intercontinental ballistic missiles, 12, 13
International Authority for the Ruhr, 155–6, 157
international crime, 557–8
International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia, 412–13
International Energy Agency, 268
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 43, 272, 280, 299, 357, 358, 366, 414–15, 417, 499, 502
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 492, 493, 496
and Greece, 493, 496, 508, 510, 511
International Security Assistance Force, 446
cybercrime, 557
dot-com bubble, 463
jihadist doctrine spread on, 457
online banking, 556
pro-terrorism websites, 457
social media see social media
xenophobia, 562
Interpol, 557
banks see banks, investment
neo-Keynesian, 498
Ioannidis, Dimitrios, 295
Ionesco, Eugene, 176
Brighton bomb, 284
Iran
and the 1973 oil crisis, 267
and the, 1979 oil crisis, 273
and destabilization of Middle East, 458
and Islamic revolution, 309
revolution, 273
Iraq, 449–57
and the 1973 oil crisis, 267
and the, 1979 oil crisis, 273
and Bush’s ‘axis of evil’ speech, 450
invasion of Kuwait, 393, 439, 449–50
and ISIS, 513
Kurds, 449
terrorism, 523
War, 451–7
and Blair, 451, 452, 453, 471, 472
and Islamic resurgence, 458
and Muslim anti-Western feelings, 453, 456–8, 479
protests, 453
treatment of prisoners at Abu Ghraib, 456
weapons inspectors sent to, 451, 452, 453, 455
‘weapons of mass destruction’, 450, 451–2, 453, 455
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
anti-Iraq War demonstrations, 453
banking crisis, 492
Brexit and the Irish border, 537
constitution (1937):
and the Catholic Church, 207
and mothers, 210–11
contraception, 213
and the Council of Europe, 41
divorce, 211
economy see economy: Ireland
and the EEC, 165
emigrants, 138
and Maastricht, 429
and Treaty of Lisbon, 481
Good Friday Agreement, 468, 471
IRA see IRA
Labour Party, 508
national identity, 207
population loss, 137
property bubble, 492
unemployment, 493
Irish Republican Army see IRA
Iron Curtain, xiii–xiv, xxi, xxv, 10, 22, 35, 37–9, 136
and conservatism, 45
and opening of Berlin Wall, 360–64, 369, 370
Islam and the Muslim people, xxiii
Algerian Muslims, 79–80, 81, 82, 520
and anti-Muslim feelings against migrants, 479
anti-Western feelings stemming from Iraq and Afghan wars, 453, 456–8, 479, 519
Bosnian Muslims, 401, 404, 406, 407–8, 409
cultural clash between Western and Islamic values, 443, 524
European parties seeing threat from Islam to national culture, 524
Hungary’s warning of ‘Muslim threat’ to Christian culture, 515
Islamic fundamentalism, 441, 444–58, 479
Salafist, 458
Islamic resurgence, 458
Islamic revolution, 309
Islamist terror see terrorism: Islamist
jihadists see jihadists
Muslim women and French ban on face covering, 520
and Turkey, 480–81
in Yugoslavia, 400, 401, 404, 406, 407–8, 409
Islamic State, 513, 521, 522–3, 533
Israel, 70–72
Arab revolts, wars and relationships see Arabs: and Israel
and the Balfour Declaration, 70–71
international recognition of new state, 71
and the Suez crisis, 74
and the UN, 71
and the US, 71
Western backing for, 519
Istanbul, 137
and the 1973 oil crisis, 270
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
abortion legalization, 286
Alleanza Nationale (National Alliance), 436
anti-communism, 187
architecture, 174
armed forces, 54–5
car industry, 152
Christian Democrats, 47–8, 53, 54–5, 187, 258, 352, 435, 436
coalition with Republican Party and Socialists, 286
Communist alliance, 285–6
attendance, 198
Civic Choice, 502–3
civil service, 54
colonial claims renounced, 67
Communist Party, 258, 352, 435
Christian Democrat alliance, 285–6
communist resistance, 186–7
conservatism, 258
consolidation of democracy, 45, 53–5
contraception, 213
and the Council of Europe, 41
divorce, 211
drop in agricultural employment, 137
economy see economy: Italy
emigrants, 138
Forza Italia, 435–6
and historians on fascism, 187
housing, 149
industrial relations, 222, 272
inequality, 465
and Iraq War, 453–4
demonstrations, 453
jihadist networks, 457
judiciary, 54
Lega Nord (Northern League), 436
Liberal Party, 435
literature, 178–9
and Maastricht, 429
Marshall Aid, 187
and the migrant crisis, 513, 514, 518, 548
NATO membership, 187
neo-fascist ‘strategy of tension’, 222–3
neo-liberalism, 286
‘opening to the left’, 258
patronage, 54
People of Freedom, 503
political and social reforms, 1969–71, 222–3
populist politics, 435–6, 500, 511, 534, 549, 552
privatization, 434
Red Brigades, 223–4, 255, 272, 285, 448
Republican Party, 286
resistance, 186–7
Social Democrats, 469
social welfare/security, 146, 464
Socialist Party, 258, 285, 435
student protests see student protests/riots: Italy
subcultures and political allegiance, 53
taxation, 434
terrorism, 223–4, 263, 285, 448, 542
tourist trade, 152–3
and the US, 187
and West Germany, 272
ITV, 197
Ivory Coast, 82
Jaguar, 152
Jakeš, Miloš, 329
Jamaica, 75
James, Harold, xxvi
Japan
automobile industry, 459
and China, 2
Fukushima disaster, 553
and Indochina, 77–8
and Korea, 2–3
student protests, 217
Jarausch, Konrad, xiv
Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 278, 332, 333–4, 335, 355, 356
Jaspers, Karl, 181
Jews
antisemitism see antisemitism
and the Balfour Declaration, 70–71
and Brandt, 260
Catholic Church’s apology to, 209
Christian dialogue with, 209
Holocaust survivors, 71, 111, 349
massacred in, 1941 near Kiev, 172
Polish, 241
and the Soviet ‘doctors’ plot’, 90
synagogues, 206
and Tudjman, 402
in US, 71
and identity centred on Holocaust, 349–50
Ustaše killing of, 402
and the Vichy regime, 186
Zionist see Zionism
jihadists, 310, 456–8, 513, 518, 519, 520–22
entering Europe alongside refugees, 533
networks, 457
targets, 457–8 see also terrorism: Islamist
John XXIII, 208–9
Pacem in Terris, 31
and Vatican II, 208–10
Johnson, Lyndon B., 17, 219, 264
Juan Carlos of Spain, 301, 302–3, 304
Juncker, Jean-Claude, 517
Kaczyńsky, Lech, 501
Kádár, János, 125, 126, 129, 248–9, 331, 357
Kaelble, Harmut, xiv
Kagan, Robert, 454
Kania, Stanisław, 278
Karajan, Herbert von, 173
Karamanlis, Konstantinos, 295, 296
Karzai, Hamid, 446
Kaupthing bank, 490
Kemal Atatürk, Mustafa, 42
Kennedy, John F., 13, 16, 17–18, 75
assassination, 219
and Khrushchev, 16, 17–18, 19, 21
Keynesian economics, 134, 263, 267, 274, 279, 292–3, 510–11
neo-Keynesian, 497–8
Khrushchev, Nikita, 10, 14, 15, 34, 86, 90, 91–3, 96, 97–100, 101, 119, 486
and agricultural productivity, 97–8
and Cuban Missile Crisis, 20–21, 99
denunciation of Stalin in, 1956 speech to Congress, 92–3, 94–5, 99, 108, 109, 112, 119, 120, 121
deposition, 100
and Gomułka, 122–3
as head of party and state, 97
and the Hungarian insurrection, 126, 127
and Kennedy, 16, 17–18, 19, 21
removal in ‘palace coup’, 21
speeches to Congress:
1956 speech, 92–3, 94–5, 99, 108, 109, 112, 119, 120, 121
1961 speeches, 98–9
and Tito, 102
UN interruption, banging shoe on table, 99
virgin lands policy, 97–8
Kiesinger, Kurt Georg, 225, 256
Jews massacred in, 1941 near, 172
Maidan protests, 526
Kinks, 195
Kissinger, Henry, 302
Kiszczak, Czesław, 333
Klaus, Václav, 414
Klemperer, Otto, 173
Kluge, Alexander, 202
Knin, 410
Knock, Ireland, 207
Koeppen, Wolfgang, 177
Koestler, Arthur, 181
Kogon, Eugen, 29
Kohl, Helmut, xxvi, 289, 377, 432, 433, 437, 491
and German currency union’s exchange ratio, 378
and German unification, 369, 370–71, 373–4, 375, 376, 378, 381
and Gorbachev, 338, 339–40, 375, 376
and political union in Europe, 425, 426, 427–8
and Reagan, 351
Kołakowski, Leszek, 241
Koning, Hans, 231–2
Koran, 524
Korean peninsula, 560
Korean War, xxi, 2–5, 24, 44, 49, 50, 57, 58, 78, 156
and the EU, 480
Liberation Army, 410
Milošević’s Kosovan speech, 403
as a UN Protectorate, 412
Koštunica, Vojislav, 412
Kott, Jan, 184
Kovály, Heda Margolius, 111
Kraftwerk, 342
Krastev, Ivan, 555
Kravchuk, Leonid, 395
Krefeld Appeal, 311
Kremlin, 14, 247, 252, 277, 485
hot line to White House, 21
Krenz, Egon, 362
Kryuchkov, Vladimir, 388
Kundera, Milan, 279
Küng, Hans, 210
Kurds, 449
Kuroń, Jacek, 276
Kurras, Karl-Heinz, 226–7
Kurz, Sebastian, 552
Kuwait, 267
Iraq’s invasion of, 393, 439, 449–50
Kwaśniewski, Aleksander, 423
Kyrgyzstan, 389
Lafontaine, Oskar, 473
Lambrakis, Grigoris, 32
Landsbanki bank, 490
Lanzmann, Claude: Shoah, 351–2
Last, Nella, 23–4
Lateran Treaty, 40
Latin America, liberation theology, 209
Latvia, 85, 323, 324, 383, 384, 385, 390 see also Baltic states
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 490, 493, 494
