TABLE 13-2 Example of Two Basic Report Outlines
Data from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Technical Writing-Progress Reports. Available at: http://wiz.cath.vt.edu/tw/TechnicalWriting/ProgressReports/components4.htm.
Reports and Presentations
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• Discuss the key steps in writing evaluation and technical reports.
• Define the essential elements of a report.
• Summarize how to develop successful oral presentations.
• Discuss the steps used to create simple and concise poster presentations.
KEY TERMS
elements of reports
oral presentations
poster presentations
written reports
INTRODUCTION
After evaluators spend endless hours conducting their evaluation, it is time to present their findings. This chapter provides details on how to create effective written reports, oral presentations, panel discussions, lectures, and poster presentations related to evaluations. Types of written reports are discussed and the developments of each element are defined, including reference styles and overcoming writer’s block. Second, effective ways to communicate are reviewed, including oral presentations, ways to prepare useful slide presentations, and powerful rehearsal strategies. Lastly, the chapter concludes with techniques to create winning poster presentations with key bullet points.
TYPES OF WRITTEN REPORTS
It is not unusual for students to experience a feeling of dread when given an assignment to write a report. However, because writing is an essential skill throughout your academic studies as well as in your future professional careers, it is important to learn some basic components of report writing. Prior to discussing types of reports, we divide this section into manageable components in order to make composing the whole report less daunting.
Let’s begin with the discussion of types of reports. Keep in mind that even though each type of report is unique, every report should be written clearly and concisely. Evaluation reports present the findings of an evaluation, including best practices, processes, program impact, and long-term outcomes. Evaluation reports may be published in peer-reviewed journals. However, there are evaluation firms that conduct high-quality evaluations whose reports are not always published in peer-reviewed journals. Their evaluation findings are available on the Internet as technical reports or in governmental documents, such as final reports produced for the U.S. Government Accountability Office. Evaluation reports provide the reader with recommendations for future investigations. Another type of report is a technical report that aims to state how the problem was solved or to propose solutions. Technical reports are generally not published in peerreviewed journals and are written for a specific audience (e.g., stakeholders, board members, nonprofit organizations, funding agency). Technical reports are written using specialized language for an audience of experts, such as computer science software programmers.
After determining the type of report that is appropriate, the next step is to answer a few questions about the purpose of the report.
Who is the audience?
• If the audience is a professor, then it is likely that the professor explained the purpose of the written assignment in class or in the syllabus. If students have additional questions, they should ask for greater clarification from the professor before starting the assignment.
• If the audience members are also stakeholders (e.g., funding agency members, community members, board of directors), then the report should address their concerns.
In all situations, reports should be well organized and written in clear, understandable language. For example, if the report targets computer science engineers implementing an update of a county public health department’s electronic medical records software, the report does not need to define the technical terms understood by the computer science engineers. However, if the same report is written for the county health administrators, the technical language is replaced with easy-to-understand terms.
How will the report be used?
• If the report is for a course assignment, the report will be used for a grade. Therefore, the report is written to match the grading rubric provided by the professor.
• If the report is used for seeking additional funding for a community report, the report emphasizes current results plus recommendations and future needs.
• If the report is used to obtain buy-in from stakeholders, then the report focuses on the positive effects of the current activities.
Once the audience and purpose of the report are identified, the writer thinks about these questions:
• What are the specific elements of the report (e.g., number of pages, font, font size, margin allowances, placement of tables and figures, and reference style)?
• What is the explicit message or aim of the report?
• What are the key points you wish to communicate?
• What information that is needed to make your findings understandable should be collected prior to writing the report (e.g., maps, data, graphs, tables, figures)?
After these questions are addressed, it is necessary to outline the report. Begin the outline with basic information. Even the simplest of outlines helps to start the writing process (see Table 13-1). More details are added to each segment of this outline later in this chapter. However, it is best to start with a basic outline rather than add all of the details in the beginning.
TABLE 13-1 Simple Report Outline
Introduction Background
Key Points
1.
2.
3.
4. Recommendations Conclusion References
As you create the outline, it is useful to think about the readers. The report provides information to meet the needs of the audience. Review Table 13-2. In sample 1, the audience is interested in the overall strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the clinic. Sample 2 directs the audience to specific areas within the clinic. Both outlines could be either appropriate or inappropriate based on the designated needs of the audience.1
ELEMENTS OF THE REPORT
Now that the simple outline is complete, let’s begin to delve into the specific elements of the report. For this discussion, the elements expand the basic outline and provide greater detail for the reader. Although most reports have similar sections, if you are writing for a specific journal, you should verify their author guidelines. Author guidelines describe the required components of manuscript and referencing style desired by the agency or publisher requesting the report (see Table 13-3).
Now let’s explore each element of the report. Under each section, a more detailed outline or description is provided in the discussion.
