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A
Abaoji. See Taizu (Liao emperor)
Abaqa (Ilkhan of Iran), 350, 356, 380, 540n37
Abbasid Caliphate. See also specific caliphs
Baghdad as capital of, 238–241, 251, 296
Byzantine Empire and, 234
establishment of, 238
Ibn Fadlan as envoy of, 45, 88, 244, 250–251
mamluks and, 241, 242
Mongol Empire and, 330–332, 335
Sunni Islam and, 242, 247, 255, 307, 330, 338
Tang dynasty and, 239–240
trade and, 50, 51
Zanj rebellion against, 241, 509n40
Abu Bakr (Rashidun caliph), 237
Achaemenid dynasty, 42, 80, 100, 128, 131–135, 142, 240
Aelia Pulcheria, 177, 180, 188
Aetius, Flavius, 18–19, 188–192, 490n3
Afanasievo culture, 27, 32, 36
Alans, 19, 77–78, 87, 169, 172–173, 189–191, 315, 319, 399
Alaric (Visigoths), 18, 175–176, 179, 480n25
Alchon Huns, 164–167
Alexander III (pope), 266
Alexander Romance, 84–87
Alexander the Great, 79–89, 119, 409
Alexius Comnenus (Byzantine Empire), 213–214, 262–263
Alp Arslan (Seljuk Turks), 248, 249, 256–258, 261–263, 409, 513n38
Altaic languages, 40, 47, 58, 97–98, 172, 217, 219, 281
Ammianus Marcellinus, 21, 48, 69, 159–160, 170, 172, 181
Anatolian languages, 25–26, 28, 30–31, 100
Andronovo culture, 36, 472n6
animism, 166, 172, 278, 362
An Lushan Rebellion, 229, 240
Antiochus VII Sidetes (Seleucid Empire), 132
Antony, Mark, 136, 476n25
Arabshah, Ahmad ibn, 391
Arcadius (Byzantine Empire), 174, 175, 177
Ardashir I (Sassanid Empire), 128, 142
Ardashir II (Sassanid Empire), 167–168
Arigh Böke (Mongol Empire), 340, 347, 348, 356
Aristotle, 79, 81
Armenia and Armenians
Alan invasion of, 87
Byzantine annexation of, 255
language of, 25, 84
migrations of, 35
Muslim armies in, 206
partitioning of, 167–168
resistance to Zoroastrianism, 485n48
Roman Empire and, 138–141
Scythian raids into, 75
War of the Armenian Succession, 139
Arrian, 77–78, 81
Arsaces (Parthian Empire), 131, 133, 134
Arsacid dynasty, 114, 131, 134–143
Artabanus V (Parthian Empire), 142
Ascelin of Lombardy, 371
Ashoka (Mauryan Empire), 38, 121, 122, 124, 459n56
Aspar, 180, 182, 187
Assyrians, 31, 41–42
Ateas (Scythian king), 75
Athaulf (Visigoths), 176
Attila the Hun
death of, 20, 186, 191
description of, 184–185
Italy invaded by, 15–20, 191
legacy of, 193–196, 408, 409
Modu Chanyu’s influence on, 99
plots against, 183–184
rise to power, 181, 182, 185
Roman Gaul siege by, 15, 190–191
succession to, 185–186, 192, 490n12
tribute exacted by, 186–188
Augustus (Roman Empire), 127, 136–139
Aurelian (Roman Empire), 148, 179
Avars, 197–202, 205, 214, 218, 326, 481n36
Avesta (Zoroastrian text), 37
Ayyubids, 335–336, 339, 341, 367
B
Bacon, Roger, 366
Bactrian language, 121, 122, 161, 165
Baghdad
Abbasid capital at, 238–241, 251, 296
Fatimid occupation of, 256
as intellectual center, 331
as international market, 51
Mongol sack of, 330–332, 338–339, 403
Tamerlane and, 402–403
Turks in, 57, 251, 255, 307
Bagrat V (Georgia), 398
Bahram I (Sassanid Empire), 232
Bahram V (Sassanid Empire), 162
Baidar, 319, 323–324, 333
Baiju, 336–337, 371–372
Ban Chao, 113–116
Ban Gu, 113, 134
Ban Zhao, 113
Barkuk (Mamluk sultan), 399, 402
Basil II (Byzantine Empire), 212–213, 257, 498n44
Basil Bulgaroctonus (Byzantine Empire), 257
Batu (Mongol Empire)
Carpine and, 368–369
Golden Horde and, 313
Güyük and, 317, 332, 333
imperial army of, 344
as khan of the Golden Horde, 331
western campaign of, 48, 315, 317–329
William of Rubruck and, 375, 376
Bayan (Mongol Empire), 346, 350–351, 539n13
Bayan Kaghan (Avars), 199, 200
Baybars (Mamluk sultan), 342
Bayezit Yildirim (Ottoman Empire), 402, 404–406
Bedouins, 139, 221, 237–238
Bela IV (Hungary), 319, 321, 323–326, 328, 329, 369
Berke (Mongol Empire), 319, 331, 347, 348, 379
Bhanugupta (Gupta Empire), 166
Bilğe Kaghan (Gök Turks), 21, 74, 216, 226. See also Orkhon inscriptions
Black Sheep Turks, 397, 398, 403
Bleda (Huns), 181, 182, 185–187
block printing, 272, 410
Bögü Kaghan (Uyghurs), 231, 506n68
Book of the Marvels of the World (Polo), 365, 366, 382–386
Book of Victories (Yazdi), 390–391
Boris of Bulgaria, 204, 213
Boroghul, 293, 304
Börte (wife of Genghis Khan), 282, 284, 288, 298, 313
Boucher, Guillaume de, 334, 376, 377
Brahmi script, 24, 38, 165, 220, 230
Buddha sculptures/statues, 117, 126, 129, 144, 210, 309, 472n1
Buddhism. See also cave monasteries
arts in, 125, 126
Chinese language texts, 59, 146
Christianity compared to, 124
enlightenment in, 59–60, 122, 123
Genghis Khan and, 290
Han dynasty and, 145
in India, 121, 125–127, 164, 166
kaghan sponsoring of, 16
Khitans and, 267, 270
Kublai Khan and, 362
in Kushan Empire, 118, 122–129
Mahayana, 59–60, 123, 146
missionaries and, 59–60, 122, 123, 220, 457n28
Northern Wei dynasty and, 144–147, 153, 155
in Parthian Empire, 135
Polo’s views of, 383
Tang dynasty and, 224, 233
tantric, 345–346
Tocharian texts, 22, 24, 27, 32, 59, 124, 146
trade and, 145, 146
Uyghurs and, 230, 233
Bulgars
Byzantine Empire and, 203–205, 212, 214
Ibn Fadlan and, 21, 88
Islam and, 88, 213, 244, 510n55