discrimination against Russian minorities, 424
and the EU, 475
industrial production, 416
and NATO, 396
unemployment, 493
Lawrence, D. H.: Lady Chatterley’s Lover, 212
Le Corbusier (Charles-Édouard Jeanneret), 174
League of Nations, 70
Lebanon, 77
Leipzig, 116
demonstrations against GDR regime, 359–60
leisure see also cinema, holidays, music, sport, television, tourism
forms shaping common interests across Europe, 205
individualization of, 205, 341–3
and reduction in working hours, 204–5
LeMay, Curtis, 12
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 92
bust of, 110
Shostakovich’s Seventh Symphony performed during siege of, 172
Marxist-Leninist ideology, 105, 115
Leone, Giovanni, 54
Leopold III of Belgium, 52
Letta, Enrico, 503
Levi, Carlo, 178–9
Levi, Primo, 179
Lewis, Jerry Lee, 194
liberal interventionism, 411–12
liberalism
British Liberal Party, 49
Chinese model of economic liberalism and political authoritarianism, 394
Italian Liberal Party, 435
liberal democracy see democracy
neo-liberalism see neo-liberalism
liberation theology, 209
Liechtenstein, 40
Ligachev, Yegor, 317
literature
antifascist, 177
Italy, 178–9
literary criticism, 202
‘New Wave’, 201
Polish, 184
and the shadow of the past, 176–82
social criticism, 201
and the Stalinist clamp, 101, 184
UK, 179–80
West Germany, 177–8
exiled writers choosing to return to Marxist GDR regime, 183
Lithuania, 85, 323, 324, 384, 385, 390 see also Baltic states
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 493, 494
and the EU, 475
industrial production, 416
and NATO, 396
pluralist politics, 421
Russian minority, 424
Social Democrats, 422
unemployment, 493
Little Richard (Richard Wayne Penniman), 194
living conditions
and the ‘big state’, 255–6
Poland, 332
in Prague’s student halls of residence, 241–2
living standards, 38, 48, 135, 255, 269, 554, 556
and the 1973 oil crisis, 263
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 492
Central and Eastern Europe in, 1990s, 423
Economist chart of ‘quality of life’, 464–5
Ireland, 464
and movement within EU, 476
Poland, 332
Portugal, 132
Russia, 418
Spain, 132
in states of former Soviet bloc, 413–14, 418, 476
UK, 532
USSR and eastern Europe, xxii, 88, 97, 128, 133, 136, 148
Bulgaria, 108
Czechoslovakia, 110
East Germany, 114, 115, 118, 251, 327–8
and Gorbachev, 390
Hungary, 129
Yugoslavia, 253
Lloyds TSB, 490
Lockerbie disaster, 458
logistics, 460
Lollobrigida, Gina, 199
London
anti-Iraq War demonstration, 453
Carnaby Street, 195–6
‘Big Bang’, 504
dockworkers, 140
EU referendum result, 536
immigrants and racism, 139
Notting Hill, 139
property:
bought by foreign investors, 464
prices, 506
terrorist attacks:
2017 attacks, 521–2
Vietnam War protests, 235–6
London School of Economics, 235
Loren, Sophia, 199
Lourdes, 207
Lubbers, Ruud, 372
Luca, Vasile, 106
Lukashenko, Aleksandr, 395, 419
Lutheran Church, 208
Luxembourg, Rosa, 218–19
Luxembourg, 4, 40 see also Benelux countries
Christian Democrats, 51
and the Council of Europe, 41
and the EU, 481
and Iraq War, 453
‘Luxembourg Compromise’, 163
Lviv, 418
Lynn, Vera: ‘My Son, My Son’, 193
Maastricht Treaty, 425–30, 469
Social Chapter, 428
and Treaty of Amsterdam, 429
and Treaty of Nice, 429
MacCulloch, Diarmaid, 209
and the EU, 480
Macierewicz, Antoni, 276
Macmillan, Harold, 18, 19, 51, 74, 75, 132, 344, 547
Macron, Emmanuel, 504, 550, 551
bombings, 457
Mafia, 435
Magdeburg, 116
Major, John, 432, 436–7, 470, 471
Mak, Geert, 424
Makarios III, Archbishop, 295
Malaparte, Curzio, 179
Malaya, 72
Malaysian Airline plane loss, 528
Maldives, 75
Malenkov, Georgi, 90–91, 92, 96, 99, 114, 127
Mali, 82
abortion ban, 213
and the Council of Europe, 41
divorce, 211
and the EEC, 164
and the EU, 475
Manchester terrorist attack, 521
Manchester University, 206
Mandela, Nelson, 397
Mandelson, Peter, 471
manufacturing industry
dramatic post-war growth, 136
European decline, 460
and exports, 134
Germany, 494
investment, 134
UK shrinkage, 344
Marathon march, 31–2
Marchais, Georges, 291
Maretti, Mario, 224
Margolius, Rudolf, 111
market economies, 39, 129, 135, 268, 332, 389, 416, 431
and China, 394
German ‘social market economy’, 147
globalized market economy, 438
marketing, 149
age, 326
gay, xxiii
Marshall Plan/Aid, 6, 43, 44, 135, 155, 187
Marx, Karl, 218
and French Communist hardening under Marchais, 291
French splinter groups, 259
and German literature, 183
intellectuals adhering to, 181–4
linking antifascism with hope for the future, 182–3
Marxist-Leninist ideology, 105, 115
neo-Marxism, 217
and the New Left, 218–19, 220, 225, 226
and Sartre, 182
and student protest, 218–19, 227
Western Marxism in conflict with capitalist liberal democracy, 216
Masur, Kurt, 360
materialism, 170, 201, 202, 217, 230
maternity support, 211
Matisse, Henri, 173
Matthews, Stanley, 196n
Mau Mau, 72
Mauriac, François, 371
Mauritania, 82
Mazower, Mark, xvi
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 356
McCarthy, Joseph, 49
McCarthyism, 49
McDonalds, 383
McGahey, Mick, 283
media
communist orchestration of mass media, 111
freedom of the press, 224–5
Holocaust coverage mid, 1980s, 350–52
nuclear weapons and the mass media, 23
promoting fear of communism, 33
radio see radio
sex and the mass media, 212
television see television
West German mass media:
and Holocaust issues in the mid, 1980s, 350–51
portrayal of communist East Germany, 58
medical science, xxii, 170, 554
Mediobanca, 346
Meinhof, Ulrike, 229–30
Mendès-France, Pierre, 66, 78–9, 80
Merkel, Angela, 474, 500, 508, 515, 516, 517, 533, 550, 551, 559–60
Messiaen, Olivier, 172
Messina, 160
MI5, 523
MI6, 273
Michnik, Adam, 330, 332, 356, 422
Mickiewicz, Adam: Dziady, 241
microchips, 342
middle class, 463–4
anti-nuclear activities, 26, 31
house owners, 463–4
and household appliances, 151
Italy, 48
parents, 193
‘Middle England’, 470
and Thatcherism, 284
values, 201
‘Yuppies’, 344
Middle Congo, 82
Mielke, Erich, 362
migration/immigration
anti-immigrant nationalism, 438, 507, 524
anti-immigration as a political issue, 438, 532–3, 535, 552
and anti-Muslim feelings, 479
asylum-seekers, 433 see also refugees
and cheap foreign labour, 138, 468, 476
and the Commonwealth, 138–9
continued intensifying pressure of, 554
crisis (from, 2015), 512–19, 547–8
and ambivalence towards EU, 524–5
and Austria, 514, 515, 518, 552
as a Brexit factor, 532–3, 535
drowned migrants, 513
and establishment of border controls by European countries, 514
and France see France: and the migrant crisis
and Germany see Germany: and asylum-seekers
and Greece, 513, 514, 517–18, 548
and Hungary, 514, 515, 517, 518
and people smugglers, 514
receding numbers to European countries, 518
and restrictions to civil liberties, 523–4
and threat of EU disintegration, 555
disadvantaged immigrant workers, 462–3
economic migrants, 138–9, 151, 467–8, 512, 514, 554
and freedom of movement principle, 478, 534
EU support for immigration, 438
and European identity, 555
and the European post-war economic boom, 137–8
and globalization see globalization: and immigration
Jewish, 70–71
mass, uncontrollable migration, xxiv, 518
Muslim migrants, 479
and racism, 478
neo-Nazi attacks on immigrants, 433
refugees see refugees
and scapegoating of foreigners/ethnic minorities, 423–4, 499, 506–7, 509
sustaining economies suffering from low birth rates, 554
to UK, 138–40
attraction of economy, 476
attraction of English language, 478
as a Brexit factor, 532–3, 535
from Commonwealth, 138–9
from EU countries, 476–8, 532–3, 535
from West Indies, 139
UN definition of an international migrant, 512
to West Germany, 138
Milan, terrorist attacks, 223
military service, 203
Milošević, Slobodan, 403, 405, 407, 409, 410, 411, 412
and International Criminal Tribunal, 412
Miłosz, Czesław, 330
Milward, Alan, 544–5
miners’ strikes, UK, 270–71, 283–4
Mini (car), 152
Minsk Protocol, 528
Miodowicz, Alfred, 333
Mises, Ludwig von, 274
Mitscherlich, Alexander and Margarete: Die Unfähigkeit zu trauern, 189
Mitterrand, François, 259, 287, 292, 293, 345, 348, 352, 432
dislike of ‘Star Wars’, 338–9
and German unification, 372, 373
and Gorbachev, 337
and the Maastricht Treaty, 426–7
and the widening of the EU, 430–31
Mladenov, Petăr, 365
mobile phones, xxiii, 443, 465
modernization, European, 469–70, 472–4
Moldavia, 389
‘quality of life’, 465
Möller, Irmgard, 230
Mollet, Guy, 73, 76, 80–81, 160
Molotov, Vyacheslav, 90, 92, 96, 99, 114, 127
