INTRODUCTION
1. I use the English plural s in pluralizing Turkish words rather than the Turkish plural lEr.
2. Female hocas in the Süleymancı community have ascended to this level through a specific course of training, much like male imams who were trained by the state. There are no female imams trained by the state.
3. Talal Asad, Genealogies of Religion (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 35.
4. Jose Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 55.
5. Reading Isaac Bashevis Singer, In My Father’s Court (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1966), helped me understand a world in which religion is not yet privatized.
6. Kristen Ghodsee, Muslim Lives in Eastern Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 22.
7. Samuli Schielke, “Policing Ambiguity: Muslim Saints–Day Festivals and the Moral Geography of Public Space in Egypt,” American Ethnologist 35, no. 4 (2008): 539–52.
8. Saba Mahmood, Politics of Piety (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
9. Amira Mittermaier, Dreams That Matter: Egyptian Landscapes of the Imagination (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).
10. Mandana Limbert, In the Time of Oil: Piety, Memory, and Social Life in an Omani Town (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).
11. Dorothea Schultz, “(Re)Turning to Proper Muslim Practice: Islamic Moral Renewal and Women’s Conflicting Assertions of Sunni Identity in Urban Mali,” Africa Today 54, no. 4 (2008): 21–43.
12. Berna Turam, Between Islam and the State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007).
13. Ahmet Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2012).
14. Asef Bayat, Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), 172–73.
15. Olivier Roy, Globalized Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 157; Dale F. Eickelman and James Piscatori, Muslim Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 117–19.
16. Reinhold Loeffler, Islam in Practice: Religious Belief in a Persian Village (Albany: State University of New York Press Press, 1988).
17. Magnus Marsden, Living Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
18. Erik Mueggler, The Age of Wild Ghosts: Memory, Violence, and Place in Southwest China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
19. Margaret Paxson, Solovyovo: The Story of Memory in a Russian Village (Washington, DC, and Bloomington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Indiana University Press, 2005).
20. I thank Anna Sun for sharing her manuscript on Confucianism in China at the Institute for Advanced Study. This work is forthcoming from Princeton University Press, 2013.
21. Works which consider this gray area ethnographically include: Cihan Tuğal, Passive Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009); Catharina Raudvere, The Book and the Roses (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2002); Brian Silverstein, Islam and Modernity in Turkey (New York: Palgrave, 2011).
22. See the Muhammed Zühdü Web site, www.muhammedzuhdu.com/v1 (last accessed November 2, 2012).
23. See Sibel Bozdoğan, Modernism and Nation Building (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001); Zeynep Kezer, “Contesting Urban Space in Early Republican Ankara,” Journal of Architectural Education 52, no. 1 (1998): 11–19.
24. Ottoman is distinctly different from modern Turkish, written in the Arabic alphabet and with different grammatical structures and vocabulary—I am unable to read it.
25. Reşat Kasaba, A Moveable Empire: Ottoman Nomads, Migrants, and Refugees (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009), 21.
26. Halil Inalcık, “The Yürüks: Their Origins, Expansion, and Economic Role,” in Oriental Carpet and Textile Studies, vol. 2, edited by Robert Pinner and Walter B. Denny (London: Hali Publications, 1986), 43.
27. Kasaba, Moveable Empire.
28. Jeremy Walton, “Practices of Neo-Ottomanism: Making Space and Place Virtuous in Istanbul,” in Orienting Istanbul: Cultural Capital of Europe? edited by Levent Soysal, Deniz Göktürk, and Ipek Türeli (London: Routledge, 2010); Raudvere, Book and the Roses, 12: 72.
29. Kimberly Hart, “The Decline of a Cooperative,” in Cross-Stitching Textile Economies with Value, Sanctity, and Transnationalism, edited by Patricia A. McAnany and Walter Little (New York: AltaMira, 2011).
30. Damla Işik, “Woven Assemblages: Globalization, Gender, Labor, and Authenticity in Turkey’s Carpet Industry” (Ph.D. diss., Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, 2007).
31. I will address terminological questions about tarikat later in the book.
32. Cihan Tuğal, Passive Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009).
33. Yasin Navaro-Yashin, Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).
34. Jenny White, Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002).
35. Nilüfer Göle, The Forbidden Modern (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996).
36. Esra Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Everyday Politics in Turkey (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).
