1. Memo to Secretary of State–Designate Christopher, January 5, 1993, “Parting Thoughts: U.S. Foreign Policy in the Years Ahead.”
2. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 836.
1. 1984 Amman 6594, July 16, 1984, “The Changing Face of Jordanian Politics.”
1. George Kennan, Memoirs, 1925–1950 (Boston: Atlantic–Little, Brown, 1967), 326–27.
2. Thomas Friedman, “Washington at Work; In Quest of a Post–Cold War Plan,” New York Times, November 17, 1989.
3. Quoted in Michael Beschloss and Strobe Talbott, At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993), 25.
4. George H. W. Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Random House, 1998), 12.
5. Memo to Deputy Secretary Eagleburger, April 10, 1990, “Deepening U.S.–East European Relations.”
6. Quoted in John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), 248.
7. David Hoffman, “U.S. Envoy Conciliatory to Saddam,” Washington Post, July 12, 1991.
8. Memo to Under Secretary Kimmitt, August 4, 1990, “Kuwait: The First Post–Cold War Crisis.”
9. Memo to Kimmitt, August 20, 1990, “Containing Saddam: Diplomatic Options.”
10. 1990 Riyadh 2457, November 20, 1990, “Reflections on Post-Crisis Security Arrangements in the Persian Gulf.”
11. Memo to Secretary Baker, April 30, 1992, “Foreign Policy in the Second Bush Administration: An Overview.”
12. Memo to Secretary of State–Designate Christopher, January 5, 1993, “Parting Thoughts: U.S. Foreign Policy in the Years Ahead.”
1. 1994 Moscow 35565, December 9, 1994, “Russia on the Eve of the Vice President’s Visit.”
2. William Jefferson Clinton, “Remarks to the American Society of Newspaper Editors,” Annapolis, Maryland, April 1, 1993.
3. Strobe Talbott, The Russia Hand: A Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy (New York: Random House, 2002), 5.
4. 1994 Moscow 27483, September 22, 1994, “Yeltsin and Russia on the Eve of the Summit.”
5. Tom De Waal, “Chechnya: The Breaking Point,” in Chechnya: From Past to Future, ed. Richard Sakwa (London: Anthem Press, 2005), 187.
6. 1995 Moscow 883, January 11, 1995, “Sifting Through the Wreckage: Chechnya and Russia’s Future.”
7. Interview with Secretary Christopher, MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, PBS, November 13, 1994.
8. Thomas Pickering, Oral History Interview, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, April 18, 2003.
9. 1995 Moscow 5788, February 22, 1995, “Yeltsin and Russia Totter On.”
10. 1995 Moscow 19971, June 26, 1995, “Coping with Uncertainty: Russia on the Eve of the Vice President’s Visit.”
11. 1995 Moscow 6176, February 24, 1995, “Ambassador’s Meeting on Chechnya with Disaster Relief Expert.”
12. 1995 Moscow 19896, June 26, 1995, “Ingush and Chechen Views on the Fred Cuny Case.”
13. Ibid.
14. 1995 Moscow 26910, August 23, 1995, “Cuny Case.”
15. 1995 Moscow 19971.
16. Richard Holbrooke, To End a War (New York: Random House, 1998), 117.
17. 1995 Moscow 32066, October 5, 1995, “Thoughts on the Eve of the VP’s Meeting.”
18. Memo of Conversation Between Presidents Clinton and Yeltsin, May 10, 1995, National Security Council and NSC Records Management System, “Declassified Documents Concerning Russian President Boris Yeltsin,” Clinton Digital Library.
19. 1994 Moscow 35186, December 6, 1994, “Russia and NATO.”
20. 1995 Moscow 32066.
1. 1999 Amman 615, January 26, 1999, “A Poignant Farewell.”
2. Jeremy Konyndyk, “Clinton and Helms Nearly Ruined State. Tillerson Wants to Finish the Job,” Politico, May 4, 2017.
3. 1999 Amman 1059, February 7, 1999, “King Hussein’s Legacy and Jordan’s Future.”
4. “Jordan’s Hussein Says His Cancer Is Curable,” CNN, July 28, 1998.
5. Hourani letter to author, April 1984.
6. Dana Priest, “CIA Taps Richer for Operations Post,” Washington Post, November 30, 2004.
7. 1998 Amman 9928, November 5, 1998, “Your Visit to Jordan.”
8. 1998 Amman 9517, October 20, 1998, “Staying Ahead of Events in Jordan.”
9. 1999 Amman 1059.
10. 1999 Amman 3867, May 10, 1999, “A Young Man in a Hurry.”