Molotov cocktails, 125
Monaco, 40
monetarism, 273–5
Thatcherite, 282–5
Monnet, Jean, 156–7, 158, 159, 160, 353
Montenegro, 254, 399, 400, 403
and the EU, 480
Monti, Mario, 502–3
Moody’s, 498
moon landing, 197
Moretti, Luigi, 174
Morocco, 80
emigrants, 138
attempted coup against Gorbachev, 388–9
bombings, 420
Kremlin see Kremlin
McDonalds, 383
Olympic Games, 310
protests in, 1991 over violence of Soviet troops, 385
World Youth Festival, 95
motor industry, 152, 204 see also cars
Moulin, Jean, 352
MTV, 342
Mubarak, Hosni, 513
Mujahedin, 444
multiculturalism, xxiii, 443, 468, 479, 546, 555
multinational/transnational firms, 459, 460
music
classical:
avant-garde, 172
and the shadow of the past, 171–3
popular, 170, 193–5, 202, 342–3
Hungarian exposure to Western pop, 239–40, 249
individualized listening to, 342–3
rock see rock and roll
subcultures, 342
tastes transcending national boundaries, 461
Muslims see Islam and the Muslim people
Italian literature reflecting fascism under, 178–9
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), 13, 311, 543
Namibia, 397
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), 12–13
National Health Service (NHS, UK), 50
payment promises from Brexit, 536
Baltic states, 531
and the Catholic Church, 207
Croatia, 254
and French resistance, 186
Ireland, 207
Slovakia, 423
Turkey, 480–81
UK, 535
West Germany, 351
national insurance, 145
national security, 557–8 see also insecurity; surveillance
National Socialism, 39
National Union of Mineworkers (UK), 271, 283
Austria, 347–8
expatriate nationalists, 401
Finland, 500
French Front National, 348, 434, 438, 504, 524, 549–50
grass-roots mobilization with rise of nationalist xenophobic parties, 561
growing support for nationalist parties, 347
Hungary, 423
independence movements/declarations see independence movements/declarations
politicians seeking support turning to, 423
purges, 254
and recession, 499
repressive upholding of cultural values, 306
and scapegoating of foreigners/ethnic minorities, 423–4, 499, 506–7, 509
Soviet nationalists in, 1980s seeking autonomy from Moscow, 323, 383
Trump and European nationalists, 549
Wagner’s cultural underpinning of German nationalism, 171
nationalization, 50, 110, 259, 285, 292
of Northern Rock, 487
of RBS, 489–90
rejected by UK’s New Labour, 437, 470
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 6, 39, 154, 337–8, 543
and Afghanistan, 446–7
and the Baltic states, 396, 529
and Bosnia–Herzegovina, 410, 411
defence expenditure, 6–7
and the EDC, 7–8
following collapse of USSR, 395, 396
and German commitment concerning armed forces and weapons, 376
and German unification, 372, 375–6
Gorbachev’s talks with NATO countries, 337
and Italy, 187
and the making of Western Europe, 41
missile bases in Turkey, 20, 21
and Poland, 529
and Portugal, 43
and Russia, 483, 525, 529, 530
‘twin-track resolution’ concerning missile deployment and nuclear arms control, 309
and the UK, 50
and Ukraine, 531
and the US, 6–7, 9, 12, 375, 548
and West Germany, 8, 15, 28, 260
rearmament, 6–7, 8–9, 28, 59, 60
Navarro, Arias, 303
Adenauer government’s drawing a line under, 224
Auschwitz see Auschwitz extermination camp
and Austria, 52–3
British post-war view of Nazi era, 190–92
pride in victory, 49, 179, 190
German Labour Front, 142
Hitler–Stalin Pact, 185
Holocaust see Holocaust
ideological centrality of antisemitism, 225
Nazi-Soviet Pact, 384
neo-Nazi NPD, 225–6
and the New Left, 225
perceived West German continuities with Nazi past, 224–5
Red Army’s victory over, 87
reversal of Allied denazification, and rehabilitation of former Nazis, 62–3
trials:
Auschwitz, 225
Barbie, 352
Eichmann, 190
and Wagner, 171–2
West Germans looking back on, 187–90
after 1845 WWII anniversary, 350–51
conservative historians, 187–8
Fischer, 189
and forging a forward sense of identity, 351
and the history of resistance, 187
and the Holocaust, 177, 189, 350–51
research by Institute of Contemporary History, 188
with silence or apologia about, 188–9
soul-searching literature, 177–8
Németh, Miklós, 331
neo-conservatism, 397, 450, 454
neo-liberalism, 272, 273–5, 276, 288, 293, 436, 464
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 489, 497
deregulation see deregulation
Germany, 472–4
Italy, 286
privatization see privatization
‘shock therapy’, 414, 415, 417
Spain, 304–5
in states of former Soviet bloc, 414
UK, 272, 273–5, 283–5, 464, 470
Netherlands/Holland, 52, 257 see also Benelux countries
and the 1973 oil crisis, 267
2017 general election, 549
anti-conservatism, 257
anti-Muslim feelings, 479
car ownership, 151
cinema attendance, 198
and Constitution for Europe, 481
and the Council of Europe, 41
Dutch empire, 67
and Greek colonel’s rule, 295
Indonesia and the Dutch, 442
and Iraq War, 453–4
jihadist networks, 457
and the Korean War, 4
Labour Party, 257
and the migrant crisis, 514, 518
and NATO’s nuclear weapons, 31
Party for Freedom, 524
‘pillarized’ subcultures, 257, 280–81
Social Democrats, 469
social security, 146
student protests, 234
televisions, 151
unemployment, 493
university attendance, 205
Netherlands New Guinea, 67
Network of Free Initiatives, 331
New Left, 218–19, 220, 225, 226
New York, student protests (1967), 220
New Zealand, 139
Nice
terrorist attack, 520
Treaty of, 429
Niemöller, Martin, 29
Niger, 82
Nigeria, 75
nihilism, 179
Nintendo, 342
North Africa, 77
emigrants, 138
Korean War see Korean War
North Sea oil, 268, 272, 273, 347, 495
Northern Ireland, 47
economy, 466
EU referendum result, 536
Good Friday Agreement, 468, 471
nationalist political violence, 255
terrorism, 263, 284, 447–8, 468, 542
Ulster Unionists, 47
Northern Rhodesia, 75
Northern Rock, 487
Norway
anti-nuclear sentiment, 32
car ownership, 151
cinema attendance, 198
constitutional monarchy, 40
and the Council of Europe, 41
and the EEC, 165
and the EU, 431
off-shore oil, 268
Social Democracy, 257
Socialist People’s Party, 257, 280
terrorist attacks, 522
nostalgia, 201
Notting Hill riots, 139
Nouveau Réalisme, 173
Novocherkassk riots, 98
Novotný, Antonín, 111, 112, 113, 242–4
Nowa Huta, 150
nuclear power/atomic energy
Chernoblyl disaster, 320–21, 348–9, 553
disenchantment with, 553
France, 291
Fukushima disaster, 553
nuclear weapons, xvi, xxi, xxv, 1, 28–9, 338–9
Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War, 260–61
anti-nuclear movements, 23, 25–6, 28–36, 311
CND see Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
Krefeld Appeal, 311
British independent deterrent, 10–11, 23, 24–7, 50, 84
and the Church, 25, 29, 31, 33
and the Cold War see Cold War: and nuclear weapons
fear, fatalism, and living with the bomb, 22–36
Gorbachev and nuclear disarmament, 316, 322, 338–40
hydrogen bomb, 1, 5, 9, 11, 25, 34, 36
and intercontinental ballistic missiles, 12, 13
intermediate-range missiles, 309
Soviet production with slave labour, 88–9
Soviet tests:
1949 first test, 5
1953 test, 5
1961 detonation over Novay Zemlya, 13
and Sakharov, 34
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), 311, 439
superpower balance:
and build-up following Korean War, 6
‘equality in annihilation’, 5
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, 322
Mutually Assured Destruction, 13, 311, 543
and ‘Star Wars’, 311, 316, 338–9
US escalation following Soviet first test, 5
US supremacy in 1950, 4
US weapons in West Germany, 14, 15
Nyasaland, 75
Obama, Barack, 539
Oberländer, Theodor, 62
Obscene Publications Act, UK, 212
‘Occupy Wall Street’ movement, 502–3
Ochab, Edward, 121
Oder–Neisse Line, 62, 260, 372, 376–7
Ohnesorg, Benno, 226–7
oil
crises:
1973 crisis and effects on Western economies, 135, 167–8, 250, 262–72, 297, 302
structural problems of Soviet satellite countries exacerbated by crises of 1970s, 325
European dependency on Middle East production, 553
fracking, 553–4
and the International Energy Agency, 268
North Sea, 268, 272, 273, 347, 495
Norway’s off-shore, 268
petro-dollars, 272
Poland and the oil crisis, 250
prices, 135, 168, 262, 268, 269, 273, 286, 290, 484, 530
shortage measures, 269
Siberian fields, 268
spillage disasters, 348
Olympic Games, 197
1980 Games, 310
Omar, Mohammed, 445
OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), 168, 268
and the International Energy Agency, 268
Ophül, Marcel: Le Chagrin et la Pitié, 186
Orbán, Viktor, 357, 423, 501, 515
Organisation de l’Armée Secrete (OAS), 81
Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), 44, 155, 160
Organization for European Economic Cooperation and Development, 155
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, 528
Orgreave strike and police violence, 283
Osborne, John: Look Back in Anger, 201
Oslo Peace Process, 439
outsourcing, 460–61
Owen, David, 409
ozone layer, 348
pacifism, 33
Pahlavi, Reza, Shah of Iran, 226, 273
Pakistan, 69, 70, 444, 446, 477
Palach, Jan, 246
Palestine
and the Balfour Declaration, 70–71
lack of Western support for Palestinians, 519
refugees, 72
Papadopoulos, George, 294, 295
Papandreou, George, 508
Paris
Accords on climate control, 549, 553
Nanterre University, 231
student riots in, 231–2
terrorist attacks, 520–21, 533
Treaty of, 159
Pătrăşcanu, Lucreţiu, 106
patriotism
English, 180
Soviet patriotic pride, 87, 172, 183
of West German resistance, 187
Pauker, Ana, 106
Paul VI, 210
Humanae Vitae, 210
Pavlov, Valentin, 388
Paxton, Robert, 186
peace movements
and the ’68ers, 237–8
anti-nuclear, 23, 25–6, 28–36, 311, 328
CND see Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament
Yugoslavia, 34
peasantry
resistance in Romania, 106
revolt in Yugoslavia, 104
Pella, Guiseppe, 54
Penguin Books, 212
France, 292
Federal Republic, 60
Italy, 222
Sweden, 495
people smuggling, 514
Permanent Committee of the Partisans of Peace, 34
Pershing missiles, 309, 311, 317, 339, 340
Petőfi Circle, 124
petrol rationing, 269
Pevsner, Nikolaus, 174
Pflimlin, Pierre, 81
Picasso, Pablo, 173
pilgrimage, 207–8
Pinelli, Giuseppe, 223
Pinochet, Augusto, 302
pluralist politics/democracy, xv, 42, 45, 47, 83, 86, 110, 259, 293, 305, 307, 396, 421, 423, 544, 546, 561
and civic society, 365
Estonia, 421
and the EU, 544
and reluctance to vote, 423
Spain, 303
Yugoslavia, 403
Podgorny, Nikolai, 100
Poland, 38, 85, 87, 249–50, 276–8, 395–6
1989 emergence as a republic, 356–7
and Afghan War, 447
agriculture:
employment, 416
amnesties of mid-1980s, 332
anti-Zionism, 241
attitudes to Gorbachev reforms, 329–30, 333–4, 335
and recession, 501–2
Catholic Church, 122, 128, 207, 276–7, 330, 332
cinema attendance, 198
Civic Platform, 501
civil society, 329–30
communism’s diminishing hold see communism: Poland’s estrangement from
democratic forms used to undermine democratic substance, 542, 561
demonstrations and police clashes of December, 1970, 249
economy see economy: Poland
emigration of Poles to UK, 476
and the EU, 475
Germans expelled from, 138
under Gierek, 249–50
industrial production, 415
and Iraq War, 454
Jews, 241
jihadist networks, 457
Law and Justice party, 501–2
literature, 184
living conditions, 332
living standards, 332
‘lustration’ of former communist functionaries with transition-phase investigation, 422
martial law, 278, 329, 330, 332, 333, 335
membership of Warsaw Pact, 9, 122–3
and the migrant crisis, 502, 517
mounting unrest in, 1956 under Soviet rule, 93
national identity, 120, 207, 395–6
and NATO, 529
Nowa Huta’s creation, 150
and the oil crisis, 250
and pluralist politics/democracy, 356, 421
Social Democratic Party, 356, 422
Soviet annexation of Eastern Poland, 185
Stalin on introducing communism to, 120
and the Stalinist clamp, 105, 106, 120–23, 128–9
and Stockholm Peace Appeal, 34
strikes, 96, 121, 249, 277, 330, 332–3
student protests, 217, 240–41, 249
trade unions see trade unions: Poland
transition to capitalism, 417
‘velvet restoration’, 422
Visegrád agreement, 424
and the Warsaw Pact, 9
women’s employment, 150
police cover-up scandals, 561
political violence, 42, 255, 542
Baader-Meinhof Group, 229–30, 255, 448
in Baltic states over independence, 385
Basque separatists, 255, 300, 301, 304, 448, 468
Northern Ireland, 255
Red Brigades, 223–4, 255, 272, 448
Russian-backed separatist conflict, 527–32, 560
with Soviet moves to autonomy, 385
Pollock, Jackson, 173
pollution, 348, 466 see also carbon emissions
Pompidou, Georges, 165, 233, 258
Ponta, Victor, 502
Poos, Jacques, 409
pop music see music: popular
Popiełuszko, Jerzy, 332
Popov, Dimitar, 366
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, 229
population changes, 136–7, 554
populist politics, 348, 356, 435–6, 552
Poroshenko, Petro, 528
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
‘carnation revolution’, 298, 299
collapse of authoritarian regime, 263
colonial empire, 67, 297, 298–9
Communists, 298
coup d’état of, 1974, 297–8
democracy’s triumph, 263, 296–9, 305–7
divorce, 211
economy see economy: Portugal
emigrants, 138
household electricity, 149
and Iraq War, 454
demonstrations, 453
left-wing, 1975 military rising, 298
Liberals, 298
living standards, 132
and Maastricht, 429
military, 307
National Salvation Junta, 297
and NATO, 43
neutrality, 42
population loss, 137
Salazar regime, 43
and the US, 43
postmodernism, 340–41
Poujade, Pierre, 66
poverty, 396, 424, 439–40, 542
child, 470
France, 503
Germany, 474
Greece, 493–4
Hungary, 417
Romanian children removed from poor families, 326
Soviet, 88
in Soviet successor-states, 418, 419
Spanish, in, 1940s, 42
Ukraine, 418
Powell, Enoch, 140
Powers, Gary, 10
Poznań, 121
May Day, 1968 parade, 244
protests against Soviet invasion, 245
Stalin’s statue, 243
student halls of residence, 241–2
West German embassy, 358
Prague Spring, 130, 215, 239–47, 251
and East Germany, 251
extinction and ‘normalization’, 245–7, 257
privatization, 275, 286, 290, 293, 304, 343, 345–6
and corruption, 422
East Germany, 380
of former collective farms, 416
Italy, 434
of Poland’s economy, 356–7
Romania, 368
Russia, 420
in states of former Soviet bloc, 414
Sweden, 495
Profumo, John, 51
American cultural initiatives, 181
anti-communist, 49
anti-nuclear, 34
anti-Western, 118
civil-defence, 35
Czech Communist Party, 111
East German, 250
Nazi, 188
cultural anti-American initiatives, 180
in UK’s EU referendum campaign, 533
property prices, 463–4, 470–71, 506
Protestantism/Protestant Church
decline in church attendance, 207
German rooting in Protestant faith, 363
Lutheran churches, 208
Northern Ireland, 47
nuclear weapons divisions, 29
theological debates, 208
Pugo, Boris, 388
Pulzer, Peter, 542
punk rock, 342
Putin, Vladimir, 420, 466, 483–4, 525–32
and Crimean annexation, 525–7, 531
home popularity and prestige, 483, 527, 529, 531
and Syria, 531–2
and Ukraine separatist conflict, 527–32
Al-Qaeda, 444–5, 446, 447, 449, 457, 520, 522
9/11 attacks, 440–41, 443, 445
Quant, Mary, 196
quantitative easing, 497
Quasimodo, Salvatore, 179
Race Relations Act, UK, 140
racism, xxiii, 541 see also ethnic nationalism
antisemitic see antisemitism
ethnic cleansing see ethnic cleansing
growing sensitivity towards, 349
and public awareness of the Holocaust, 349–52
intolerance, 555
racial supremacy doctrines, 67
and riots, 139
scapegoating foreigners/ethnic minorities, 423–4, 499, 506–7, 509
Soviet view of capitalist imperialist cause of, 185
in UK, 139–40
xenophobia, xvi, 511, 524, 561, 562
radio
ownership/listening, 151
and Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 245
railways, 442
rainforests, 348
rape, 408
Raspe, Jan-Carl, 230
rationing, 50
Rawnsley, Andrew, 437
Ražnatović, Željko (Arkan), 401
Reagan, Ronald, 274, 310–11, 316, 392
Bitburg war cemetery visit, 351
and deregulated capitalism, 343
and Gorbachev, 322–3, 337, 339, 340
and Kohl, 351
and Thatcher, 310–11, 338–9, 392
recession
and authoritarianism, 501–2
definition, 493
Europe, early, 1990s, 432
Finland, 465
following, 1973 oil crisis, 168, 269, 275, 293
following, 1979 oil crisis, 273, 275, 293
France (1964), 144
Germany (early, 1990s), 433
‘Great Recession’ from, 2007–8 crisis, 489–511
and austerity politics, 499–512
Italy, 272
and nationalism, 499
politics, 275–93
austerity politics, 499–512 see also austerity: politics
and protest movements, 499, 507, 508
US (1990–91), 432
West Germany (1966–7), 143
Red Army, 86, 87, 120, 185, 279
and reductions in military spending, 99
soldiers captured by Wehrmacht returned home and sent to Gulag, 89
Red Army Faction (Baader-Meinhof Group), 228, 229–30, 255, 448
Red Brigades, 223–4, 255, 272, 285, 448
Red Star Belgrade, 401
Reed, Carol: The Third Man, 199
referenda, 561
Scottish independence referendum, 534
UK referendum on EU membership, 532, 533–6
refugees, 137–8, 433, 512, 513–19, 554
crisis as a Brexit factor, 533
Kosovan, 412
Palestinian, 72
terrorists entering Europe alongside, 533
Reitz, Edgar, 202
religion
Albanian views of, 207
Christian:
Church see Church