Title Page
The title page includes the title, author(s), and date of submission. In some situations, the name of the funding agency or report recipient is listed on the title page. The title of the report should describe the scope of the report in a few words. Here are a few examples of titles.
Incomplete description:
Forms of Violence Directed at Women
Complete description:
TABLE 13-2 Example of Two Basic Report Outlines
Data from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Technical Writing-Progress Reports. Available at: http://wiz.cath.vt.edu/tw/TechnicalWriting/ProgressReports/components4.htm.
Forms of Violence Directed at Women: Success of Support Groups Offered at Residential Facilities for Women and Their Children
Incomplete description:
Ethnic Disparities in Infant Mortality Rates
Complete description:
Ethnic Disparities in Infant Mortality Rates: A Comparison of White, African American, and Hispanic Populations from 2000–2010 in the United States
Incomplete description:
Breastfeeding Rates Among Women in the United States
Complete description:
Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs Related to Breastfeeding for Working Women in the United States: 2000–2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
Table of Contents
The table of contents provides the reader with a list of the major and minor segments of the report. Because page numbers are provided, it allows the reader to turn to the section that is of most interest. It indicates how the information is organized. All tables and figures are included in the table of contents.
TABLE 13-3 Sample Author Guidelines
Taylor and Francis |
|
Springer Publishing Company |
http://www.springerpub.com/content/downloads/Springer_Publishing_Manuscript_Guidelines.pdf |
American Psychological Association |
|
American Journal of Public Health |
http://ajph.aphapublications.org/userimages/ContentEditor/1318438422261/Instructions_for_Authors.pdf |
American Journal of Evaluation |
http://www.sagepub.com/journals/Journal201729/manuscriptSubmission |
American Journal of Preventative Medicine |
Although abstracts or executive summaries are shown first, they are written last. The abstract is a summary of the entire report. Abstracts are provided at the beginning of scientific or academic reporting. They provide a concise summary of complex research. This allows a reader to ascertain the purpose and main findings of the research and decide whether or not they want to continue reading. Abstracts are usually written after all other parts of the report so that the findings and recommendations are reported accurately and in line with how they are reported elsewhere in the report. Always doublecheck the author guidelines, because abstracts and executive summaries often have length limits. For example, abstracts may range from 50 to 400 words in length. Within the word limit, the author tells the whole story: what the goals and objectives were, how the goals and objectives were evaluated, what the data analysis methods were, how the results aligned with the goals and objectives, and what the recommendations are. In a similar fashion, executive summaries are usually two to three pages and also tell the overall summary of the evaluation report findings.2 In the report, the abstract or executive summary is placed on a separate page in the report and written as a single paragraph without any indentation. Keep in mind that an abstract or executive summary may be the only portion of the evaluation report read by a general audience. Therefore, it is important that these sections include the most important findings or key points, are clearly written, and are logically organized.
Introduction
An introduction is not a rewritten version of the abstract; rather, the introduction sets the tone of the report (see Box 13-1). The introduction is divided into three sections:
1. The statement of the problem provides a brief review of the issues and states the accomplishments completed to date.
BOX 13-1 Outline of an Introduction Section
Introduction
Purpose of the evaluation
Goals and objectives
Scope of the evaluation
2. The purpose of the evaluation briefly describes how this study builds on or adds to the current knowledge.
3. The scope of the evaluation explains the methods used in this research or evaluation.
The extent of specific details in the introduction depends on the audience. For example, a technical report for colleagues needs fewer details and explanation than a quarterly report for a funding agency, such as the National Institutes of Health.
Literature Review or Background
A literature review or background section provides the current knowledge regarding a given topic area, including substantive, theoretical, and methodological findings (see Box 13-2). The literature review starts with a broad focus and ends narrowly. Depending on the scope of the topic, the literature review is either comprehensive or selective. The decision between comprehensive or selective is based on the purpose of the report and possible length restrictions. If there is no length restriction as in a thesis or dissertation, a comprehensive review of the literature is used; for example, the historical overview of how public health responded to HIV/AIDS in the United States since the 1980s. A selective review of literature is typical for journal articles. The selective literature review begins with a broad overview of the historical side of the topic and ends with specific targeted literature related to the need for further evaluation of prevention programs. Developing a detailed outline ensures maximum clarity and explains the need for the further evaluations. The outline shows the connection between the known body of knowledge on the topic and its relationship to the proposed program evaluations. A selective literature review is limited and clearly states those limits for the reader. For example, “This review of the literature is focused on evaluation of HIV/AIDS prevention programs conducted after 2010.” Because literature reviews summarize knowledge, direct quotes are sometimes included in this section. Lastly, literature reviews end with a brief summary that serves as a transition to the next component of the report.