language of, 219
migration of, 206
Mongol Empire and, 315, 318, 319
Bumin Kaghan (Gök Turks), 48, 198, 217, 218, 222–223, 409–410
Burgundians, 19, 176, 189, 194
Byzantine Empire. See also Constantinople; specific rulers
Armenia annexed by, 255
Avars and, 198–202, 214
Bulgars and, 203–205, 212, 214
Cumans and, 212, 214, 263
diplomacy in, 180, 196, 203–204, 214, 409
Gök Turks and, 205–206, 218
Huns and, 175, 177, 180, 185–188
Khazars and, 206–209, 214
military of, 82, 177, 189, 200–201, 207, 221
missionaries from, 204, 213, 214
Muslim attacks on, 206–207, 234, 237
Sassanids and, 197–199, 201–202
Seljuk Turks and, 215, 248–249, 257–259
C
camels, 37, 50–51, 130, 249–251, 401
Caracalla (Roman Empire), 142
caravan trade, 50–52, 98, 109
Carpine, Giovanni da Pian del, 44, 48–49, 318, 327, 365–371, 375, 544n6
Cassius, C. Avidius, 141
caste system
Brahmins (priests), 57, 123–125
kshatriyas (warriors), 38
sudras (laborers), 39
vaishyas (merchants), 126
Cathay, 267, 276, 343, 345, 365, 382, 386, 410
Catherine the Great, 244
Catholicism, 193, 361, 377, 378
Cato, Marcus Porcius, 153
cave monasteries
Kizil Cave, 27, 40
Mogao Caves, 24, 60, 146
Silk Road proliferation of, 127
Xuanzang on, 118
Yangyang, 155
Yungang, 144
Celestine IV (pope), 329
Celtic languages, 25, 34, 35
Centum languages, 25, 32–35
Chabi (wife of Kublai Khan), 354, 358
Chagatai, 308, 312–313, 326, 391–392
Chaghri (Seljuk Turks), 254, 255, 257
Charaton (Huns), 180
chariots, 31, 35–37, 55–56, 63, 82, 90, 92, 106, 408
Charlemagne (Holy Roman Emperor), 202
Chengzong. See Temür Khan
China. See also Confuciansim; Great Wall of China; specific rulers and dynasties
Bilğe Kaghan on contact with, 21, 74, 216
Daoism in, 145, 147
Five Baits and, 16, 96, 154, 228, 270
Grand Canal in, 224, 271, 274, 349, 351, 359
imperial armies of, 63
Khitans and, 268–273
nationalism and, 22–23
unification of, 155, 223, 224, 343, 344
Warring States period in, 40, 90, 146, 148, 149, 233
Chinese ideograms, 58, 90, 99–100, 110, 360, 362
Chinese language, 59, 61, 90, 146, 281
Chionites. See Kidarites
Christianity. See also Crusades; Nestorian Christianity
Buddhism compared to, 124
Catholicism, 193, 361, 377, 378
Monophysite view of, 202
Orthodox, 204, 208, 209, 213, 214, 259
in Parthian Empire, 135
steppe nomads as viewed in, 87–88
Chronicle of Novgorod, 315
Cimmerians, 40–41
Clavijo, Ruy Gonzalez de, 389, 393, 406
Coleridge, Samuel, 135, 364, 385
Columbus, Christopher, 386, 548n118
Confuciansim
Han dynasty and, 95, 100, 145
Jin dynasty and, 149
Neo-Confucianism, 268, 271–272, 361
Northern Wei dynasty and, 145, 152–154
Song dynasty and, 348
Sui dynasty and, 224
Tang dynasty and, 224, 226, 227
Conrad III (Germany), 265
Constantine (Roman Empire), 124, 177
Constantine Porphyrogenitus (Byzantine Empire), 209
Constantinople. See also Byzantine Empire; Theodosian walls
Avar siege of, 197–198, 202
Crusades and, 379
earthquake in, 187
Gothic garrison in, 175
Muslim attacks on, 206, 207, 237
Ottoman Empire and, 143, 179, 404
population of, 177
Rus naval attacks on, 211, 212
seniority of Rome to, 15
Corbulo, Gnaeus Domitius, 139, 477n37
Corded Ware culture, 34, 36, 62
cranial deformity ritual, 120, 165, 181
Crassus, Marcus Licinius, 130–131, 136, 137
Crusades
First, 259, 263, 331, 514n56
Second, 265
Third, 266
Fourth, 179, 379
Fifth, 279, 307, 311, 367
Seventh, 336, 373
Cumans, 212–214, 263, 307, 309, 314–315, 318–319, 323, 325–326
cuneiform, 25–26, 31, 32, 37, 38, 100, 451n23, 476n13
Cyrus the Great (Persian Empire), 42, 66–67, 121
D
Dali kingdom, 345–346
Danylo (Russian prince), 321
Daoism, 145, 147, 231, 289, 361
Daowu (Northern Wei emperor), 145, 149, 150, 152
Darius I (Persian Empire), 38, 42, 65–69, 75, 79, 100, 134, 409
Darius III (Persian Empire), 80
Dashi (Khitans), 53, 267, 275–278, 458n32
Deguang (Khitans), 270–271
Delhi sultanate, 400–401, 406
Demetrius II Nicator (Seleucid Empire), 131–132
Diocletian (Roman Empire), 110
distributed survival strategy, 52–53
Dominicans, 329, 366, 367, 371–372, 381
Dong Wan (Northern Wei emperor), 165
Dou Gu, 113
Dou Xian, 112–113
Duzong (Song emperor), 348–349, 351, 540n32
E
Eastern Roman Empire. See Byzantine Empire
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 265
Eljigidei, 337, 372
enlightenment (Buddhism), 59–60, 122, 123
enlightenment (Manichaeism), 60, 232
Eugenius III (pope), 264, 265
F
Fanakati, Ahmad, 360–361
Fan Ye, 137–138
Faraj (Mamluk sultan), 402, 403, 405
Fatimid Caliphate, 256–258
Faxian, 123, 125, 146
The Feast of Attila (Than), 184
females. See women
Feng (wife of Wencheng), 153
Ferdinand von Richthofen, 23
Finno-Ugric languages, 29, 36, 200, 204
Five Baits, 16, 96, 154, 228, 270
Franciscans, 44, 329, 332–334, 336, 366–367, 373, 376–377
Franks, 19, 176, 190–191, 202, 279, 307, 331, 341
Frederick II (Holy Roman Emperor), 307, 326–329, 527nn62–63
Frederick Barbarossa (Holy Roman Emperor), 264, 266
G
Gainas, 175
Galla Placidia, 176, 188–189
Gan Ying, 114–116
Gaozong (Tang emperor), 227