Europe’s loss of identity with Christianity, 545–6
decline in religious observance, 206–7, 545
and ethnic identity, 401
freedom to practise, 421
Muslim see Islam and the Muslim people
nominal adherence to, 208
pilgrimage, 207–8
private belief, 206–7
and secularization, 210, 257, 520
as a social influence, 203
in Soviet Union, 206–7
Yugoslavian revival of, 401
Renault, 152
Rhodesia, 75–6
riots
Notting Hill, 139
and racism, 139
Soviet Union, 98
student see student protests/riots
robots, 556
rock and roll, 193–4
dance-rock, 342
punk rock, 342
Rödder, Andreas, xiv
Rohe, Mies van der, 174
Rokossowski, Konstanty, 120, 121
Rolls Royce, 152
Roman Catholicism see Catholicism/Catholic Church
Romania, 85, 252–3, 325, 396, 417
1989 revolution, 366–8
and Afghan War, 447
authoritarianism, 502
children removed from poor families, 326
collectivization of agriculture, 106
computers, 466
corruption, 326, 396, 422, 424, 466, 476
cronyism, 326
cultural loosening in the, 1960s, 252
cultural revolution in the early, 1970s, 253
and Czechoslovakia, 245
economy see economy: Romania
emigrants with UK work permits, 477
food shortages, 325
Germans expelled from, 138
and globalization, 466
industrial production, 415
industrialization, 107
‘national communism’, 252–3, 326
National Salvation Front, 367, 368
oil supplies, 268
privatization, 368
‘quality of life’, 465
slave labour, 106
Social Democratic Party, 422
Socialist Labour Party, 423
and the Stalinist clamp, 105, 106–7
student protests, 107
transition to democracy, 367–8
tyranny of Ceauşescu’s regime, 325–7, 366
and the Warsaw Pact, 9
wire fence erected along Hungarian border, 367
women, under Ceauşescu’s regime, 326
and Single European Act, 352–3
Rome, University of, 217
‘Battle of Valle Giulia’, 221–2
Ronchamp, Notre Dame du Haut, 174
Roskilde Bank, 490
Rossi, Paulo, 221
Rouen terrorist attack, 521
Royal Bank of Scotland, 489–91
Rumsfeld, Donald, 450, 451, 454
Rusk, Dean, 18
Russell, Dora, 26
Russia, 389, 395, 397, 418, 419
and Afghan War, 445
coal, 527
and the Cold War see Cold War
and Council of Europe, 483, 484
Crimean annexation, 525–7, 531
criminalized society, 420
declaration of sovereignty, 385
economy see economy: Russia
and the EU:
continuing strained relations, 548
and Crimean annexation, 527
dependence on Russian gas and coal, 527
Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, 484
FSB, 420
and Germany, 553
and human rights:
and European Convention on Human Rights, 483
humiliation and loss of prestige with fall of USSR, 530
industrial production, 418
inequality, 466
and Iraq War, 455
jihadi targets, 457
living standards, 418
military intervention in Georgia, 483, 484–5
and pluralist politics, 421
privatization, 420
and the ‘Putin factor’, 483–5
‘quality of life’, 465
robber-baron capitalism, 418
Russian minorities discriminated against in Latvia and Estonia, 424
sanctions on, 526, 527, 529, 530
strikes, 98
suspension from G8, 527
and Syria, 531–2
terrorist attacks, 420, 457, 522
and Ukraine see Ukraine: and Russia
and the UN, 527
and the US:
and Ukraine, 528
and Yeltsin, 388
Rutte, Mark, 549
Rwanda genocide, 440
Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 317
Saakashvili, Mikheil, 484–5
Sachs, Jeffrey, 414
Saddam Hussein, 449–50, 451–2, 453, 455, 456
and the Gulf War, 439
Saigon, 219
Sakharov, Andrei, 34, 101, 278–9, 321
Salafism, 458
Salan, Raoul, 81
Salazar, António de Oliveira, 43, 297
SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)
SALT I, 260
San Marino, 40
Sarajevo, 407
Sarkozy, Nicholas, 503
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 30, 81, 181–2, 219
satellites, space, xxiii
Soviet, 14
Sputnik, 12
and US Strategic Defence Initiative see ‘Star Wars’ (SDI)
satire, 201–2
Scandinavia, 45–6 see also specific countries
and Greek colonel’s rule, 295
national insurance, 145
taxation, 464
women’s employment, 150
women’s liberation, 210
Scargill, Arthur, 283
Schabowski, Günter, 361
Schäuble, Wolfgang, 500
Schleyer, Hanns-Martin, 229
Schmidt, Helmut, 287, 288, 289, 309
Schröder, Gerhard, 433, 437, 453, 469, 472, 473–4
Schumacher, Kurt, 58
science
cultural looking to the future with optimism about, 169–70
under Stalinism, 89
Clydeside, 465–6
and devolution, 471
EU referendum result, 536
independence:
movement, 561
referendum, 534
and Thatcher, 284
seaside resorts, 153
security see also insecurity; surveillance
national, 557–8
precautions, 523
services, 522 see also KGB; MI5
Seehofer, Horst, 516
Seghers, Anna, 183
Segni, Antonio, 54
self-employment, 461
Senegal, 82
Seoul, 4
Serafin, Tullio, 173
Serbia/Serbs, 253, 254, 399–400, 401, 402
Bosnian joint control agreement between Serbs and Croats, 410
and the Dayton agreement, 410–11
Chetnik Serbian nationalists, 401
Croats in Serbia, 400
and the EU, 480
Greater Serbia schemes, 405, 407, 409
mutual hatred between Croats and Serbs, 405
‘quality of life’, 465
Serbian minority in Croatia, 400, 404, 405, 410
Serbs in Kosovo, 410, 411, 412
Srebrenica massacre, 408–9
Ustaše killing of Serbs, 402
and the wars in Yugoslavia, 404–13
service sector, 460
birth control see contraception
and the Church:
and changing attitudes to marriage, cohabitation and extramarital births, 210
and clerical celibacy, 210
contraception ban, 210, 212–13
homosexuality see homosexuality
sexism, 213–14
sexual liberation/revolution, 195, 237, 343
and AIDS, 343
‘free love’, 212
and the mass media, 212
and the youth counter-culture, 211–12
Shakespeare, William: The Tempest, 546–7
Shevardnadze, Eduard, 317, 485
shopping, as a leisure pursuit, 341
Shostakovich, Dmitri, 172
Shrimpton, Jean, 196
shrines, 207–8
oil fields, 268
Sierra Leone, 75
Sikhs, 70
Smethwick community, 140
Simon Wiesenthal Center, Los Angeles, 349
Singapore, 75
‘tiger economy’, 460
Single European Act, 352–3
Single Market
and Brexit, 537
launching, 425
Sinti, 423
Sinyavski, Andrei, 101
Sisi, Abdel Fattah el-, 513
Slovakia, 110, 242–3, 417, 424
Communist Party, 242
corruption, 422
and the EU, 475
and the migrant crisis, 514, 517
national identity and anti-Hungarian feeling, 423
Slovenia, 253, 254, 269, 399, 400, 401, 404
and the EU, 475
and the migrant crisis, 514
transition to capitalism, 417
Smethwick racist campaign, 139–40
social classicism, 175
social cohesion, 45, 345, 467, 556
and migrant integration issues, 468, 479
social criticism, 201
Social Democracy, 30, 46, 47, 49, 255–6, 279, 280, 283–5, 347, 422, 437–8, 469
Bulgaria, 422
France, 469
Germany, 433, 437, 469, 472–4, 500
Federal Republic, 8, 29, 55, 58, 60, 158, 228, 256, 288–9, 298
Greece, 469
Italy, 469
Lithuania, 422
Netherlands, 469
Romania, 422
UK:
with neo-liberal economics, 470
SDP, 281–2
Western European advance in, 1960s and 70s, 255–61
social media
and anger against establishment, 561
social welfare/security, xxii, 145–6, 464, 467
and ageing populations, 554
child benefit, 292
family allowances, 146
state pensions see pensions, state
unemployment benefit/insurance, 145, 146, 288, 474
and the ‘big state’, 255–6
and the Catholic Church, 47
costs/expenditure, 263, 267, 292, 433, 434, 472, 554
maternity support, 211
national insurance schemes, 145
Scandinavia, 46
welfare state see welfare state
socialism
abrupt transition to capitalism in post-communist countries, 413–16, 417
Austria’s Socialist Party, 256–7, 281
Christian Socialists see Christian Socialists
communism see communism
democracy represented by Social Democratic parties, 47 see also Social Democracy
dissolving of socialist traditions, 347
France, 64, 291, 292, 348, 434, 503
GDR:
as ideological showcase of ‘real existing socialism’, 250
Socialist Unity Party (SED), 114, 115, 116, 117–18
and Hayek, 274
‘with a Human Face’ programme, 244
Hungarian Socialist Party, 357, 501
Italy’s Socialist Party, 258, 285, 435
New Left, 218–19, 220, 225, 226
Portugal’s Socialist Party, 298, 507
‘real existing’, 250, 255, 363
socialist/conservative divisions in Western Europe, 47
‘socialist’ architecture, 174–5
Socialist German Student League, 221
Spain’s Socialists, 303, 304–5, 457, 469, 507
and taxation, 347
Sofia, 137
Solidarity (Solidarność), 277–8, 329, 330, 332, 333, 354–6
Solti, Georg, 173
Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 101, 278
Somalia, 440
Sontheimer, Kurt, 188
South Korea, 3–4
Korean War see Korean War
‘tiger economy’, 460
Soviet Peace Committee, 26
Soviet Union
and, 1957 World Youth Festival, 95
and the 1973 oil crisis, 268
1989 revolutions, 355–68