BOX 13-2 Outline of a Literature Review Section
Literature review or background
State limit of the review
Broad topic: historical background or specific limitations
Focus topic
Narrow focus of topic
Gap in knowledge for the topic
Transition from review to purpose of reported evaluation
The methods section of a written report shows how an evaluator addressed the goals and objectives of an evaluation (see Box 13-3). The methods section is often used to judge the validity of the evaluation. The best way to organize the methods section is to think of a recipe. For example, cookies taste awful if the recipe fails to include the key ingredient of sugar. In the same respect, if this section fails to include enough detail, readers are unable to judge the validity of the findings and duplicate the study. Evaluators duplicate evaluation studies to defend or refute the results. This section, like other sections, must be organized in a logical sequence: what was evaluated, what was found, what interpretations were made, and what judgments were made. Use short informative headings and subheadings. An easy way to remember the components of this section are: who, what, when, where, why, and how.
What is the design of the evaluation?
• If a theory provided the foundation for the evaluation, describe it. Which theory was selected, and why was it selected? If no theory was used, explain why that decision was made.
• How does the design align with the goals and objectives of the evaluation?
BOX 13-3 Outline of a Methods Section
Methods
Institutional review board approval process Study design
Sampling
Setting
Pilot test
Data collection
• Identify the design and describe why it was selected. Did the design include a pretest and posttest?
Who are the participants? How will the sample be selected?
• Describe the inclusion and exclusion criteria for participants.
• Identify why the inclusion and exclusion criteria were used.
• Describe how the participants were recruited.
• How many participants were needed for the evaluation? How many participants actually participated in the evaluation? Describe why the number of participants was not reached.
• How many participants were lost to follow-up in the study? Why?
Where did the evaluation take place?
• Why was this setting selected for the evaluation?
• What made the chosen site ideal or unique for this evaluation?
• If there were multiple sites, how and why were the sites chosen?
• How were the data collected?
Quantitative data collection:
• What surveys, questionnaires, or instruments were used to collect data?
• How were the instruments collected: mailed, in person, or online?
• How were the data entered for analysis?
• Were some surveys tested with double entry to verify accuracy?
• Were any tests conducted to verify reliability and validity?
Qualitative data collection:
• What types of data were collected: interviews, focus groups, or existing documents?
• Describe the interview/focus group guidelines.
Prior to describing the methods used, evaluators must acknowledge that institutional review board approval was obtained prior to conducting any portion of the evaluation.
Results
The results section describes the findings of the evaluation (see Box 13-4). Results are presented concisely. Results tell us the statistics found by quantitative statistical analysis or themes found through qualitative analysis. Generally, if collected, the demographics are presented first, so readers learn about the studied population prior to reviewing the results. While a few demographics are typically discussed briefly in the narrative, all demographics are shown in a table format (see Table 13-4).
BOX 13-4 Outline of a Results Section
Data analysis
Statistical methods
Qualitative methods
Response to goals and objectives
Description of analysis output
Tables, graphs, and figures
Keep in mind that tables and figures are labeled sequentially throughout the document (e.g., Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Table 3, and Figure 2). If the report is divided into chapters, the tables and figures are numbered within each chapter. For example, for Chapter 1 there is Table 1.1 and Table 1.2, for Chapter 2 there is Table 2.1, Table 2.2, Figure 2.1, and Figure 2.2, and so on.
After the demographics, the data used to address the goals and objectives are presented. For example, if a paired samples t-test was used to determine the difference between pretest surveys and posttest surveys, those results are presented. For example, “Of the 224 high school staff who responded, there was a pretest mean score of 64 and posttest mean score of 97, with a t-test showing a statistically significant difference (t = 7.08; p = 0.03).” For each objective, the same process is followed throughout the results section. Keep in mind that evaluators do not merely cut and paste the statistical results from the statistical software package into the results section of the report. Evaluators also do not add any additional statistics outside of those that are meant to address the goals and objectives. For example, evaluators notice an interesting correlation in the data analysis while they are conducting the statistics. This interesting correlation is not added to the results section merely because it is a unique finding. If this new finding is indeed unique, it is advised that the evaluator review it further and perhaps report it in the discussion or in another manuscript.
Discussion, Conclusion, Recommendations, and Future Research
The purpose of the discussion section is to compare the results of the current evaluation to a previous evaluation of the same project, the results of similar evaluations, or a previous evaluation published in the literature (see Box 13-5). Keep in mind that some agencies require an evaluation of their community programs every 5 years. The results of the current evaluation may defend or refute the results of a previous evaluation, with evaluators adding what is different about their sample or methods that may have contributed to the differences in the findings. When findings vary from study to study you cannot assume evaluator error or evaluation weakness, but rather the differences could be based on study participants, geographical location, age, culture, income, or education. For example, the participants of the previous evaluation lived in an urban area, while the participants of the current evaluation lived in a remote rural area. This geographical difference could have contributed to the difference in findings. Another example may show that results for one age group of participants are different from another age group for the same intervention.