Gaozu (Han emperor), 95–97
Gaozu (Tang emperor), 224–225, 504n33
Genghis Khan (Mongol Empire)
ancestral history of, 53
birth and early life, 282–284
death of, 288, 299, 310, 315
description of, 288–289
exile of, 49, 283, 286
“four dogs of war” and, 291–292, 299
historical sources on, 21
imperial army of, 292–294, 298–304, 308
legacy of, 290–291, 294, 311, 408–409
massacres by, 285, 293–294, 303, 308, 309
military conquests of, 295–310, 314–315
religion and, 58, 289–290
rise to power, 275, 280, 284–287
succession to, 312, 313
unification of Mongol tribes by, 280–281, 287
western campaign waged by, 48
yassa (law code) of, 281, 290, 316
Gengshi (Han emperor), 111
George IV (Georgia), 311, 315
Gepidae, 17, 20, 173, 192, 199, 495n14
Germanic languages, 25, 28, 33–35, 451n27
Germanic tribes. See specific peoples
gers, 28, 44–45, 62, 71, 283–285, 359, 364
Ghaznavids, 252–255, 258
Gibbon, Edward, 192
global economy, 84, 386, 410
Gök Turks. See also specific rulers
alphabetic script of, 220
Byzantine Empire and, 205–206, 218
confederation of, 217
military of, 98, 221–222
Modu Chanyu’s influence on, 99
Rourans and, 154, 198, 217–218
Sassanids and, 168, 218
Silk Road and, 218
Tang dynasty and, 117, 206, 216–217, 222, 224–228
Golden Horde
Batu and, 331
Berke and, 347
Genghis Khan on, 313
Mengu-Timur and, 356
Tamerlane and, 48, 397–400, 402, 405–406, 409
tribute received by, 379
Goths. See also Visigoths
Hun attacks on, 169–170, 173
Ostrogoths, 17, 173, 179, 190–192
Roman Empire and, 148, 170, 171, 174–176
Grand Canal, 224, 271, 274, 349, 351, 359
Gratian (Roman Empire), 171
Greater Vehicle Buddhism. See Mahayana Buddhism
Great Wall of China
building and repairing, 91–92, 105, 106, 363
expansion of, 105, 107, 224
frontier society created near, 97
Mongol breakthrough at, 302
restoration of order along, 95, 272
symbolism of, 87, 91
trade by nomadic peoples along, 49
in uniting of barbarian tribes, 93, 98
warlords keeping order along, 147
Great Wall of Gorgan, 164
Greek language, 25, 35, 58, 205, 452n47
Gregory X (pope), 380–381
Gregory IX (pope), 307, 326, 328–329, 527n63
Grimm, Jacob and Grimm’s law, 451n27
Grumbates (Kidarites), 159–161
Guangwu (Han emperor), 110, 111
gunpowder, 320, 410
Gupta Empire, 63, 125–129, 156, 166–167
Güyük (Mongol Empire), 316–317, 319, 324, 327, 332–333, 370–372
H
Hadrian (Roman Empire), 140
Hagia Sophia, 198, 204, 212, 213
al-Hakim (Fatimid caliph), 257, 513n46
Han dynasty
barbarians during, 27
Buddhism and, 145
burial practices, 91
Confuciansim and, 95, 100, 145
diplomatic exchanges with, 16
end of, 148
fragmentation of, 116
Kushan Empire and, 121
Mandate of Heaven and, 95, 100
military in, 82, 92, 98, 104–107, 471n35
population during, 95, 468n22
Roman Empire and, 115–116
scope of territory controlled by, 114
trade and, 49, 51, 105, 111, 112
treaty with Modu Chanyu, 96–97, 101
Xiongnu and, 105–113, 116
Yellow Turbans Rebellion against, 147
harems, 66, 86, 190, 207, 210, 228, 277, 288, 348, 399
Harshavardhana (Kushan Empire), 126–127
Harun al-Rashid (Abbasid caliph), 245, 514n54
Hedin, Sven, 23, 449n5
He (Han emperor), 112–114
Henry II (England), 265
Hephthalites, 61, 157–159, 161–164, 167–168, 218, 409
Heraclius (Byzantine Empire), 197–198, 202–203, 206, 235, 494n5, 496n28
Heraeus (Kushan Empire), 119–120
Herodotus, 44, 49, 62–64, 66–69, 71–74, 86, 453n49
Herulians, 17, 20, 173
Hinduism. See also caste system
deities in, 55, 57, 122
in India, 125–126, 166, 167, 261, 400
nationalism and, 128, 253
Rig-Vedas and, 37–39, 55–58, 124
Hittites, 25–26, 28, 30–32, 35, 38–39, 56
Hojo Tokimune (Japan), 352–353
holy war. See jihad
Hongwu (Ming dynasty), 363, 395, 406, 550n41
Honoria (Roman empress), 15, 16, 20, 189, 191–192, 447n6
Honorius (Roman Empire), 18, 174–177, 188
horse archers
Avar, 200
Cimmerian, 40–41
clothing worn by, 84
Hephthalite, 409
Hun, 17–19, 159, 181, 186, 191
Khazar, 206, 207
Khitan, 272–273, 277, 278
Kushan, 409
Mongol, 295, 349
Northern Wei, 152, 155, 409
Parthian, 130, 133, 137, 141, 409
Scythian, 39, 63, 65, 70, 80, 84
strategies for defeating, 78, 81–82
of Tamerlane, 388, 395, 404, 407
Turkish, 221–222, 229, 234–236, 252–255, 305
Uyghur, 229–230
Xiongnu, 95, 98, 106
horses. See also chariots; horse archers
body armor for, 84
breeding, 31, 36, 62, 107–108, 221, 249
domesticated, 28, 36, 54, 55, 62
sacrifice of, 37, 54, 62–63, 71–73, 251
as source of wealth, 47
trade and, 27, 31, 36–37, 49, 51, 96, 105, 236
warhorses, 38, 63–64
Hou Hanshu, 113, 115, 137
Hua Mulan, 150, 481n34
Hugh (Bishop of Jabala), 264–265, 267
Huhanye Chanyu (Xiongnu), 109–110
Huizong (Song emperor), 273, 274, 351
Hulagu (Mongol Empire), 311, 330–332, 337–342, 344, 348
Hulugu Chanyu (Xiongnu), 108, 109
Huns. See also Hephthalites; specific rulers
Alans and, 19, 169, 172, 173, 189–191
Alchon Huns, 164–167
animism of, 166, 172
Byzantine Empire and, 175, 177, 180, 185–188
confederation of, 174, 180–182, 184, 185
dietary habits of, 48
Franks and, 19, 190, 191