Afghanistan invasion, 309–10, 323, 444
agriculture see agriculture: Soviet bloc
Albania’s split with, 109, 252
annexations, 185
anti-nuclear self-portrayal and sentiment, 33–5
and Stockholm Peace Appeal, 34
anti-Soviet propaganda, 36, 101
architecture, 174–5
armaments production, 88–9
and Austria, 9
Baltic annexation, 185
and Berlin, 13–20
black market, 98
bread queues, 98
under Brezhnev, 100–102 see also Brezhnev, Leonid
and China, 15, 127, 252, 261, 308, 319
cinema attendance, 198
clamp on Eastern Europe see Stalinism: clamp of
Cold War see Cold War
collapse of, 389–90
and the 1989 satellite revolutions, 355–68
with Czech transition to a liberal democracy, 364–5
and ‘end of history’ with triumph of liberal democracy over communism, 393–4
ethnic tensions and anti-Soviet mood in centralized states, 383–5
and Europe’s four groupings, 394–7
and formation of Commonwealth of Independent States, 390, 395
and global politics, 397
Gorbachev factor and momentum for change, 325–37, 354, 363, 366
Gorbachev’s regrets for, 390–91
with Hungary becoming a republic, 357–8
long death throes, 382–91
and loss of Russian prestige, 530
and opening of Berlin Wall, 360–64, 369, 370
with Poland becoming a republic, 356–7
and the power of the people, 354–97
with Romanian revolution, 366–8
and start of a new era, 392–7
structural weaknesses of satellite countries preceding, 325–34
Comecon organization, 107
Communist Party, 1989 electoral defeat, 324
and Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 308
Congresses of the Communist Party:
Nineteenth, 90
Twentieth, 92–3
Twenty-Second, 98
corruption of officials, 323
crime rates, 95
Czechoslovakian invasion see Czechoslovakia: Soviet invasion of
destruction from war, 87
economy see economy: Soviet Union/bloc
education see education: Soviet
elections of, 1989, 324
exports, 323
famine, 88
and Finland, 9–10
food imports and rationing, 323–4
food prices, 98
Gorbachev factor/reforms, 313–25
Gorbachev’s televised defence of reforms and record, 390
and Soviet momentum for change and eventual collapse, 325–37, 354, 363, 366
structural reforms, 313, 320, 321–2, 324–5, 382
Hitler–Stalin Pact, 185
and human rights, 34, 308, 323
Hungarian uprising see Hungary: uprising against Soviet rule
industrial production, 87, 88–9, 316
informer network, 101
inter-ethnic violence, 324
under Khrushchev see Khrushchev, Nikita
Komsomol (party youth movement), 97
and the Korean War, 2–5
Kremlin see Kremlin
legal reforms, 97
literature see literature: Soviet
living conditions, 97, 98, 133, 136, 384
living standards see living standards: USSR and Eastern Europe
military spending, 132, 312, 316
reductions under Khrushchev, 99
and Nasser, 73
nationalists in, 1980s seeking autonomy from Moscow, 323
Nazi-Soviet Pact, 384
nuclear/superpower status and capability, xxi, xxv, 1, 11, 12, 14 see also nuclear weapons: superpower balance
and Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 21, 26
slave labour producing nuclear weapons, 88–9
and Soviet domination, 38–9
Politburo, 91, 101, 108, 245, 312, 314, 315, 316, 317, 319, 322, 324, 383, 386
Bulgaria, 327
East Germany, 17, 114, 362, 374
Hungary, 124
minutes, 335
post-war reconstruction in Soviet countries, 87–9
and production, 88–9, 115, 118, 121, 136
and slave labour, 88–9
Presidium, 91, 92, 94, 96, 100, 101, 125, 244
propaganda see propaganda: Soviet
Red Army see Red Army
riots, 98
satellites, 14
Sputnik, 12
social security benefits, 97
‘sphere of influence’, 85, 86–7
Stalinism see Stalinism
structural weaknesses of satellite countries, 325–34
and the Suez crisis, 10, 74, 126, 127
taxation, 323
televisions, 198
trade embargo against, 310
and the UN, 3–4
Union of Sovereign States, 388
and the US see United States of America: and the USSR
Warsaw Pact see Warsaw Pact
West Germany as bulwark against, 155
Western sanctions on, over Poland, 278
Spaak, Paul-Henri, 160
space exploration, 12–13, 169–70
moon landing, 197
and the 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
and Afghan War, 447
banking crisis, 492
Basque separatists/ETA, 255, 300, 301, 304, 448, 468
car ownership, 151
Catalan illegal independence vote, 561
and Francoism, 300
Citizens (Cuidadanos) party, 507
civil war, 42
collapse of authoritarian regime, 263
Communists, 303
constitution (1978), 303–4
corruption, 507
democracy’s triumph, 263, 299–307
divorce, 211
economy see economy: Spain
elections of, 1977, 303
emigrants, 138
‘Eurocommunism’, 257
housing bubble, 492
industrial relations, 300
and Iraq War, 453–4
demonstrations, 453
and Madrid bombings, 457
jihadist networks, 457
liberalization, 301
living standards, 132
and Maastricht, 429
military, 307
National Movement, 303
neo-liberalism, 304–5
neutrality, 42
Partido Popular, 457
Podemos protest movement, 507
poverty in the, 1940s, 42
Socialists, 303, 304–5, 457, 469, 507
Spanish Civil War, 546
strikes, 300
student protests, 301
terrorism see terrorism: Spain
tourist trade, 43, 132, 152, 300, 306
unemployment, 493
Union of the Democratic Centre, 303
wages, 304
working class unrest, 300
Spandau Ballet, 342
speculation, financial, 463
Spiegel, Der, 350
Spínola, António, 297
Split, port of, 406
sport, 417
football see football
Springer, Axel, 227
Sputnik satellites, 12
Srebrenica massacre, 408–9
stagflation, 270, 273, 288, 293
Stalin, Joseph, 3–4, 7, 8, 13–14, 24, 154
bust of, 110
public reaction to, 93–4
disposal in, 1961 of his body, 99
‘divide and rule’ policy, 89
Hitler–Stalin Pact, 185
on introducing communism to Poland, 120
Khrushchev’s 1956 denunciation of, 92–3, 94–5, 99, 108, 109, 112, 119, 120, 121
and Lenin, 92
and Nineteenth Party Congress, 90
personality cult, 93–4, 96, 99
statues:
Budapest, 125
East Germany, 251
Stalinism
clamp of, 85–130, 248, 391, 393
and literary expression, 101, 184
loosening the clamp in the Soviet Union, 85–6, 87–102 see also Soviet Union: collapse of
and ‘the thaw’, 85–6, 172, 248
and threat to old order, 113–29
tightening the clamp in the Soviet bloc, 105–6
and upholding of old order, 106–13
and Yugoslavia’s ‘heresy’, 102–5
and the death of Stalin, 85–7
and political bribery, 89
purges under, 90, 92, 93, 104, 109, 111, 172
ruthlessness, 49
Standard and Poor’s, 498
standards of living see living standards
‘Star Wars’ (SDI), 311, 316, 322, 338–9, 392
Stasi (State Security Service, GDR), 117, 118, 226, 240, 251, 359, 360, 362, 421
Stauffenberg, Claus von, 187
Steel, Sir Christopher, 18
steel, 6, 142–3, 158, 270, 290, 344
European Coal and Steel Community see European Coal and Steel Community
France, 291–2
Stiglitz, Joseph, 497
Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 172
Stockholm
Peace Appeal, 34
terrorist attack, 521
Stoica, Chivu, 106
Strache, Heinz-Christian, 552
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks see SALT
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), 311, 439
Strauss, Franz-Josef, 60–61, 289
strikes
Bulgaria, 366
Czechoslovakia, 110
East Germany, 115–16
Hungary, 125
Poland, 96, 121, 249, 277, 330, 332–3
Russia, 98
Spain, 300
student strikes, 231 see also student protests/riots
UK, 272
under Heath, 270–71
and police violence, 283
under Thatcher, 283–4
student organizations, 220, 221, 226, 227, 228
student protests/riots, 217–18, 221–2
and the, 1968 unrest, 217–47
Prague Spring see Prague Spring
France, 217
Greece, 295
Hungary, 124
and industrial relations, 222, 232–4, 237
‘Battle of Valle Giulia’, 221–2
organized revolutionary agitation, with workers, 222
Japan, 217
and ‘Left Fascism’ (Habermas) of student movement, 227
and Marxism/the New Left, 218–19, 220, 227
Netherlands, 234
Romania, 107
Spain, 301
UK’s university disturbances, 234–5
and Vietnam War, 219–20, 235, 301
with violence, 220, 221–2, 223, 226–9, 232
West Germany, 217, 218, 224, 226–8
Yugoslavia, 253–4
Sturgeon, Nicola, 537
Stürmer, Michael, 351
sub-prime mortgages, 487
Sudan, 75
Suez crisis, 10, 27–8, 73–5, 76, 126, 127, 159–60
Sun, 534
surveillance, 19, 91, 101, 326, 328, 522, 557–8
cameras, 523
Suslov, Mikail, 126
Sutherland, Joan, 173
Svoboda, Ludvik, 244
Sweden
anti-nuclear sentiment, 32–3
and Stockholm Peace Appeal, 34
car factories, 204
car ownership, 151
constitutional monarchy, 40
contraception, 212
and the Council of Europe, 41
divorce rate, 211
economy, 143, 264, 495, 498, 500
Greens, 349
homosexuality, 213
industrial relations, 143
and the migrant crisis, 514, 518
neutrality, 46
privatization, 495