11. 2000 Amman 698, February 8, 2000, “Keeping a Sense of Perspective About King Abdullah’s First Year.”
12. 2000 Amman 1909, April 12, 2000, “Political Drift in Jordan.”
13. 1999 Amman 1588, February 26, 1999, “Jordan in Transition.”
14. 2000 Amman 5743, October 15, 2000, “The Tragedy Across the River and Jordan’s Uncertain Future.”
15. Ibid.
16. 2000 Amman 6760, December 5, 2000, “Peace Process: Relaunching American Diplomacy.”
17. 2001 Amman 336, January 22, 2001, “Abdullah Faces a Troubled New Year.”
18. 2001 Amman 1658, April 2, 2001, “King Abdullah’s Visit to Washington.”
1. “CIA Beirut Station Chief Is Among the Dead,” Washington Post, December 25, 1988.
2. Email to Secretary Powell, March 24, 2004, “Note from Bill Burns: Libya, March 23.”
3. “Remarks to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee,” April 17, 2001.
4. Memo to Powell, February 15, 2002, “Moving to Tenet Implementation.”
5. Paper for Powell from Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs and the Policy Planning Staff, August 30, 2001, “Strategies for Preserving U.S. Political Capital in the Middle East.”
6. 2002 Riyadh 06674, October 21, 2002, “Talks in Egypt and Jordan.”
7. Memo to Deputy Secretary Armitage, November 19, 2001, “Deputies Committee Meeting on Iraq.”
8. Interview with Richard Armitage, “Bush’s War,” Frontline, PBS, December 18, 2007.
9. 2003 Amman 00467, January 22, 2003, “Meetings in Bahrain and UAE, January 21–22.”
10. Memo to Powell, February 14, 2002, “Regional Concerns Regarding Regime Change in Iraq.”
11. Email to Powell, April 1, 2002, “Next Steps on Middle East.”
12. Memo to Powell, July 29, 2002, “Iraq: The Perfect Storm.”
13. Email to Powell, August 16, 2002, “Iraq and the President’s UNGA Speech.”
14. Memo to Powell, January 16, 2003, “Today’s Iraq PC.”
15. Memo to Powell, July 22, 2002, “Role of the External Iraqi Opposition.”
16. Email to Powell, July 11, 2003, “Rethinking Our Iraq Strategy.”
17. Email to Powell, March 22, 2003, “Middle East: Update, 3/22 (1500).”
18. Ibid.
19. Memo to Powell, June 11, 2002, “Principals Meeting on Middle East.”
20. Email to Powell, June 13, 2002, “Rice Meeting with Israelis, June 13.”
21. Ibid.
22. Memo to Powell, June 25, 2002, “President’s Speech: Short-Term Follow-Up.”
23. Quoted in Aaron David Miller, The Much Too Promised Land: America’s Elusive Search for Arab-Israeli Peace (New York: Bantam, 2008), 352.
24. Quoted in Charles Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992), 513.
25. Memo to Powell, March 11, 2003, “Read-Out of Libya Meetings.”
26. Email to Powell, February 6, 2004, “Libya Talks, February 6.”
27. Memo to Secretary of State–Designate Rice, December 6, 2004, “Policy Paper for the Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs.”
1. Memo for the Record, October 22, 2006, “A Birthday Dinner with Putin’s Politburo.”
2. 2006 Moscow 6759, June 26, 2006, “Your Visit to Moscow.”
3. Ibid.
4. 2006 Moscow 1925, February 28, 2006, “Lavrov’s Visit and Strategic Engagement with Russia.”
5. 2008 Moscow 886, April 1, 2008, “Your Visit to Sochi.”
6. Email to Secretary Rice, April 11, 2006, “Note for the Secretary from Bill Burns.”
7. 2006 Moscow 6759.
8. 2006 Moscow 1925.
9. 2006 Moscow 11939, October 25, 2006, “Your Visit to Moscow.”
10. Ibid.
11. Angela E. Stent, The Limits of Partnership: U.S.-Russian Relations in the Twenty-First Century (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014), 147.
12. Email to Rice, February 16, 2007, “Thoughts on Munich and Russian Government Reshuffle.”
13. Email to Rice, January 31, 2007, “Thoughts on Lavrov Visit.”
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Email to Rice, February 16, 2007.
17. 2007 Moscow 2776, June 11, 2007, “June 9–10 Conversations with Putin and His Senior Advisors.”
18. 2007 Moscow 2588, June 1, 2007, “Your Meeting with Putin at G-8.”
19. Email to Rice, February 8, 2008, “Russia Strategy.”
20. Stent, The Limits of Partnership, 167.
21. 2008 Moscow 886.