historical views of, 21
horse archers of, 17–19, 159, 181, 186, 191
Kidarites, 151, 159–162, 164–165
migration of, 172–173
Nezak Huns, 164, 167
physical appearance of, 170
Roman Empire and, 168, 170, 175–176, 186–191
Visigoths and, 19, 174, 175, 190, 191
Huo Qubing, 106, 107
Hypatian Codex, 532n41
I
Ibn Fadlan, 21, 45, 88–89, 210, 244, 250–251
Ibn Khaldun, 390, 403
Ichise Chanyu (Xiongnu), 106, 109
Igor of Novgorod-Seversk, 214, 500n76
Ildico (wife of Attila the Hun), 20, 448n17
Illig Kaghan (Gök Turks), 224–226
Ilterish Kaghan (Gök Turks), 228
India. See also Gupta Empire; Kushan Empire; Mauryan Empire
Buddhism in, 121, 125–127, 164, 166
Delhi sultanate of, 400–401, 406
Hinduism in, 125–126, 166, 167, 261, 400
Huns in, 164–167
Islam in, 253, 261, 400
Indo-European languages
Centum family of, 25, 32–35
origins and dispersal of, 23, 25, 42
PIE, 27–29, 32–34, 54, 55, 451n23
Satem family of, 25, 32–36
Indo-Iranian languages, 32, 34, 36–37, 54, 63, 66
Innocent IV (pope), 44, 329, 336, 365–367, 369, 371–372
Irene of Khazaria, 207–208
Ishtemi Kaghan (Gök Turks), 168, 198, 205, 217–218, 222
Isidore of Charax, 133, 457n21
Islam and Muslims. See also Crusades; Muhammad; Shi’a Islam; Sunni Islam
astrology and, 55
Bulgars and, 88, 213, 244, 510n55
Byzantine Empire and, 206–207, 234, 237
Christian conversion to, 259–261, 311
fundamentalist, 129
Genghis Khan and, 290
in India, 253, 261, 400
Khazars and, 206–207
Koran and, 88–89, 267, 278, 311
Kublai Khan and, 361
in national Turkish identity, 61–62, 240
Oghuz Turks and, 219, 244, 250
Seljuk Turks and, 247, 252
trade and, 241, 242
Ivan IV, the Terrible (Russia), 322–323, 400
J
al-Jahiz, 221–222
Jalal al-Din, 310, 335–336
Jamasp (Sassanid Empire), 163
Jamuka, 284–287, 291
Japan, invasions by Kublai Khan, 352–354
Jebe, 291, 299, 302, 305–306, 309, 314–315
Jelme, 284, 287, 291, 299
Jews and Judaism, 59, 61, 87–88, 135, 208–209
Jia Sidao, 349, 351, 540n35
jihad, 237, 239, 243, 245, 248, 253, 256, 263, 398–401
Jin dynasty, 273–275, 282, 285, 297, 299–304, 317, 409
Jiyu Chanyu (Xiongnu), 99, 118
Jochi, 308, 312–313, 315, 360
John Tzimisces (Byzantine Empire), 210, 212, 498n44
Jones, William, 25
Jordanes, 170
Josephus, Flavius, 77, 87
Judaism. See Jews and Judaism
Jurchen Chanyu (Xiongnu), 103–105
Jurchens, 273–276, 282, 300, 302–304, 348–349, 352–353
Justin II (Byzantine Empire), 199, 205, 218
Justinian (Byzantine Empire), 179, 198–199
Justinian II (Byzantine Empire), 207
Juvayni, Atâ-Malek, 277, 284, 296, 306, 312
K
Kaidu Khan (Mongol Empire), 64, 349, 356–357, 384
Kanishka I (Kushan Empire), 116, 120–127, 129, 459n56
Karakhanids, 245, 252–254, 267, 276
Karakhitans, 276–279, 285, 286, 296, 304–307, 309
Karluks, 236, 238–240, 242, 245, 277, 335
al-Kashgari, Mahmud ibn Hussayn, 246–247
Kavad (Sassanid Empire), 61, 158, 162–163
Kavad II (Sassanid Empire), 494n5
Keraits, 282, 284–286, 316, 523n52
Khazars, 61, 206–209, 214, 220
Khingila (Alchon Huns), 165
Khitans. See also Karakhitans; specific rulers
animism and, 278
Buddhism and, 267, 270
China and, 268–273
horse archers of, 272–273, 277, 278
Jurchens and, 273–276
Mongols and, 288, 300, 302, 303, 305, 308, 316
Seljuk Turks and, 267, 277, 278
trade and, 267
Uyghurs and, 269, 518n28
Khusrau I (Sassanid Empire), 164, 168, 199, 218
Khusrau II (Sassanid Empire), 157, 197, 201–202, 223, 235, 483n3, 494n5, 504n31
Khutulun (Mongol princess), 64
Kidarites, 151, 159–162, 164–165
Kipchak Turks, 59, 214, 219, 307, 318–319, 341, 367, 399–400
Kitbuka, 337, 339–342
Koran, 88–89, 267, 278, 311
Korea and Koreans, 96, 112, 152, 226–228, 352–353
Krum (Bulgars), 203
Kublai Khan (Mongol Empire)
capital cities built by, 358–360
death of, 363
election as Great Khan, 340, 342, 347
on hereditary succession, 357–358
imperial administration by, 360–361
imperial army of, 344, 349–350
legacy of, 343, 356, 409
Mandate of Heaven and, 344–345, 351
military conquests of, 327, 345–355
Northern Wei as influence on, 155
peace imposed by, 378
Polo family and, 380, 381, 384–385
religious tolerance by, 361–362
on script for Mongol language, 231, 281, 362, 521n5
summer palace of, 303, 343, 358–359, 364
unification of China under, 343, 344
Kuchlug (Naimans), 286, 305–306
Kujula Kadphises (Kushan Empire), 120
Kül Tegin (Gök Turks), 228
Kushan Empire. See also specific rulers
arts in, 125, 126
Buddhism in, 118, 122–129
decline and partitioning of, 128
Han dynasty and, 121
horse archers of, 409
Mandate of Heaven and, 114, 118, 121, 128
missionaries from, 60
Silk Road and, 118, 122, 126, 127
trade and, 49, 118, 128
Kyrgyz Turks, 217, 222, 233, 269, 304
L
Leo I (pope), 19, 191, 193–194
Leo III (Byzantine Empire), 207
Leo VI (Byzantine Empire), 204
Leo the Deacon, 210–211
Li Guangli, 107–108, 470n19
Liang dynasty, 268
Liao dynasty, 269–273, 275–278, 305
Ling (Han emperor), 147
Liu Bingzhong, 357–358
Liu Cheng, 350
Lizong (Song emperor), 304, 317
loan words, 25, 33, 37, 52, 246
Lombards, 192, 199–200, 328–329
Longjumeau, André de, 372–373
