1.      Williams and Kellough, “Leadership with an Enduring Impact,” 814.

  2.      Robert F. Levey, “Policeman Came Along at the ‘Right Time.’” Washington Post, September 9, 1976.

  3.      Williams and Kellough, “Leadership with an Enduring Impact,” 814.

  4.      Ibid., 815.

  5.      Ibid., 814.

  6.      Edward Peeks, “2 Killings Provoked Probe,” Washington Afro-American, October 26, 1957.

  7.      Elsie Carper and Alfred E. Lewis, “Police Assignments Not Determined by Race, Eight Top Officials Testify,” Washington Post, October 23, 1957.

  8.      Edward Peeks, “Chief Murray Says He’s All for Integrated Police, But…” Washington Afro-American, October 22, 1957. A similar story could be told in Detroit. In 1960 Willis F. Ward, chief of the Civil Division in the U.S. Attorney’s Office in Detroit, complained that the police department’s “high echelon police officials” mandated segregated squad cars. “If for any reason the partner of the colored policeman does not make duty on a certain day, the colored officer must work alone, sometimes walking a beat. However, his counterpart, the white policeman, is given a white partner to assume his patrolling duties in the scout car.” According to Ward, this was just one manifestation of the core problem: black police “are segregated and treated apart from the rest of the force in work assignments, and they are often humiliated by their superiors when they express dissatisfaction in this regard.” Hearings Before the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Detroit, Michigan, December 14, 15, 1960, 387.

  9.      In this respect, freedom of choice here was even more nefarious than in the school desegregation context—and it was plenty bad there too, as the Supreme Court recognized in Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (391 U.S. 430, 1968). In Green, the Court struck down a plan by which New Kent County proposed to end formal school segregation by saying that students could now choose to attend either the formerly black school or the formerly white school. The Court appreciated how social context (including threats) constrained free choice, pointing out that no white students had chosen to attend the formerly black school and few black students had chosen to attend the formerly white school. Freedom of choice in the police context made integration even less likely; not only did a black officer have to agree to work with a white one, he had to find a white partner willing to work with him.

  10.      William M. Kephart, Racial Factors and Urban Law Enforcement (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1957), 9.

  11.      Ibid., 83.

  12.      Ibid., 78, 79.

  13.      Donald J. Black and Albert J. Reiss, Jr., “Patterns of Behavior in Police and Citizen Transactions,” Studies of Crime and Law Enforcement in Major Metropolitan Areas, vol. 2 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967), 135.

  14.      Edward Peeks, “Victory Is Seen in All-Out Fight,” Washington Afro-American, August 17, 1957. See also Burtell Jefferson, “Policies for Increasing the Number of Black Police Executives,” in Herrington J. Bryce, ed., Black Crime: A Police View (National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Justice, 1997), 132–33.

  15.      Peeks, “Victory Is Seen in All-Out Fight.”

  16.      Ibid.

  17.      Edward Peeks, “Promotion Plan Called ‘Devils,’” Washington Afro-American, September 7, 1957.

  18.      Levey, “Policeman Came Along at the ‘Right Time.’”

  19.      Bill Davidson, “The Mess in Washington: A City in Trouble,” Saturday Evening Post, July 13, 1963; Elsie Carper and Alfred E. Lewis, “Police Bias Is Denied by Murray,” Washington Post, November 1, 1957.

  20.      Ina R. Friedman, Black Cop: A Biography of Tilmon B. O’Bryant, Assistant Chief of Police, Washington, D.C. (Lodgepole Press, 1997), 93–94.

  21.      Ibid.

  22.      Burtell Jefferson, “Policies for Increasing the Number of Black Police Executives,” 132–34.

  23.      William Raspberry, “Few Negroes in Upper Police Ranks,” Washington Post, September 16, 1966. Inspired by the way in which O’Bryant and Jefferson had used the objective civil service examination to help African American officers advance in a racist police department, integrationists later considered it a great victory when in 1967 this exam—essentially the same exam later at issue in Washington v. Davis—was officially given the same weight as more subjective measures of officers’ performance. Alfred E. Lewis, “District Police Revamp Tests for Promotion,” Washington Post, July 3, 1967.

  24.      Jefferson, “Policies for Increasing…,” 133.

  25.      Edward Peeks, “Fireworks Will Go Off at Probe,” Washington Afro-American, September 14, 1957.

  26.      Edward Peeks, “Ruthless Slaying Triggered Split,” Washington Afro-American, July 6, 1957; Edward Peeks, “Behind the Charges of Police Brutality,” Washington Afro-American, June 29, 1957.

  27.      “Back Move to Oust Police Chief,” Washington Afro-American, June 15, 1957.

  28.      D.C. Branch, NAACP, “Information in the Nature of Partial Documentation, Particulars and Evidence in the Matter of Metropolitan Police Department and Chief Robert V. Murray,” exhibit 1: Blanche Price affidavit of February 11, 1957, NAACP Papers, Washington Bureau, Box IX: 226, Folder 6, Library of Congress.

  29.      Ibid., exhibit 5: Results of Blanche Price investigation in letter of March 21, 1957.

  30.      Ibid., exhibit 2: Claude H. Anderson affidavit of March 31, 1957.

  31.      Ibid., exhibit 15: Testimony Isaac Williams, Jr.

  32.      Untitled report on need for black police officers in Atlanta, Southern Regional Council (undated, appears to be from 1936), Box 6: A69, Part VI: Southern Regional Office, General Office File, 1919–1979, Urban League Papers, Library of Congress.

  33.      Edward Peeks, “Race Prejudice Laid to Officers,” Washington Afro-American, August 3, 1957.

  34.      Ibid.

  35.      (My emphasis.) Editorial, “How to Settle the Brutality Issue,” Washington Afro-American, July 20, 1957.

  36.      Elsie Carper, “Chief Murray Is Exonerated of Police Bias,” Washington Post, November 8, 1957.

  37.      Ibid.

  38.      Landis, Segregation in Washington, 88.

  39.      Davidson, “The Mess in Washington.”

  40.      Editorial, “Who Got Hurt?,” Washington Afro-American, November 16, 1957.

  41.      Elliott M. Rudwick, The Unequal Badge: Negro Policemen in the South (Southern Regional Council, 1962), 9–10.

  42.      Task Force on the Police, President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Government Printing Office, 1967), 170, citing U.S. Civil Rights Commission, Administration of Justice Staff Report (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963), ch. 11, 26.

  43.      Fogelson, Big-City Police, 283.

  44.      Edward Peeks, “D.C. Needs More Colored Cops in Top Jobs to Fight Crime, Says Lawson,” Washington Afro-American, April 27, 1963; Chuck Stone, “Crisis in the D.C. Police Dept.: One Reason Crime Is Rising,” Washington Afro-American, June 1, 1963.

  45.      Stone, “Crisis in the D.C. Police Dept.”

  46.      “Raise a Negro to Captain by Aug. 28, Police Urged,” Washington Post, August 23, 1963.

  47.      Editorial, “O’Bryant’s Curious Statement,” Washington Afro-American, August 24, 1963.

  48.      Jerry V. Wilson, The War on Crime in the District of Columbia, 1955–1975 (U.S. Department of Justice, 1978), 32.

  49.      “Davidson, Eugene C.” (2015), Paper 51, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Manuscript Division, Howard University; Bruce Weber, “Chuck Stone, a Fiery, Trusted Columnist in Philadelphia, Dies at 89,” New York Times, April 7, 2014.

  50.    Friedman, Black Cop, 36–37; Williams and Kellough, “Leadership with an Enduring Impact,” 813–14.