TABLE 13-4 Sample of Demographic Data Presented in the Results Section
BOX 13-5 Outline of Discussion, Conclusion, Recommendations, and Future Research Sections
Discussion
Defend or refute literature
Limitations
Conclusion
Recommendations
Future research
Limitations are the weaknesses of the evaluation that are reported in the discussion section. Because all evaluations have limitations, it is advised that the final report should reflect any recognized weaknesses. For example, if the results show that only 16% of the participants completed the posttest survey, it should be noted as a weakness. This weakness may be due to an issue with the study design, how the survey was administered, the survey questions themselves, or the number of participants lost during follow-up. Putting this information in the limitations section allows evaluators to improve future evaluations by addressing these issues at the beginning. However, it is up to the evaluator to state what methods were utilized to try to improve the response rate, such as reminder postcards and phone messages. On the other hand, a weakness may not have been noticed until late in the research and could not be corrected.
In the limitations section it is also important to pay attention to the language of the discussion. Even if the project had numerous major limitations, it is critical not to assign blame or make excuses for any aspect or weakness of the evaluation. Focus on presenting possible solutions to establish trust rather than doubt in the report. The information presented in the report remains neutral and without commendation.
Conclusions are a final brief interpretation of the results. Most conclusions are written in a few sentences or paragraphs. Keep in mind that the abstract or executive summary and the conclusion are the most frequently read segments of reports. The information in the conclusion should be presented in order of importance. The conclusion does not include any speculation, but rather only the evidence supported by the results of the current study. Recommendations follow the conclusion and present direct suggestions or action items for the decision makers reading the report. If an evaluation team has a list of suggestions, the recommendations may be presented in bullet points (see Box 13-6).
Future evaluation is the final section of the narrative portion of the report. This section states specifically what further evaluations the evaluators recommend. For example, if two published evaluation studies had similar results and the current study refuted those results, evaluators suggest conducting a similar evaluation to confirm the newly found information. For example, if three evaluations reported that engaging urban high school students in community service activities showed an increase in grade point averages and positive social networks but the same evaluation is repeated with rural high school students and finds that community service does not change grade point average or positive social networking, the evaluators engaging rural high school students would recommend repeating the evaluation with another group of rural high school students to refute or verify their first results.
BOX 13-6 Sample Recommendations
Based on the results of this evaluation, the following recommendations are proposed:
• Change the factory hours of operation from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. to 7:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. to allow flexible scheduling and improve employee satisfaction by adding another 8-hour shift.
• Establish an on-site daycare center for employees with children ages 2 months to 2 years until they are eligible to attend the two nearby forprofit community daycare centers.
• Remodel the underutilized storage room into a small exercise room with three treadmills and free weights for use by employees wishing to exercise 15–30 minutes during their lunch break.
• Offer the “Employee of the Month” a designated parking space near the employee entrance of the factory.
• Eliminate all designated smoking areas outside and convert the entire property to a smoke-free zone.
References and Appendices
See Box 13-7 for a simple outline of this section. There are numerous types of reference styles. It is important to follow the style indicated in the author guidelines of the journal to which you are submitting your report. If there are no author guidelines, which is the case with technical reports, then evaluators may select one of the commonly accepted styles. However, whichever style is chosen, it is important to use it consistently throughout the report. This attention to detail is important for the quality of the overall report. See Box 13-8 for a list of reference styles.
Appendices appear at the end of the report. The information placed in the appendix is usually not essential to explaining your findings, but it still supports your analysis. The appendices are placed in order of reference in the narrative and labeled with letters. For example, the narrative may refer to Appendix A when discussing a specific document that is too long for placement in the actual report. The appendices are listed as Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on. The page numbering that started with the title page continues through to the end of the appendices.
WRITER’S BLOCK CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS
Sometimes writers experience a condition where they cannot produce any new or creative material. This is called “writer’s block.” Often this happens when you have been working on the same project for a long period of time, or you are writing something that has some element of technical difficulty. Every writer is likely to experience this phenomenon. However, many writers have tips and tricks that help them deal with it (see Table 13-5).3
BOX 13-8 Useful Websites for Referencing Styles
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (or simply “APA”) is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. The following website provides a brief summary of this style:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/.
The MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Writing (or simply “MLA”—the Modern Language Association) is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. The following website provides a brief summary of this style:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/.
The Chicago Manual of Style (or simple “Chicago”) covers a variety of topics from manuscript preparation and publication to grammar, usage, and documentation and is most commonly used in literature, history, and the arts. The following website provides a brief summary of this style:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/01/.
The AMA Manual of Style (or simple “AMA”—the American Medical Association) is most commonly used to cite sources within medicine. The following website provides a brief summary of this style: http://medlib.bu.edu/facts/faq2.cfm/content/citationsama.cfm.
Presentation of Results
Now that the report is written, it is time to decide how to present the information. There are two basic formats: oral presentations and written presentations. Let’s begin with oral presentations.
Oral Presentations
There are numerous situations in which evaluators are asked to present their findings in front of an audience. Here are a few examples of oral presentations:
• The funding agency asks the evaluator to come to a board meeting.