Louis VII (France), 265
Louis IX (France), 329, 332, 336, 341, 372–374, 377–378
Louis the Pious (Holy Roman Emperor), 121–122, 235, 507n4
Lucius Verus (Roman Empire), 140–141
Luvian language, 25–26, 30–32
M
Macedonians, 35, 41, 78, 80–86, 124, 453n49
Macrinus (Roman Empire), 142
Magyars, 184, 200, 202, 204–205, 209, 214
Mahabharata (Indian epic), 167
Mahayana Buddhism, 59–60, 123, 146
al-Mahdi (Fatimid caliph), 256
Mahmud (Ghaznavids), 253–254
Mamluks
Abbasid Caliphate and, 241, 242
Berke’s alliance with, 331
Ghaznavids and, 252–253
Mongol Empire and, 340–342
from slave markets, 323
Tamerlane and, 399, 402, 403, 405, 409
Mandate of Heaven
Han dynasty and, 95, 100
Jin dynasty and, 149
Khazars and, 207
Kublai Khan and, 344–345, 351
Kushan Empire and, 114, 118, 121, 128
Northern Wei dynasty and, 153
Qin dynasty and, 90, 92
Song dynasty and, 272
Tang dynasty and, 58
Xiongnu and, 101
Mandeville, John, 385, 548n118
Mani (prophet), 231–233
Manichaeism, 22, 59–61, 135, 172, 230–233, 237, 278, 506n76
Mani Codex, 231, 460n59
al-Mansur (Abbasid caliph), 238–239
Manuel II (Byzantine Empire), 404
Manuel Comnenus (Byzantine Empire), 265
Marcian (Byzantine Empire), 15, 18–20, 188, 192, 491n26
Marcus Aurelius (Roman Empire), 77, 140–141, 463n38
Marlowe, Christopher, 389
Marwan II (Umayyad caliph), 238
Massagetae, 40, 66–67, 69
Masud (Ghaznavids), 254–255
Maurice Tiberius (Byzantine Empire), 157, 199, 201–202, 223, 483n3, 504n31
Mauryan Empire, 38, 60, 83, 120–122, 128, 166. See also specific rulers
Maximinus Thrax, 17, 448n9
Maykop culture, 30
Mazdakites, 162–163
Medes, 42, 66
Mehmet I (Ottoman Empire), 391
Mehmet II (Ottoman Empire), 179
Meng Tian, 91–93
Mengu-Timur (Mongol Empire), 356
Merkits, 282, 284–287, 304
Michael I (Byzantine Empire), 203
Michael VII Ducas (Byzantine Empire), 262
Mihirakula (Alchon Huns), 166
Ming dynasty, 91, 145, 240, 363, 393, 395, 406–407
missionaries
Buddhist, 59–60, 122, 123, 220, 457n28
Byzantine, 204, 213, 214
Franciscan, 334, 366
Manichaean, 60–61, 231, 233
Nestorian, 59, 61
on Silk Road, 59–61, 118, 122
Zoroastrian, 59, 60
Mitanni kingdom, 38–39
Mithridates I (Parthian Empire), 131
Mithridates II (Parthian Empire), 132–136
Mithridates VI Eupator (Pontus), 76
Modu Chanyu (Xiongnu), 20, 52, 93–102, 118, 457n28
Möngke (Mongol Empire)
death of, 340, 346, 347
education of, 316
election as Great Khan, 332, 333
military conquests of, 327, 334–335, 337, 345–346
peace imposed by, 378
in western campaign, 319
William of Rubruck and, 376, 377
Mongol Empire. See also specific rulers and peoples
ancestral history of, 53
Carpine and, 44, 48–49, 318, 327, 365–371, 375
civil war in, 346–348, 356
disintegration of, 331–332, 395
honoring of dead by, 63
horse archers of, 295, 349
language of, 281
legacy of, 410
lifestyle of, 44, 48–49, 281–282
military of, 98, 286, 292–293, 298–304, 308, 344, 349–351
papal envoys to, 318, 329, 366–372, 378, 381
rebellions in, 304
religion and, 54, 58, 61
Russia and, 314–315, 317–323
sack of Baghdad by, 330–332, 338–339, 403
Song dynasty and, 285, 304, 317–318, 327, 335, 344–351
succession crises in, 327, 342, 346
trade and, 52, 299, 316, 347, 378–379
Uyghur influences on, 231
western campaign of, 48, 315, 317–329
William of Rubruck on, 45, 48, 332–334, 336, 366, 373–377
yassa (law code) of, 281, 290, 316
Mongolian language, 40, 53, 231, 281, 362, 381, 382
Monophysites, 202
monotheism, 54, 59–61, 213, 233, 361, 410
Montecorvino, Giovanni da, 378
Mstislav the Bold (Russian prince), 314–315
Muawiya (Umayyad caliph), 237
Muhammad (prophet), 118, 215, 236–237, 243, 250, 290, 338. See also Islam and Muslims
Muhammad (shah of Khwarazm), 295, 297, 305–310, 312, 527nn59–61
al-Muqtadir (Abbasid caliph), 88, 244
Murad II (Ottoman Empire), 406
Musa Urania, 137–138
Muslims. See Islam and Muslims
al-Mutamid (Abbasid caliph), 245
al-Mu’tasim (Abbasid caliph), 234–235, 241, 330–331, 338–339
al-Mutawakkil (Abbasid caliph), 241
Mutugen, 293, 309
N
Naimans, 282, 285, 286, 291, 305, 306, 337
Napoleon Bonaparte, 69, 80, 122, 298
Neo-Confucianism, 268, 271–272, 361
Nero (Roman Empire), 87, 139
Neshites. See Hittites
Nestorian Christianity
Genghis Khan and, 289–290
Keraits and, 523n52
Kublai Khan and, 361
missionaries and, 59, 61
Prester John and, 267
sack of Baghdad and, 331
Uyghurs and, 230
William of Rubruck on, 377
Neuville, Alphonse de, 194
New Rome. See Constantinople
Nezak Huns, 164, 167
Nicephorus I (Byzantine Empire), 203
Nicholas IV (pope), 378
Northern Wei dynasty. See also specific rulers
Buddhism and, 144–147, 153, 155
Confuciansim and, 145, 152–154
Daoism and, 145, 147
establishment of, 148, 149
female warriors of, 150
Huns and, 164–166
Mandate of Heaven and, 153
military in, 152–153, 155
Rourans and, 150–152, 154–156
O
Octar (Huns), 180, 181
Odoacer, 192–193
Ögedei (Mongol Empire)
criticisms of, 317
death of, 326, 332
imperial administration by, 315–316
Jalal al-Din and, 335
military conquests of, 308, 313, 318