22. Ibid.
1. In 1982, Walter J. Stoessel, Jr., became the first active foreign service officer appointed deputy secretary of state. Lawrence Eagleburger (1989–92) and John Negroponte (2007–9) were both retired from the Foreign Service when they were appointed deputy secretary by George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush respectively.
2. Memo to Secretary Rice, August 27, 2008, “Indian Civil Nuclear Initiative.”
3. Memo to Secretary Clinton, March 20, 2009, “A New Partnership with India.”
4. The best account of the back-channel talks is Steve Coll, “The Back Channel,” New Yorker, March 2, 2009. The Pakistan discussions are also addressed in Memo to Clinton, June 12, 2009, “Seizing the Moment with India.”
5. Hillary Clinton, Hard Choices (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014), 83–100.
6. Contemporaneous personal notes.
7. Memo to Clinton, February 13, 2009, “February 11–12 Meetings in Moscow.”
8. Ibid.
9. Email to Clinton, September 7, 2009, “Note for the Secretary: Missile Defense.”
10. Memo to Clinton, December 5, 2011, “Monday Update.”
11. Michael McFaul, From Cold War to Hot Peace: An American Ambassador in Putin’s Russia (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2018), 254.
1. Email to Secretary Clinton, February 23, 2011, “Note for the Secretary from Bill Burns: Tunis, February 23.”
2. Hillary Clinton, “Remarks with Spanish Foreign Minister Trinidad Jimenez,” January 25, 2011, and Joe Biden, PBS NewsHour, January 27, 2011.
3. Robert Gates, Duty (New York: Knopf, 2014), 504.
4. Email to Clinton, February 22, 2011, “Note for the Secretary from Bill Burns: Cairo, February 21–22.”
5. Ibid.
6. Email to Clinton, June 30, 2011, “Note for the Secretary from Bill Burns: Tunis and Cairo, June 27–30.”
7. Email to Clinton, January 12, 2012, “Note for the Secretary from Bill Burns: Egypt, January 10–12.”
8. “WikiLeaks Cables Reveal Personal Details on World Leaders,” Washington Post, November 28, 2010.
9. Muammar al-Qaddafi, radio address, March 17, 2011.
10. Email to Secretary Kerry, April 25, 2014, “Tripoli, April 23–24.”
11. Email to Clinton, February 17, 2010, “Note for the Secretary from Bill Burns: Meetings in Damascus, February 17.”
12. Ernesto Londono and Greg Miller, “CIA Begins Weapons Delivery to Syrian Rebels,” Washington Post, September 11, 2013.
1. Memo to Secretary Rice, May 27, 2008, “Regaining the Strategic Initiative on Iran.”
2. Ibid.
3. Memo to Rice, July 19, 2008, “Meeting with Iranians, July 19.”
4. Memo to Secretary Clinton, January 24, 2009, “A New Strategy Toward Iran.”
5. Ibid.
6. “A Nowruz Message from President Obama,” March 19, 2009.
7. Philip Rucker, “Hillary Clinton Defends Her ‘Hard Choices’ at State Department,” Washington Post, May 14, 2014.
1. Memo to Secretary of State–Designate Christopher, January 5, 1993, “Parting Thoughts: U.S. Foreign Policy in the Years Ahead.”
2. From a 1946 lecture at the National War College, quoted in Barton Gellman, Contending with Kennan: Toward a Philosophy of American Power (New York: Praeger, 1984), 126–27.
3. “Remarks by President Trump and President Putin of the Russia Federation in Joint Press Conference,” Helsinki, Finland, July 16, 2018.
4. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, volume 1, chapter XIII (1835).
5. John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
6. Michael E. O’Hanlon, Beyond NATO: A New Security Architecture for Eastern Europe (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2017).
7. James Goldgeier and Elizabeth N. Saunders, “Good Foreign Policy Is Invisible,” ForeignAffairs.com, February 28, 2017.
8. Charles W. Freeman, Jr., The Diplomat’s Dictionary (Washington, D.C.: Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 84.
9. Charles Freeman, Lecture Series at Watson Institute of International and Public Affairs, Brown University, 2017–18.
10. Memo to Christopher, January 5, 1993.
11. Ibid.
12. John Norris, “How to Balance Safety and Openness for America’s Diplomats,” Atlantic, November 4, 2013.
13. Memo to Christopher, January 5, 1993.
14. Quoted in Dan Morgan, Merchants of Grain: The Power and Profits of the Five Giant Companies at the Center of the World’s Food Supply (New York: Viking, 1979), 301.