0.      Molly Moore, “D.C. Trauma Trains Medic for the Gulf,” Washington Post, November 8, 1990.

0.      Patrick Sharkey, “The Acute Effect of Local Homicides on Children’s Cognitive Performance,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 26 (2010).

0.      Elijah Anderson, Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City (W. W. Norton, 1999), 317; Ta-Nehisi Coates describes his difficulty in making it through the day as a middle schooler in West Baltimore in Between the World and Me (Random House, 2015), 26–28.

0.      John A. Rich, Wrong Place, Wrong Time: Trauma and Violence in the Lives of Young Black Men (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009), ix–xvii.

0.      Kennedy, Don’t Shoot, 10.

0.      Rick Christie, “Atlanta Business Sector’s Pick for Mayor Quits, Leaving Field to Maynard Jackson,” Wall Street Journal, August 9, 1989.

0.      Lisa L. Miller, The Myth of Mob Rule: Violent Crime and Democratic Politics (Oxford University Press, 2016), 133–42.

0.      Sklansky, “Cocaine, Race, and Equal Protection,” 1286; Naomi Murakawa, The First Civil Right: How Liberals Built Prison America (Oxford University Press, 2014), 113–47.

0.      David Morrison, “Anti-Crack Bias,” Washington City Paper, September 8, 2000.

0.      Michael Isikoff, “Getting Too Tough on Drugs,” Washington Post, November 4, 1990.

0.      Sklansky, “Cocaine, Race and Equal Protection,” 1294.

0.      David Cole, No Equal Justice: Race and Class in the American Criminal Justice System (New Press, 1999), 141–45.

0.      NOBLE, Justice by Action, 14.

0.      Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, Black Elected Officials: A National Roster, xv, xxxi (University Press of America, 1991).

0.      Phil McCombs, “Regardie, Zeroing in on Barry: War of Words Heats Up Over ‘Nightline’ Clip,” Washington Post, March 3, 1989.

0.      Marion Barry, Remarks to the National Press Club, on March 23, 1989, as broadcast by C-Span.

0.      Tom Sherwood, “Aides Warned Barry of Backlash on Crime,” Washington Post, November 29, 1988.

0.      Christie, “Atlanta Business Sector’s Pick for Mayor Quits.”

0.      “Woman Gets 10 Years in Heroin Case,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, January 15, 1992; Larry Copeland, “Drug Czar Proposed by Lomax Also Plans to Hire 300 More Police,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, May 24, 1989.

0.      Adam Gelb, “3 Deputies in Line for Chief’s Job; Hard Nosed Candidate Favored,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, July 15, 1990.

0.      Devall, “Jackson Calls Himself ‘General’ in Drug War.”

0.      Lynn Norment, “Charles Rangel: The Front-Line General in the War on Drugs,” Ebony, March 1989, 128.

0.      Nicholas Benton, “Drug War Ravages Nation’s Capital,” The Executive Intelligence Review, December 9, 1988; Sari Horwitz and Michael York, “Police Mum on Probe of Drug Killings; D.C. Police Closemouthed on Investigation of Drug-War Killings,” Washington Post, November 22, 1988.

0.      Nelson F. Kofie, “Race, Class, and the Struggle for Neighborhood in Washington, D.C.,” in Graham Russell Hodges, ed., African American History and Culture (Garland, 1999), 111.

0.      Gun Control: Public Hearing Before the Committee on Judiciary & Criminal Law of the District of Columbia Council (June 6, 1975), 14, Legislative Services Office, D.C. City Council.

0.      Sari Horwitz and Athelia Knight, “Barry Announces 3-Pronged Attack on Drugs, Violence,” Washington Post, February 13, 1988.

0.      Jon Cohen, “The Force May Not Be with You,” Washington City Paper, December 16, 1988; Carlos Sanchez, “Firepower on Streets Rises: D.C. Police Take 9mm Gun from Boy, 12,” Washington Post, January 20, 1988.

0.      Ron Harris, “Blacks Feel Brunt of Drug War,” Los Angeles Times, April 22, 1990.

0.      Brian N. Williams and J. Edward Kellough, “Leadership with an Enduring Impact: The Legacy of Chief Burtell Jefferson of the Metropolitan Police Department of Washington, D.C.,” Public Administration Review 66 (November/December 2006): 816, 817.

0.      Ed Bruske, “Plea Bargains Erode Drug Law’s Intent,” Washington Post, May 12, 1986.

0.      Sari Horwitz, “D.C. Drug Crackdown Nets 23,000 Arrests,” Washington Post, August 21, 1987.

0.      Linda Wheeler, “D.C. Tops Country in Drug Arrests,” Washington Post, September 24, 1987.

0.      Lisa Daugaard’s work with LEAD in Seattle, as well as the problem-oriented policing movement, both show that police don’t have to adopt such a narrow view. Sara Jean Green, “LEAD Program for Low-Level Drug Criminals Sees Success,” Seattle Times, April 8, 2015; Herman Goldstein, “Improving Policing: A Problem-Oriented Approach,” Crime & Delinquency 25 (1979): 236–58.

0.      Wil Haygood, “Locked Up Inside,” Washington Post, December 18, 2005.

0.      Herbert, “Can’t You See What I’m Saying?,” 137.

0.      Michael York and Pierre Thomas, “Taking It to the Streets,” Washington Post, December 15, 1991.

0.      Ibid.

0.      William Chambliss, “Policing the Ghetto Underclass: The Politics of Law and Law Enforcement,” Social Problems 41, no. 2 (1944): 179.

0.      Ibid.

0.      New York City police chief Ray Kelly reportedly used a similar rationale to defend the city’s stop-and-frisk policy in 2010. New York senator Eric Adams stated in an affidavit in Floyd v. New York that in July 2010 he met with Commissioner Kelly to discuss proposed legislation regarding stop-and-frisk practices and that during the meeting, “Commissioner Kelly stated that the NYPD targets its stop-and-frisk activity at young black and Latino men because it wants to instill the belief in members of these two populations that they could be stopped and frisked every time they leave their homes, so that they are less likely to carry weapons.” Floyd v. City of N.Y., 283 F.R.D. 153, 163 n.40 (S.D.N.Y. 2012).