Social Democracy, 257, 280, 469
social security, 145, 146, 495
state pensions, 495
and ‘threat’ from Islam to national culture, 524
trade unions, 267
university attendance, 205
wealth distribution, 148
Switzerland, 40
and the, 2007–8 financial crisis, 490
anti-Muslim feelings, 479
Christian Democrats, 51
coalition governments of, 1970s, 281
conservative trend, 281
and the Council of Europe, 41
economy, 143, 264, 265, 272, 500
foreign-born population, 139
and nuclear weapons, 32
social security, 146
Swiss People’s Party, 438
and ‘threat’ from Islam to national culture, 524
tourist trade, 153
wealth distribution, 148
synagogues, 206
synthpop, 342
asylum-seekers/refugees, 512, 513–19, 533
and ISIS, 513
jihadists aided by Turkey, 518
and Russia, 531–2
terrorism, 523
Szydło, Beata, 501
Taiwan, 460
Tanganyika, 75
‘Tangentopoli’ scandal, 434–5
Taraki, Mohammed, 309
and off-shore/foreign banking, 463
relocation to countries with low tax regimes, 460
and the ‘big state’, 255–6
super-tax, 503
income tax:
UK, 50–51
Italy, 434
progressive, 147
reductions to stimulate growth, 270
revenue, and a young workforce, 554
Scandinavia, 464
Social Democrats and redistributive taxation, 280
and social security, 146
and socialism, 347
tax incentives, 289
under New Labour, 470
under Thatcher, 282
USSR, 323
and the welfare state, 274
Taylor, A. J. P.: Origins of the Second World War, 191–2
Taylor, Elizabeth, 200
Tblisi, 383
technology, 164
and automation, 556–7
and economic recovery, 134
effects on workforce, 287–8, 556–7
globalization and technological change, xxv–xxvi, 543
IT see information technology
online:
banking, 556
internet see internet
social media see social media
and specialized production, 287
Teddy Boys, 195
Tejero, Antonio, 304
and Afghan War, 449
BBC, 197
and the Catholic Church, 200
east of Iron Curtain, 197–8
East Berlin demonstration on TV, 360
East German reception of Western TV, 240
Gorbachev’s engagement with, 338
and Nagy’s reburial, 357
and Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, 245
impact on family life, 198
MTV channel, 342
satire, 201–2
sets, xxii, xxiii, 97, 150, 151, 196–7, 251
state networks, 197–8
West Germany and the Holocaust series’, 350
9/11 attacks, 440–41, 443, 445
ambivalence towards EU with threat of, 524–5
anti-terrorism laws, 471–2
and global exposure, 441, 443, 444–58
globalization and the threat of, 468, 488
and Guantanamo Bay detention camp, 456
incidents following Iraq War, 456–8
internet pro-terrorism websites, 457
Brighton bombing, 284
in Iraq, 523
Islamist, 440–41, 443, 445, 448, 468, 519–23, 543
jihadists see jihadists
terrorists entering Europe alongside refugees, 533
and ‘war on terror’ see ‘war on terror’
Moscow bombings, 420
Norway, 522
and restrictions to civil liberties, 523–4
and security, 557
jihadist, 457
jihadists, 522
Madrid bombings, 457
suicide bombings, 449, 457, 520, 521, 522
in Syria, 523
anti-terrorism laws, 471–2
Brighton bombing, 284
Lockerbie, 458
London 2005 bombings, 457–8, 471, 521
Northern Ireland, 263, 284, 447–8, 468, 542
underestimation of threat of international terrorism, 447–8
‘war on terror’ see ‘war on terror’
Baader-Meinhof Group, 229–30, 255, 448
That Was the Week That Was, 202
Thatcher, Margaret, 272, 275, 281, 282–5, 392
and Delors, 353
and deregulation, 343–4
and the Falklands, 282–3
and German unification, 372
and nuclear weapons, 338–9
and Reagan, 310–11
and the Single Market, 353, 537
Thatcherism, 282–5, 293, 343–5
theatre
of the absurd, 175–6
epic, 175
‘New Wave’, 201
and the shadow of the past, 175, 202
tastes transcending national boundaries, 461
Ther, Philipp, xiv
Tiananmen Square massacre, 355, 359, 362
Tietmeyer, Hans, 425
Tillich, Paul, 208
Tito, Josip Broz, 85, 96, 102, 103–4, 108, 109, 254–5, 399, 401–2
personality cult, 103
Soviet reconciliation with, 119
suppression of ethnic grievances, 399, 400
Tobago, 75
Togo, 82
Tökés, Lászlo, 367
Toscanini, Arturo, 173
totalitarianism, 29, 180, 187, 188, 390 see also fascism; Nazism
tourism, 152–3
accessibility of foreign tourism, 152, 205, 461
chartered flights, 152
domestic, 153
and Eastern Europe, 153
and globalization, 461
and Italy, 152–3
package holidays, 152
and Spain, 43, 132, 152, 300, 306
and Yugoslavia, 253
trade
and the EEC, 135
embargo on Soviet goods, 310
EU as world’s largest trading bloc, 459
European Free Trade Association, 162
Europe’s share of world trade, 134
and exposure to global influences, 442, 459–61
Germany:
with China, 494
Federal Republic, 135
trading surplus, 547
international trade expansion from, 1950s to 1973, 134–5
regulation arrangements of world trade see Bretton Woods system
General Agreement on Tariff and Trade
Soviet exports to the West, 323
with Commonwealth, 76, 143, 165
world trade and globalization, 459–61
trade unions, 143, 147, 204, 270, 278
Hungary, 331
Poland, 277
communist unions’ losses of membership, 277
Solidarność (Solidarity), 277–8, 329, 330, 332, 333, 354–6
Sweden, 267
West Germany, 142, 267, 288–9, 290
Transjordan, 70
transnational/multinational firms, 459, 460
foreign, xxiii, 153, 205 see also tourism
and globalization, 461
restriction lift in East Germany, 360–61
Trevor-Roper, Hugh, 181
Last Days of Hitler, 191
Tribüne, 115
Trinidad, 75
Trotsky, Leon, 218–19
Truffaut, François, 202
Trump, Donald, 538, 548–9, 560
withdrawal of US from Paris Accords on climate control, 549, 553
Tudjman, Franjo, 254, 402, 403–4, 405, 407, 409–10
Tunisia, 80
Turkey/Turks, 38, 40, 42, 294, 442
and Afghan War, 447
attempted military coup (2016), 519
Austrian antipathy to Turkish immigrants, 478
Bulgarian Turkish minority, 327
discrimination against, 423–4
and the Council of Europe, 41, 44
democratic forms used to undermine democratic substance, 561
and the EEC, 164
emigrants, 138
and the EU, 480–81, 517–19, 536
Greek and Turkish Cypriot struggle, 44, 75, 295, 296
human rights record, 518
Islamist trend, 480–81
jihadi targets, 457
and the migrant crisis, 513, 517–19, 548
military coup (1961), 44
national identity, 480–81
neutrality, 42
and pluralist politics, 44, 293–4
Tusk, Donald, 537
Twiggy (Lesley Hornby), 196
Ubangi-Shari, 82
UBS bank, 490
Uganda, 75
Ukraine, 88, 98, 384, 389, 395, 418, 419, 525–32
2004 elections, 485
Chernoblyl disaster, 320–21, 348–9, 553
cronyism, 526
declaration of independence, 389–90
declaration of sovereignty, 385
and the EU, 528–9
and NATO, 531
Orange Revolution, 485
and pluralist politics, 421
poverty, 418
‘quality of life’, 465
and Russia:
and, 2004 elections, 485
annexation of Crimea, 525–7, 531
concern over Western influence, 485
and Kuchma, 485–6
Russian-backed separatist conflict, 527–32, 560
and Western relations, 488
separatist conflict, 527–32
Ukrainian Popular Front, 384
Ulbricht, Walter, 15, 16–17, 114–15, 118–19, 251
Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 47
Austria, 493
and automation, 556–7
communist denial of, 147
Denmark, 493
Estonia, 493
Eurozone, 493
following, 2007–8 financial crisis, 493
France, 290, 292, 293, 433–4, 503
Federal Republic, 270, 288, 290
GDR, 380
Greece, 493
Hungary, 417
and inflation, 270 see also stagflation
Ireland, 493
Latvia, 493
Lithuania, 493
Moldova, 419
Netherlands, 493
provision/insurance, 145, 146, 288, 474
Spain, 493
in states of former Soviet bloc, 416
UK, 271
following 2007–8 financial crisis, 493
United Kingdom see Britain and the United Kingdom
United Nations (UN)
Expeditionary Force, 44
Gorbachev’s, 1988 Assembly address, 323
International Security Assistance Force, 446
and Israel, 71
Khrushchev’s interruption, banging shoe on table, 99
and the Korean War, 3–4, 5, 44
peacekeeping forces, 74, 296, 406, 409
and Russia, 527
and Suez, 73
superpower vetoes, 3
Syrian refugee appeal, 517
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, xxiii, 41, 67
and Yugoslavia, 406, 408, 409, 412
United States of America
9/11 attacks, 440–41, 443, 445
Afghan War/Operation Enduring Freedom, 445–9
army:
conscription, 220
Eighth Army, 4
in Vietnam, 219–20
art:
American Pop Art, 173
influence on Europe, 173
Bay of Pigs debacle, 16
and the Bosnian War, 409–10
British relations, 50
and Afghanistan, 445–9
Blair’s support for Bush and war on terror, 441, 445, 451–2, 453
and Bretton Woods system, 264
British trust, 27
de Gaulle’s distrust of, 162
dependence on US in international affairs, 75
‘special relationship’, 75, 162, 190, 453
Central Intelligence Agency see CIA