peace imposed by, 311, 316
strategic vision of, 297, 317
Sübetei as general under, 292
as successor to Genghis Khan, 312, 313
on western campaign, 315, 318–319
Oghuz Turks, 51, 219, 236, 242, 244, 249–252, 254, 510n57
Olympiodorus of Thebes, 180
Omurtag (Bulgars), 203
Öngüt Turks, 302
Orda, 318–319, 323, 324
Orestes, 99, 186, 193, 487n20
Orkhon inscriptions, 21, 49, 58, 63–64, 216, 218–220, 222, 226, 318
Orthodox Christianity, 204, 208, 209, 213, 214, 259
Osroes I (Parthian Empire), 139–140, 142
Ostrogoths, 17, 173, 179, 190–192
Ottoman Empire. See also specific rulers
Attila the Hun and, 193
civil war in, 406
Constantinople and, 143, 179, 404
emergence of, 336
language of, 220
Tamerlane and, 402, 404–406, 409
Otto the Great (Holy Roman Emperor), 205
P
Palaic language, 25–26, 30–32
Paris, Matthew, 322
Parthian Empire
Arsacid dynasty of, 114, 131, 134–143
horse archers of, 130, 133, 137, 141, 409
religious diversity in, 135
Roman Empire and, 130–131, 136–143
Sassanid Empire and, 128, 142
Silk Road and, 133
trade and, 49, 115, 127
pastoralism, 29, 30, 33, 42, 82
Pechenegs, 204, 209, 212–214, 219, 248, 262–263, 498n41
Peroz (Sassanid Empire), 157–159, 162, 164, 165, 482n1
Persian Empire. See also Achaemenid dynasty; Parthian Empire; Sassanid Empire; specific rulers
Alexander the Great and, 79–80, 85–86
Ionian revolt against, 68
Safavid dynasty of, 143, 409
Scythians and, 65–69, 75
Persian language, 38, 246, 379, 381
Pharasmanes (Scythian king), 85
Phocas, 201–202
Phraates II (Parthian Empire), 132
Phraates IV (Parthian Empire), 137
Phraates V (Parthian Empire), 137–138
PIE languages. See Proto-Indo-European languages
Polo, Marco
Book of the Marvels of the World, 365, 366, 382–386
on fact-finding missions, 354–355, 384
on Kublai Khan, 343–345, 361, 365
languages spoken by, 381
on Mongol sack of Baghdad, 330–331
on Shangdu and Dadu, 358, 359, 364, 383
Silk Road travels of, 382–383
Polo, Niccolo and Maffeo, 379–382
popes. See specific popes
Prester John, 264–267, 275, 278–279, 311–312, 383
Priscus, 18, 181–184, 193–194, 490n3
Procopius, 158, 161, 189
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) languages, 27–29, 32–34, 54, 55, 451n23
Q
Qibi Hebei, 225–226
Qiedi Chanyu (Xiongnu), 108, 109
Qin Shi Huang (Qin emperor), 90–95, 99, 100, 151, 467n12
Qiu Chuji, 289
Qutlugh Bilğe Köl (Uyghurs), 229, 230
Qutuz (Mamluk sultan), 340–342
R
Rashid al-Din, 284, 306, 312
Rashidun caliphs, 237
Ravenna, 15, 18–19, 175, 180, 188, 196
religion. See also missionaries; shamans; specific religions
animism, 166, 172, 278, 362
cosmic battle myths in, 56–57
deities in, 29, 37, 54–59, 122
fundamental beliefs, 54
monotheistic, 54, 59–61, 213, 233, 361, 410
Rhodogune, 132
Rig-Vedas (Hindu text), 37–39, 55–58, 124
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, 148
Roman Empire. See also Byzantine Empire; specific rulers
Alans and, 77–78
China compared to, 101
decline of, 172, 176, 192–194, 409
Goths and, 148, 170, 171, 174–176
Han dynasty and, 115–116
Huns and, 168, 170, 175–176, 86–191
Parthian Empire and, 130–131, 136–143
Sassanids and, 142, 167–168
Scythians and, 74, 76–77
trade and, 49, 115, 127–128, 457n21
Romanus Diogenes (Byzantine Empire), 248–249, 258, 261–262
Romulus Augustulus (Roman Empire), 99, 193, 487n20
Rourans, 150–152, 154–156, 164, 198, 217–218
Rugila (Huns), 180–181, 184, 185, 187, 189
Rumi, Jalal ad-Din Muhammad, 260–261, 311, 529n86
Runciman, Steven, 262
Rus, 209–213, 241, 244, 250, 507n4
Russia. See also specific rulers
Byzantine culture in, 213
foreign policy of, 204
frontier wars and, 213–214
Jewish communities in, 209
Mongol Empire and, 314–315, 317–323
Napoleon’s invasion of, 69
S
Safavids, 143, 409
al-Saffah (Abbasid caliph), 238–240
Saladin, 266, 341
Samanids, 242, 244–246, 250–254, 296
Sanjar (Seljuk Turks), 267, 276–278
Sanskrit language, 22, 25, 34, 37–39, 57–59, 123–124
Saracens, 264, 279, 328
Sarmatians, 69, 75–77, 84, 87, 98, 100–101, 171
Sartaq, 373–375
Sassanid Empire. See also specific rulers
Byzantine Empire and, 197–199, 201–202
Gök Turks and, 168, 218
Great Wall of Gorgan built by, 164
Hephthalites and, 157–158, 161–164, 167–168, 218
Kidarites and, 159–162
Manichaeism in, 60, 231
Parthian Empire and, 128, 142
Roman Empire and, 142, 167–168
Zoroastrianism in, 60, 128, 129, 136, 142, 162–163
Satem languages, 25, 32–36
Satuk Bughra Khan, 244–245
Scylas (Scythian king), 74–75
Scythians. See also specific rulers
Alexander the Great and, 79, 80, 82, 85–86, 89
burial practices, 63, 71–73
confederation of, 39–40, 74–76
female warriors, 64, 66, 73
horse archers of, 39, 63, 65, 70, 80, 84
migration of, 44, 75
Persian Empire and, 65–69, 75
physical appearance of, 69–70
trade and, 70–71, 74, 80, 82–84, 89
tribute exacted by, 49, 70–71
Sebüktigin (Ghaznavids), 253
Secret History of the Mongols, 21, 53, 58, 281–287, 291, 312, 316
Seleucid Empire, 83, 131–134
Seljuk Turks. See also specific rulers
assimilation of conquered peoples by, 261
Byzantine Empire and, 215, 248–249, 257–259