• The evaluators present the results at a local, state, or national conference.
TABLE 13-5 Writer’s Block Causes and Solutions
Cause |
Solution |
If you do not know enough about the topic, you can’t write about it. |
Go research and read what other people have written about the topic. |
You feel that you need to start at the beginning. |
Start with an area that you know. For example, if you understand one of three key points, then begin writing at that point. |
The blank screen looks intimidating and scary. |
Write something; write anything—just begin writing. Nothing is written perfectly on the first try. |
Your schedule does not allow you to dedicate 2 hours of time to writing. |
Resolve to only write one paragraph each day. It is necessary to fit writing into your life rather than trying to dedicate a specific time. |
You lose interest in writing about one topic area. |
Leave the unfinished topic and move onto something that is interesting. |
You do not think of yourself as a good writer. |
The way to get better at writing is to write more. Just like in sports, you need to practice the skill to improve. |
You have an outline, but it is not helping. |
Spend a little time adding details to the outline. You may recognize that some topics need to be rearranged for greater clarity. |
You do not think that what you have written makes sense. |
Read that section aloud. The spoken word helps to identify possible flaws in written materials. |
You keep thinking that other people will not like what you wrote. |
Find a trusted friend or writing coach to critique your work. Be prepared for honest comments. For example, you would not expect to learn how to play golf without a coach. Writing is the same. |
You get stuck on one word. |
Don’t waste time fretting over one word or phrase. Simply type XXX and come back to it later. Type one word and then click on the thesaurus to search for a synonym that might fit. |
You are hopelessly stuck. |
Take a short break (e.g., go for a walk, get something to drink, make a phone call). If a short break does not solve the problem, save your document and come back to the task in a few hours or the next day. |
Your deadline is close and you are about to panic. |
This situation is a fatal flaw. No one writes well under stress. Pace yourself. Know your deadline and determine how much of the report needs to be completed each week to make the deadline. This detailed plan allows for planned and unplanned life events. Best of all, a slow, steady writing pace allows you to sleep at night and not panic. |
Adapted from Charlie Jane Anders. The 10 Types of Writer’s Block (and How to Overcome Them). Available at: http://io9.com/5844988/the-10-types-of-writers-block-and-how-to-overcome-them. Published October 6, 2011.
• The evaluators offer to discuss the evaluation process as a guest lecture in an academic course or in a community setting.
After the type of presentation is determined, the evaluator decides how he or she wishes to prepare the presentation. There are several questions to answer:
• Who is the audience?
• What is the size of the audience?
• What is the location of the presentation (e.g., conference room, classroom, or auditorium)?
• What is the proposed length of the presentation?
• What type of design is appropriate?
■ Will PowerPoint be used?
■ If so, are the computer equipment and projection screen available?
Let’s discuss a few examples related to types of presentations.
Example 1
Ms. Irene Williams completed an evaluation for the thrift shop that operates a funding stream for the local homeless shelter. She was asked to present her findings to the auxiliary board so they can agree on whether or not the thrift shop should remain open 7 days per week. Ms. Williams was told that 10–12 individuals would attend the meeting. The auxiliary board meets in the neighborhood library conference room, which is equipped with a laptop, projector, and screen. Because her presentation will be during the regular monthly meeting, it will be one item of several on the agenda. She will have 15 minutes to present the results of the 6-month evaluation project.
Ms. Williams decides that she will create five PowerPoint slides that include a title slide, the purpose of the evaluation, the methods, results, and recommendations. Her PowerPoint slides follow the 5 × 5 rule, which is to have a maximum of five bullet points on each slide and no more than five words per line of each bullet point. She rehearses her presentation a few times to make sure that it stays within 10 minutes so the audience may have 5 minutes to ask questions. She also prepares a one-page handout that summarizes the key points of her presentation.
On the day of the presentation, Ms. Williams dresses in a dark business suit and arrives 45 minutes early. She brought with her two different electronic modes of her presentation in case one mode was not compatible with the library computer equipment. She does not want to be rushed in traffic and wants to have plenty of time to park, find the conference room, and set up the computer prior to individuals entering the room. Because she is well prepared, but not over-rehearsed and tense, her presentation sounds more like a conversation than a script. The audience is comfortable asking a few questions, because Ms. Williams left 5 minutes of the allotted agenda time to clarify her recommendations. Her presentation was a well prepared success.
Example 2
Mr. James Sutton received an email stating that his evaluation abstract was accepted for a national conference. He has never attended a national academic or professional conference, so he is excited. He asks his faculty mentor for advice. His mentor, Dr. Gannon, tells him that the conference is held in two large hotels located directly across the street from each other in Chicago. The break-out room for his presentation is able to host about 50 conference participants, though he does not expect that there will be that many. There will be a panel of speakers with similar evaluation topics; each presenter has 18 minutes to present his or her PowerPoint slides.