and China see China: and the US
cinema, 198
Civil Rights movement, 237
Congress for Cultural Freedom, 181
credit ratings agencies, 498–9
cultural influences on Europe, 442
cultural propaganda, 181
defence expenditure, 5
economy see economy: US
European hostility to American foreign policy, 543
and European integration, 155
European relations under Obama, 538–9
and France, 78, 162, 163, 180, 454
and Germany:
and Afghan War, 445
Federal Republic, 226, 229, 265, 351
and Iraq War, 454
reunification, 372, 374, 375–6
Indochina conflict, 219 see also Vietnam: Vietnam War
and Iraq War, 450–57
and Israel, 71
and Italy, 187
Jews see Jews: in US
Marshall Plan/Aid, 6, 43, 44, 135, 155, 187
military spending, 5, 12, 17–18, 264, 274, 392
missile bases in Turkey, 20, 21
and NASA, 12–13
and NATO, 6–7, 9, 12, 375, 548
neo-conservatives, 397, 450, 454
nuclear/superpower status and capability, xxi, xxv, 1, 4, 9, 11–12 see also nuclear weapons: superpower balance
and ‘Star Wars’, 311, 316, 322, 338–9, 392
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 21, 26
and Portugal, 43
post-war European exposure to American foreign policy, 442
post-war role in European peace and democracy, 41, 43–4, 543–4
and Russia see Russia: and the US
and the sealing of Berlin, 17–19
social spending under Johnson, 264
Strategic Defence Initiative (‘Star Wars’), 311, 316, 322, 338–9, 392
support for European anti-communist leaders/countries, 44, 78
support of European democracy, 41, 43–4
teaching about Holocaust, 350
triumphalist neo-conservatism, 394
and Trump’s election and policies, 548–9
U-2 spy planes, 10
and the USSR:
Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War, 260–61
CIA and Afghan invasion by USSR, 310
Cold War see Cold War
and Gorbachev, 316, 322–3, 337, 339, 340, 397
Helsinki Accords/CSCE, 308
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, 322
nuclear balance see nuclear weapons: superpower balance
SALT see SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), 311, 349
Vietnam War see Vietnam: Vietnam War
‘war on terror’ see ‘war on terror’
Western Europe’s trust in, 23
White House hot line to Kremlin, 21
withdrawal from Paris Accords on climate control, 549, 553
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, xxiii, 41, 67
universities, 205–6
administration, 217–18
attendance by population percentage, 205
brutalism in construction of campuses, 174
Czechoslovakia, 112
governance changes and democratization, 236
and Marxism, 182
Netherlands, 234
Romania, 107
student protests see student protests/riots
treating students as adults, 236
UK, 234–5
Upper Volta, 82
urban planning, 150
urbanization, 137, 150, 206, 418
USSR see Soviet Union
Ustaše fascist militia, 402, 405
Uyl, Joop den, 257
Vadim, Roger: Et Dieu . . . créa la femme, 198–9
values
breaking with values of the past, 203–14
civilian world as new shaper of, 203
middle class, 201
nationalism and the repressive upholding of cultural values, 306
Van der Bellen, Alexander, 549
Vanguard rocket, 12
Varoufakis, Yanis, 510
Vatican City, 40
Vichy regime, 63, 76, 186, 213, 230
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, 81
Viet Minh, 78
Vietnam
and France, 77–9
Solidarity Campaign, 235
Vietnam War, 219–20, 264, 307–8
and American public opinion, 220
and anti-Americanism, 23, 219, 261
protests, 216–17, 219–20, 235–6, 237, 301
and Vietnam Solidarity Campaign, 235
and West Germany, 229
Vinen, Richard, xvi
Visconti, Luchino, 200
Visegrád Group, 424
Vittorini, Elio, 179
Volkswagen, 152
Voroshilov, Kliment, 92
Vorotnikov, Vitaliy, 318
Vukovar, 406
demand stimulation through, 473
economic competitiveness driving down, 467
and the European post-war economic boom, 135, 143, 147
France, 292
and income gap, xvi, 147, 462, 464
Spain, 304
Wagner, Wieland, 171–2
Wagner, Wolfgang, 171
Waldheim, Kurt, 352
Wales, 345
and devolution, 471
EU referendum result, 536
industry decline in Welsh valleys, 466
and Thatcher, 284
Wałęsa, Lech, 277, 278, 332, 333, 355–6, 423
Walkman, 342–3
Walter, Bruno, 173
War Game, The, 25
‘war on terror’
Afghanistan, 444–9
Bush’s announcement of, 441
Iraq, 449–57
Warhol, Andy, 173
Palace of Culture and Science, 175
student protests and police repression, 241
Treaty of, 260
University, 241
West German embassy, 358
Youth Festival, 121
Albania’s departure, 252
Brezhnev Doctrine, 245–6, 334, 335–6
Ceauşescu and the rift in, 326
and the closing of Berlin border, 16–17
disbanding, 395
dissolution of military structure, 398
divisions over Gorbachev reforms, 327–34
East German entry, 119
East German exit, 381
and exit, 358
and shifting sands in Eastern Europe, 247–55
washing machines, xxii, 97, 150, 151, 251
Washington Consensus, 414
water supply, running, 149
Waugh, Evelyn, 180
Ważyk, Adam, 184
wealth distribution, xxiv, 147–8, 462, 463–4, 465, 471, 506, 542, 554, 555
Weigel, Helene, 183
Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich von, 28–9
Weizsäcker, Richard von, 340, 381
welfare state, xxii, 50, 131, 144–7, 258, 274, 473, 554 see also healthcare; social welfare/security
expenditure, 263, 267, 554 see also social welfare/security: costs/expenditure
and Social Democrats, 280, 347
and Thatcher, 282
Welles, Orson, 199
Wenders, Wim, 202
Werner Report, 265
West Indies, 139
Western Samoa, 75
White, Charles, 194
Wiesenthal, Simon, 349
Wilson, Harold, 51, 140, 256, 271
wines, 460
Winkler, Heinrich August, xiv, 289
Wirsching, Andreas, xiv
Wojtyła, Karol (John Paul II), 277, 278
women
disadvantaged with globalization, 462
discrimination against, 237
employment, 148, 150, 210, 211, 346–7, 462
equality, 212
feminism see feminism
graduates, 206
and household appliances, 151
individualism, 347
Feminist Liberation Movement see feminism
Muslim women and French ban on face covering, 520
ordination, 208
representation in politics, 437
rights, 237, 258, 309, 343, 541
Romanian, under Ceauşescu, 326
and sexism, 213–14
Women’s Caravan for Peace, 26
Woollacott, Martin, 393
working class
Balkans, 106
Czechoslovakia, 110
de-industrialization’s effect on, 470
East Germany, 118
feeling ‘left behind’ by globalization, 532–3
and household appliances, 151
Hungary, 120
industrial, 47, 106, 193, 201, 206, 222, 284, 306, 346 see also industrial relations
solidarity, 204
Soviet, 95
Spain, 300
unions see trade unions
West Germany, 204
working conditions, 222, 237, 300, 428, 495
working hours, 204–5, 292, 332, 437, 556
World Trade Center terrorist attacks, 440–41, 443, 445
World Wide Web, xxvi, 461 see also internet
World Youth Festival, 95
Wyszyński, Stefan, 122
xenophobia, xvi, 511, 524, 561, 562
Yakovlev, Alexander, 317
Yalta Conference (1945), 3
Yanaev, Gennadi, 388
Yanukovych, Oleksandr, 526
Yanukovych, Viktor, 485, 526–7, 531
Yazov, Dimitri, 388
Yeltsin, Boris, 317, 324, 382–3, 386, 395, 419, 420, 483
and Gorbachev, 382–3, 386–7, 389, 390
renunciation of coup against Gorbachev, 389
Yevtushenko, Yevgeny, 172
Yezhov, Nikolai, 92
Young, Hugo, 281
youth counter-culture, 211–12
youth protest, 305
students see student protests/riots
Yugoslavia, 9, 38, 85, 239, 253–5, 397, 542
and Albania see Albania: and Yugoslavia
Austrian antipathy to immigrants from former, 478
Cold War neutrality, 102
collectivization of agriculture, 104
communism:
end of communist rule (1990), 403
‘heresy’, with decentralization and industrial management, 102–5, 253
purges, 104
waning hold of communist ideology, 401
constitution (1974), 402
Croatia see Croatia/Croats
cultural activities in, 1960s, 104
and Czechoslovakia, 245
economy see economy: Yugoslavia
emigrants, 138
ethnic conflict, 397
ethnic cleansing, 408, 410, 411, 413
Tito’s suppression of, 399, 400
fall of, 412–13
football, 401
industrial production, 102, 103
inequalities, 253
International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia, 412–13
living standards, 253
Muslims, 400, 401, 404, 406, 407–8, 409
NATO strikes against, 411
peace movement, 34
peasant revolt, 104
student protests, 253–4
and the UN, 406, 408, 409, 412
university attendance, 205
Western exposure, 253
‘Yuppies’, 344
Zagreb Spring, 254
Zaisser, Wilhelm, 114
Zalud, Paul, 246
Zanzibar, 75
Zapatero, José Luis Rodríguez, 457
Zápotocký, Antonín, 113
Zeffirelli, Franco, 200
Zhukov, Georgy, 91–3
Zimbabwe, 76
Zionism
Baader-Meinhof Group and anti-Zionism, 229
and the Balfour Declaration, 70–71
Polish regime’s anti-Zionism, 241
Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 89