civil war and, 326
Ghaznavids and, 254–255
Hittites compared to, 31
Islam and, 247, 252
Jalal al-Din and, 335
Khitans and, 267, 277, 278
language of, 219
migration of, 162, 251
Septimius Severus (Roman Empire), 141, 142
Severus III (Roman Empire), 192
Shah-nameh (Book of Kings), 246
shamans
ancestral history of, 58–59
animism and, 166, 172
charred bones read by, 58, 190, 289
divination by, 73, 100
Islam and, 243–244
as mentors, 62, 244
trances of, 251, 280, 297
Shang dynasty, 36, 100, 472n6
Shapur I (Sassanid Empire), 128, 232
Shapur II (Sassanid Empire), 158–161
She Le Chanyu (Xiongnu), 148
Shi’a Islam
Assassin sect of, 337–338
Buyid emirs and, 255
hidden imams and, 241, 256
mystics and, 239
Safavids and, 409
split with Sunni Islam, 237
Turkmen tribes and, 397
Shizu. See Kublai Khan
Silk Road
caravan cities on, 46, 47, 59–61, 127, 227
cave monasteries on, 127, 144
eastern extension of, 50
Gök Turks and, 218
Hephthalites and, 163–164
Kushan Empire and, 118, 122, 126, 127
missionaries on, 59–61, 118, 122
Mongol Empire and, 297, 316, 335
nomadic peoples and, 49–52
origins of term, 23
Parthian Empire and, 133
Polo family travels on, 382–383
prosperity due to, 82
Sogdian as lingua franca of, 22, 232
western extension of, 89
Sima Chi (Jin emperor), 148
Sima Qian, 90, 94, 104
Sima Rui (Jin emperor), 148
Sima Yan (Jin emperor), 148
Sintashta culture, 36, 37, 62
slave trade, 37, 50–51, 70, 241–242, 249–250, 356, 457n26
Song dynasty
bureaucratic organization of, 101
Confuciansim and, 348
military in, 82, 272–274, 349
Mongol Empire and, 285, 304, 317–318, 327, 335, 344–351
Neo-Confucianism in, 271–272
Son of Heaven. See Mandate of Heaven
Southeast Asia, invasions by Kublai Khan, 354–355
Stalin, Joseph, 292, 524n64
Stein, Aurel, 22–24, 26, 107, 146, 148, 227
steppe nomads. See also religion; trade; specific peoples
clothing worn by, 26, 45
cranial deformity ritual of, 120, 165, 181
dietary habits of, 48–49
distributed survival strategy of, 52–53
in global economy, 84, 386, 410
language preservation by, 53
migration of, 27–36, 39–42, 44–48, 52
pastoralism of, 29, 30, 33, 42, 82
stereotypes of, 21, 49, 86–89
tribal warfare and, 64, 203, 240, 242, 282
Stilicho, 174–177, 182, 188
Strabo of Amasia, 127–128
Sübetei, 287, 291–292, 299, 309, 314–315, 318–320, 323–324, 524n66
Sufis, 62, 220, 243–245, 260, 290, 296
Sui dynasty, 150, 155, 223–224
Suluk (Turgesh Turks), 238
Sunni Islam
Abbasid Caliphate and, 242, 247, 255, 307, 330, 338
Cairo as new capital of, 342, 409
Fatimid Caliphate and, 256
Genghis Khan on, 290
Ghaznavids and, 253
split with Shi’a Islam, 237
Vladimir of Kiev and, 213
Surena, 130, 131
Suzong (Tang emperor), 229, 231, 506n68
Sviatoslav of Kiev, 210–212
Symeon of Bulgaria, 204, 497n38, 498n41
T
Tacitus, 76, 139
Taiwu (Northern Wei emperor), 144, 145, 152, 479n5
Taizong (Tang emperor), 64, 117, 126–127, 206, 216, 222, 226–227
Taizu (Jin emperor), 273
Taizu (Liang emperor), 268
Taizu (Liao emperor), 265–270, 518n31
Taizu (Song emperor), 271, 272
Taliban, 129, 396, 475n50
Tamerlane
army of, 395–396, 405
astrologers consulted by, 55,395, 401
charismatic leadership of, 394
death of, 407
as emir of Barlas tribes, 393
European views of, 388–390
family background, 391–392
Golden Horde invaded by, 48
Islamic accounts of, 390–391
legacy of, 407–409
military conquests of, 396–407
mixed ancestry of, 387–388
Tang dynasty
Abbasid Caliphate and, 239–240
An Lushan Rebellion against, 229, 240
barbarians during, 27
Buddhism and, 224, 233
bureaucratic organization of, 101
Confuciansim and, 224, 226, 227
Gök Turks and, 117, 206, 216–217, 222, 224–228
Mandate of Heaven and, 58
military in, 82, 224
Northern Wei as influence on, 150
Tibetans and, 227, 228, 236
trade and, 50, 227
Uyghurs and, 229–231, 233, 506n68
tantric Buddhism, 345–346
Tardu Kaghan (Gök Turks), 205–206, 223, 503n30
Tarim Mummies, 22–23, 26–27, 40, 69, 165
Tatars (Tartars), 275, 282–285, 315, 322, 373, 387, 400
Tayichiuds, 280, 282, 283
Temujin. See Genghis Khan
Temür Khan (Mongol Empire), 357, 358, 378
Than, Mor, 184
Theoderic (Visigoths), 190, 191
Theodosian walls, 157, 177–179, 187, 197, 202, 212, 404
Theodosius I (Byzantine Empire), 17–18, 157, 167, 171, 174
Theodosius II (Byzantine Empire), 177, 179–180, 183, 186–188, 491n17
Theophilus (Byzantine Empire), 203, 234–235, 241, 334
Tianzuo (Liao emperor), 273–275
Tiberius Constantine (Byzantine Empire), 199, 205
Tibet and Tibetans, 227, 228, 236, 362
Tigranes the Great (Armenia), 138
Timur. See Tamerlane
Tiridates (Armenia), 139
Tocharian languages
Afanasievo culture and, 32, 36
Buddhist texts in, 22, 24, 27, 32, 59, 124, 146
Indo-European origins of, 24–25, 27, 28
Tarim Mummies and, 22, 27
Toghrul Khan (Keraits), 284–286
Tokhtamysh, 387, 397–399, 406, 551n63
Tokuchar, 293, 309
Tolui, 295, 302, 308–309, 312–313, 332, 360
Tomyris (Massagetae queen), 66, 67
Tonyukuk, 228
Toramana (Alchon Huns), 166
Touman Chanyu, 94
trade. See also Silk Road