Mr. Sutton creates 12 PowerPoint slides using the 5 × 5 rule (see Figure 13-1). This type of PowerPoint slide allows the audience to easily read the slide as the presenter explains each point.
FIGURE 13-1 Sample 5 × 5 PowerPoint.
Mr. Sutton wants to take no more than 2 minutes explaining each slide. He realizes that the title slide takes only a few seconds to read, while some slides take just a bit more than 2 minutes of explanation. Several weeks before the conference, he meets with Dr. Gannon to practice his presentation. He reads from a formal script because he is so nervous. Dr. Gannon realized that Mr. Sutton was glued to the script and suggested that he reduce his script to a few note cards so he can present the information in a less tense manner. This tip would also help Mr. Sutton relax and make better eye contact with the audience during the presentation. At the conference, Mr. Sutton dressed in a dark suit and tie. He felt overdressed, but noticed that the other three members of the panel were also dressed in business suits, which was appropriate. His presentation was informative and exactly 15 minutes. His precise timing left 3 minutes for two audience questions. James used the opportunity before and after the presentation to introduce himself to other presenters.
Tips for Successful Presentations
Let’s introduce some tips related to successful presentations. A 2001 Gallup poll found public speaking was the second biggest (40%) fear among adults, just behind snakes (51%), and ahead of heights (36%).4 This section provides a few tips to help overcome fear of public speaking and to improve the impact of the presentation.
1. Think about the goal of your presentation.
Ask yourself these questions:
Are you being interviewed for an evaluation consulting contract?
Are you presenting the results of the evaluation? Are you persuading the audience to make a decision? Are you collecting data as in a focus group?
Are you demonstrating a product?
2. Determine what you want to say.
Write the key points of the presentation.
Use the standard format:
Tell the audience what you are going to tell them. Tell them.
Close by telling them what you told them.
Always keep your presentation simple and clear.
3. Write the full script, using the key points as your outline.
Practice each section until you are comfortable and have the key points memorized.
Once each section feels comfortable, practice reading the full script aloud.
If you are stumbling over specific words, change the words. For example, if you stumble with a word such as phenomenon, then substitute the word occurrence. Find your comfort zone with the written script. From the full script, if you intend to use PowerPoint slides or handouts, create them after you are comfortable with the script.
4. Reduce your full script to a few 3” × 5” note cards.
After you have your full script memorized, write the key points and transition statements between each key point onto note cards.
Practice with the note cards so you become familiar with looking at the audience and speaking calmly and confidently rather than reading from your script. Prepare by rehearsing in front of friends.
5. Rehearse in front of people.
Gather a few friends together and practice a few times.
Time your presentation from start to finish.
Avoid starting over when you are practicing; just go through the full presentation.
Ask for their honest opinion of your presentation, including the quality of the PowerPoint slides.
Look at the audience.
Ask your friends to watch your hand gestures and provide feedback.
6. Practice in different settings.
Practice by standing behind a podium or a conference table. For example, you are told that your presentation is scheduled for the auditorium; however, the room may be changed to the cafeteria due to a water leak in the auditorium. In this case, you have a conference table instead of a podium.
Practice without a conference table or podium; be prepared for all type of settings.
7. Time management.
With adequate time management, you will have minimum duties 48 hours before your presentation; you can relax and practice your note cards one last time. All sorts of mishaps may occur, so you should save your full script, note cards, PowerPoint slides, and handouts in at least two electronic formats.
Have paper copies of the PowerPoint slides available in case computer equipment has malfunctioned or is not available.
Have extra copies of handouts in case the emailed file was not received.
8. Focus the audience on you.
Begin and end your presentation with a “thank you” and a smile; both techniques help you to relax and get settled for your presentation.
Engage your audience; do not hide behind your slides or handouts.
If you are passionate about the subject, your presentation will flow with ease.
Well-prepared presenters are calm and confident; even if you are nervous on the inside, adequate rehearsing allows you to feel comfortable with your information.
9. Think about what you will do after your presentation.
Be prepared to answer several questions from the audience related to your presentation.
Answer questions to the best of your ability; do not exaggerate the findings or recommendations.
If you don’t know the answer to a question, tell them you don’t, but that you will find out and get back to them.
10. Networking.
After the presentation, stay in the room for further questions or discussions with individuals.
Be sure to clean up the area around your presentation: remove extra handouts or bottled water from the podium or conference table; there may be another speaker following your panel or presentation.
Have your business cards easily available without digging in your pockets or purse.
Use this valuable time to network with individuals in the audience to possibly make connections for further research, evaluations, or professional collaboration.
Your attire during your presentation is also important. See Box 13-9 for some tips on how to dress.
Poster Presentations
As with oral presentations, there are numerous situations in which evaluators are asked to present their results in a poster format. Here are a few examples of poster presentations:
• Poster session presented at a formal conference
• Poster session at a seminar or reception with interested individuals mingling and networking
• Posters displayed in a hallway as a rotating display such as in a college lobby
Although posters are used for various venues, how a poster is designed influences whether the material is noticed and read or ignored without more than a glance. The paragraphs that follow provide details on how to create a standout poster. For this section, Microsoft PowerPoint is used for the poster development.
Step 1: Select a Poster Size
Determine the required size of the poster prior to starting the development. Note: It is difficult to change the size after the poster is developed. See Figure 13-2 to select poster size. First, on the Toolbar, click Design, then Page Setup. Second, select landscape for your slide orientation, then increase the width and height to those of your poster requirements.
FIGURE 13-2 Poster size selection.
Used with permission from Microsoft.
Step 2: Select a Poster Template
See Figure 13-3 to select a poster template. First, on the Toolbar, click on Design. Second, select a design. After a design is selected, there are options of colors, fonts, and background styles. Test a few combinations prior to making the final selection. Keep in mind that the background needs to be simple and not distract from the information on the poster.
BOX 13-9 Rules of Attire: Top-to-Bottom List
Females |
Males |
Hair: Freshly washed; pinned up and out of face Nails: Clean and trimmed with pale polish Clothing: Dark-colored professional suit Blouse: Light color; well-fitting; no button gaps, low necklines, no bra straps showing Jewelry: Minimal and small; nothing flashy Skirt or pants: Well fitting; not too tight or too short; pants length appropriate for shoes Shoes: Closed toed; no sandals; neutral color; polished; 3-inch or less heels Make-up: Minimal; avoid bold, bright colors |
Hair: Freshly washed and trimmed Facial hair: Trimmed and neat Nails: Clean and trimmed Clothing: Dark-colored professional suit Shirt: Light color; coordinated tie color; no emblems or sport team ties Jewelry: Minimal; nothing flashy or bold Pants: Well fitting; not too tight; appropriate length for shoes Shoes: Polished; black or brown; matching socks |
Step 3: Place Information on the Poster
On a plain piece of paper, draw out approximately where each segment of the poster will be placed (see Figure 13-4). Once the placement is drafted, type what information will be placed in each segment.
Step 4: Select a Font Style
The ideal font for a poster is simple and plain. In Figure 13-5, note how much space the various fonts use. For a poster, it is important to select fonts from column A. Within column A, select a narrow font, such as font 1 or font 3. A narrow font allows more words per line without compromising the clarity. Column B fonts are not appropriate for posters. The font should never distract from the information presented on the poster.
FIGURE 13-4 Information placement.
Step 5: Select a Font Size
Font size on a poster is important. Generally, individuals stand about 3 to 4 feet from a poster. If the font is too small, individuals will not stop to read the poster. However, if the font is too large, the poster will not have adequate room for the amount of information needed and will look unprofessional. The ideal font size for a poster is as follows:
• Title: 60–80 point font
• Subheadings for each section: 50- to 60-point font
• Information under each subheading: 40- to 50-point font
• Figures, graphs, and photo captions: 35- to 40-point font
• References: 25- to 30-point font
Step 6: Keep It Simple
The most common mistake is trying to fit too much information on the poster. Each segment of the poster should have plenty of blank space so the segments do not run together. It is useful to have the information flow from one section to the next section. Figure 13-6 shows the title in a bold box, while the sections are in a light gray for contrast. There are hundreds of ways to configure a poster, but simplicity is most important. It is better to have people read the key points with few details than to have the poster ignored with too much information.
Step 7: Create Talking Points for Your Poster
If the poster is presented in person, it is essential for the presenter to have a 2- to 3-minute speech prepared. Individuals walk around the room, reviewing the posters and stopping to chat with presenters with interesting posters. Presenters should be ready to summarize the key points of the research and to answer questions. There are advantages and disadvantages to having small 8.5” × 11” paper copies of the poster available as a handout. Advantages include that the interested individual receives a copy to review at a later time, and the contact information on the poster allows the person to connect the poster with the presenter. Disadvantages include that attendees may be carrying food or drinks, so they do not have a place to put the paper copy. In any case, presenters should have business cards available at poster presentations. Attendees are more willing to place business cards into their pockets than take a larger piece of paper. The presenter needs to memorize his or her talking points prior to the poster presentation.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced effective ways to present evaluation results in written and oral formats. First, written reports were discussed, including the essential elements of a report, reference styles, and overcoming writer’s block. Second, types of oral presentations were reviewed, including creation of informative slide presentations and powerful rehearsal strategies. Lastly, the chapter concluded with techniques to create informative conference poster presentations with key talking points.