Buddhism and, 145, 146
caravan, 50–52, 98, 109
Han dynasty and, 49, 51, 105, 111
horses and, 27, 31, 36–37, 49, 51, 96, 105, 236
Khazars and, 208–209
Khitans and, 267
Kushan Empire and, 49, 118, 128
Mongol Empire and, 52, 299, 316, 347, 378–379
Muslims and, 241, 242
Parthian Empire and, 49, 115, 127
Roman Empire and, 49, 115, 127–128, 457n21
Rus and, 209–210
Scythians and, 70–71, 74, 80, 82–84, 89
slave, 37, 50–51, 70, 241–242, 249–250, 356, 457n26
Tang dynasty and, 50, 227
Xiongnu and, 96, 98, 111
Trajan (Roman Empire), 116, 138–142, 478n48
tribal warfare, 64, 203, 240, 242, 282
Tripolye culture, 30, 31
Tughrul Bey (Seljuk Turks), 254–257, 409
Tukhachevsky, Mikhail Nikolayevich, 292, 524n65
Tuoba Gui. See Daowu
Tuoba Tao. See Taiwu
Turgesh Turks, 238, 242
Turkish language. See also Orkhon inscriptions
al-Kashgari’s dictionary of, 246
as language of commerce, 51
Mongol warriors and, 281
Nestorian scriptures translated to, 61
Polo’s learning of, 381, 382
runic alphabet and, 457–458n28
Turks. See also specific peoples
ancestral history of, 53
deities of, 54, 58
horse archers of, 221–222, 229, 234–236, 252–255, 305
intertribal warfare among, 240, 242
lifestyle of, 48, 49
trade and, 51, 52
wolf as totem of, 218
U
Uldin (Huns), 174–177, 180
Umar (Rashidun caliph), 237
Umayyad Caliphate, 236–239, 403
Urban II (pope), 263
Uthman (Rashidun caliph), 237
Uyghurs
Buddhism and, 230, 233
horse archers of, 229–230
Islam and, 219
Khitans and, 269, 518n28
Kyrgyz Turks and, 222, 269
Manichaeism and, 61, 230, 231, 233, 506n76
Mongols and, 288, 300, 305, 308, 316
nationalism and, 22–23, 26, 113
Nestorian Christianity and, 230
Tang dynasty and, 229–231, 233, 506n68
V
Valens (Byzantine Empire), 170, 171
Valentinian III (Roman Empire), 15, 18–19, 184, 186, 188–189, 191–192
Valkash (Sassanid Empire), 162
Vandals, 19, 174–176, 179, 182, 187, 192–193
Vasudeva I (Kushan Empire), 125, 128
Vespasian (Roman Empire), 87
Vima Taktu (Kushan Empire), 114, 120
Vincent of Beauvais, 366, 372
Visigoths. See also specific rulers
Huns and, 19, 174, 175, 190, 191
religious persecution by, 193
Roman Empire and, 148, 175, 176
Vitry, Jacques de, 279, 311
Vladimir of Kiev, 212–213, 510n55
Vologases I (Parthian Empire), 139
Vologases IV (Parthian Empire), 140–141
Vologases V (Parthian Empire), 142
Vologases VI (Parthian Empire), 142
W
Wang Hui, 104, 105
Wang Mang, 110–111, 154
Wanyan Aguda (Jurchens), 273–274
War of the Armenian Succession, 139
Warring States period, 40, 90, 146, 148, 149, 233
Wei Qing, 82, 106
Wen (Han emperor), 99, 104, 112
Wen (Sui emperor), 155, 223–224
Wencheng (Northern Wei emperor), 144–147, 153, 155
Western Roman Empire. See Roman Empire
wheeled vehicles, 31, 36, 44, 62–63, 410. See also chariots
Whirling Dervishes, 260, 311
White Huns. See Hephthalites
Wilhelm II (Germany), 194–195
William of Rubruck, 45, 48, 332–334, 336, 366, 373–378
women. See also harems; specific individuals
Oghuz Turk, 251
Scythian, 64, 66, 73, 85
as warriors, 64, 66, 86, 132, 150, 356
The Wonders of Destiny of the Ravages of Timur (Arabshah), 391
Wu Zetian (Chinese empress), 227–228, 235
Wudi (Han emperor), 102–109, 112, 119, 134, 409
Wuzong (Tang emperor), 233, 506n76
X
Xanadu, 135, 303, 343, 358, 364, 385, 386
Xianbei, 145, 149–150, 153, 154, 479n4
Xianwen (Northern Wei emperor), 153
Xiaowen (Chinese empress), 112–113
Xiaowen (Northern Wei emperor), 153–154
Xiaozong (Song emperor), 348
Xingsheng (Jin emperor), 300–302
Xiongnu. See also specific rulers
civil wars among, 109, 111
confederation of, 40, 58, 93, 97, 109
diplomatic protocol of, 16, 447n3
empire of, 93–95, 98–102
Han dynasty and, 105–113, 116
horse archers of, 95, 98, 106
language of, 97–98
Mandate of Heaven and, 101
military power of, 92, 95, 98
trade and, 96, 98, 111
Zhang Qian on, 21
Xi Xia, 271, 275, 299–301, 310, 317, 362
Xuan (Han emperor), 108, 110
Xuanzang, 24, 117–118, 122–129, 146, 166, 217, 309
Xuanzong (Jin emperor), 302–304
Xuanzong (Tang emperor), 228–229, 239, 240
Y
Yamnaya culture, 27–30, 32–34, 49, 55, 58, 62, 70
yassa (Mongol law code), 281, 290, 316
Yazdegerd II (Sassanid Empire), 162
Yazdi, Sharif ad-Din Ali, 390–391, 405
Yellow Turbans Rebellion, 147
Yongle (Ming dynasty), 406, 407
Yuan dynasty, 356, 358, 360–363, 378
Yuezhi, 93, 97, 103–105, 114, 116, 118–119, 132, 472n8
Yuri II (Russian prince), 320, 321
yurts, 44–48, 55, 62, 173, 216, 245, 298, 359
Z
Zanj rebellion, 241, 509n40
Zeno (Byzantine Empire), 157–158, 193, 482n1
Zhang Qian, 21, 103–107, 114, 119
Zhangzong (Jin emperor), 285, 294
Zhao (Han emperor), 108
Zhaozang (Tang emperor), 233
Zhenzong (Song emperor), 273
Zhi Chanyu (Xiongnu), 109–111
Zhilugu (Karakhitans), 285, 304–305
Zhou dynasty, 40, 110, 223, 227
Zihuan (Northern Wei emperor), 148
Zoroaster (prophet), 54–55
Zoroastrianism
Armenian resistance to, 485n48
Avesta and, 37
Mazdakites and, 162–163
missionaries and, 59, 60
monotheism of, 54–55, 60
in Parthian Empire, 135
in Sassanid Empire, 60, 128, 129, 136, 142, 162–163