CASE STUDY
In the North State University, Dr. Irene Schmidt, a faculty member in the College of Public Health, was asked by Mr. Peter Blackstone, the Human Resource Director from the nearby self-insured Greenfield Community Hospital, to conduct a wellness evaluation. A wellness evaluation includes ascertaining the overall current health of employees and determining what health aspects could be improved among the employees. Because the hospital is self-insured, that means that it collects insurance premiums from its approximately 1800 employees. From these collected insurance funds, the hospital is able to pay the medical and hospital costs for the employees. To reduce the Greenfield Community Hospital’s healthcare cost, hospital administrators decided to offer a family incentive package to increase the wellness of their employees and their families and thus decrease healthcare costs. Employees and their family members living at home were given the opportunity to be evaluated by the nurse practitioner in the wellness center. Each individual was given recommendations for improving his or her health and wellness over the next 12 months. For example, if an individual was 50 pounds overweight, the recommendation would be to join the hospital’s free weekly weight-loss program with the goal of losing at least 25 pounds over the next 12 months. If an individual was a smoker, the recommendation would be to join the hospital’s free, ongoing smoking cessation class until he or she stopped smoking. In addition, if an individual logged 3 hours per week in the hospital fitness center per swipe card verification, for example, he or she would be eligible for incentives.
For employees and their family members with preexisting chronic health conditions that limited their physical activity, the nurse practitioner would recommend nonphysical, but positive, stress-reducing activities, such as attending mindful meditation classes or social support groups. This type of stress reduction was also recommended for busy employees or families in need of more relaxation and stress-management skills.
If the recommended goals for the family members were documented and achieved, the family would receive a $1000 bonus per individual achieving their personal goals up to $10,000. So, for instance, if the husband stopped smoking ($1000) and lost the recommended 25 pounds ($1000) and the wife lost the recommended 35 pounds ($1000), the couple would receive $3000. After the family achieved their goals, they needed to maintain the goals for another 12 months to obtain further incentives. The Greenfield Community Hospital determined that it was less expensive to pay individuals to get and stay healthy than to pay for illness and prescriptions.
After receiving institutional review board (IRB) approval for the evaluation and prior to starting this wellness initiative, Dr. Schmidt was given the data showing the amount of money paid by Greenfield Community Hospital for their employee and family medical and hospital expenses for the previous 12 months. (Note: Dr. Schmidt received aggregated data that showed total expenses paid per category rather than receiving data with employee and family names.) Dr. Schmidt had no reason to know which specific individuals incurred high healthcare expenses. Every 3 months during the evaluation, Dr. Schmidt was given the same financial healthcare pay-out data for all employees and their families. In addition, Dr. Schmidt and her two public health graduate students collected the following data:
• Ten focus groups were conducted to determine satisfaction and participation in the wellness incentive program among various employee groups (administrative staff, nursing/patient care, laboratory, pharmacy services, physical and occupational therapy, food services, environmental, physical plant maintenance, parking and grounds maintenance, and central supply).
• An online satisfaction survey was available at a kiosk in the hospital fitness center as well as on the internal employee website.
• Employees and their family members were encouraged to volunteer to participate in a 15-minute telephone interview about why they accepted or declined the invitation to participate in the wellness incentive program.
Dr. Schmidt and her two public health graduate students worked on this evaluation for 2 years. However, they presented preliminary results every 6 months to the Greenfield Community Hospital Board of Directors.
Case Study Discussion Questions
1. What are some potential limitations of this evaluation?
2. What other types of data should be collected for this evaluation?
3. What are at least two results that you would expect from this evaluation?
4. Write at least two recommendations that you would expect from this evaluation.
5. Where else could the team showcase the results?
6. What would be a possible next phase in this evaluation?
STUDENT ACTIVITIES
1. Using the information presented in the case study, create a poster to explain the findings of the evaluation.
2. Search some peer-reviewed journals and find a publication with data on a topic of interest to you. Using the demographic data in the publication, practice your skills to make a bar graph and pie chart. Explain why one type of graphic presentation is easier to understand than the other format.
3. Using 3″ × 5″ note cards, outline one section of this chapter and prepare to give a 3-minute presentation without using any other graphic props.
4. Using a copy of your current resume, prepare a 2-minute speech that explains why you are the perfect candidate for the position for which you have applied.
REFERENCES
1. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Technical Writing-Progress Reports. Available at: http://wiz.cath.vt.edu/tw/TechnicalWriting/ProgressReports/components4.htm. Accessed November 3, 2012.
2. Astia. How to Write an Executive Summary. Available at: http://www.astia.org/resources/How_to_write_an_execsummary.pdf. Accessed May 31, 2014.
3. Anders CJ. The 10 Types of Writer’s Block (and How to Overcome Them). IO9. Available at: http://io9.com/5844988/the-10-types-of-writers-block-and-how-to-overcome-them. Published October 6, 2011. Accessed November 3, 2012.
4. Brewer G. Snakes Top List of Americans’ Fears. Gallup Poll. Available at: http://www.gallup.com/poll/1891/snakes-top-list-americans-fears.aspx. Published March 19, 2001. Accessed November 3, 2012.