37. Michael Meeker, A Nation of Empire: The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
CHAPTER 1: SECULAR TIME AND THE INDIVIDUAL
1. Erik Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London: I. B. Tauris, 2004), 147–49.
2. Nazli Ökten, “An Endless Death and an Eternal Mourning,” in The Politics of Public Memory, edited by Esra Özyürek (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007), 98–99.
3. Catharina Raudvere, The Book and the Roses (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2002), 47.
4. Kemal Kirişci, “Migration and Turkey: The Dynamics of State, Society, and Politics,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, edited by Reşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 175–83.
5. Elizabeth Shakman Hurd, The Politics of Secularism in International Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 54.
6. Joan Wallach Scott, The Politics of the Veil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 15.
7. Jeremy Walton, “Practices of Neo-Ottomanism: Making Space and Place Virtuous in Istanbul,” in Orienting Istanbul: Cultural Capital of Europe? edited by Levent Soysal, Deniz Göktürk, and Ipek Türeli (London: Routledge, 2010), 89.
8. Esra Özyurek, “The Politics of Public Memory,” in The Politics of Public Memory, edited by Esra Özyurek (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007), 116–31.
9. Marcy Brink-Danan, Jewish Life in 21st-Century Turkey (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012).
10. Brian Silverstein, “Islam and Modernity in Turkey,” Anthropological Quarterly 76, no. 3 (2003): 511.
11. See Erik Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London: I. B. Tauris, 2004), 186–95, for a historical narrative of these reforms.
12. Gavin Brockett, How Happy to Call Oneself a Turk: Provincial Newspapers and the Negotiation of a Muslim National Identity (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011), 2.
13. Banu Eligür, The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 46–48.
14. Richard Pfaff, “Disengagement from Traditionalism in Turkey and Iran,” Western Political Quarterly 16, no. 1 (1963): 96; Hakan Yavuz, “The Assassination of Collective Memory: The Case of Turkey,” Muslim World 89, nos. 3–4 (1999): 202.
15. Eligür, Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey, 50–51.
16. Martin Stokes, The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 24.
17. Cihan Tuğal, “The Appeal of Islamic Politics,” Sociological Quarterly 47 (2006): 266.
18. Zeynep Kezer, “Familiar Things in Strange Places: Ankara’s Ethnography Museum and the Legacy of Islam in Republican Turkey,” Perspectives on Vernacular Architecture 8 (2000): 103.
19. Esra Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Everyday Politics in Turkey (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 3–4.
20. Ayşe Kadioğlu, “Republican Epistemology and Islamic Discourses in Turkey in the 1990s,” Muslim World 88, no. 1 (1998): 13.
21. S. M. Can Bilsel, “‘Our Anatolia’: Organicism and the Making of Humanist Culture in Turkey,” Muqarnas 24 (2007): 234.
22. Katherine Pratt Ewing, Stolen Honor: Stigmatizing Muslim Men in Berlin (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 27–51.
23. Ziya Gökalp, Turkish Nationalism and Western Civilization, translated by Niyazi Berkes (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1959).
24. Bilsel, “‘Our Anatolia,’” 234.
25. Eligür, Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey, 39.
26. Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (New York: Overlook Press, 1999), 495–96.
27. Kirby Fay Berkes, “The Village Instiute Movement of Turkey” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia Teachers College, Columbia University, 1960), 330.
28. Asim Karaomerlioğlu, “The Village Institutes Experience in Turkey,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 25, no. 1 (1998): 47–73.
29. Zürcher, Turkey, 195.
30. Richard Tapper, ed., Islam in Modern Turkey (New York: I. B. Tauris, 1991), 10.
31. Sam Kaplan, The Pedagogical State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006), 76.
32. Hakan Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 73.
33. Bilsel, “‘Our Anatolia,’” 235.
34. Sami Zubaida, “Turkish Islam and National Identity,” Middle East Report 199 (April–June 1996): 11; Jenny White, “Islamic Chic,” in Istanbul: Between the Global and the Local, edited by Çağlar Keyder (New York: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1999), 79.
35. Ümit Çizre, “Ideology, Context, and Interest: The Turkish Military,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, edited by Reşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 314.
36. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, 73.
37. Eligür, Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey, 101.
38. Kaplan, Pedagogical State, 81.
39. See Leyla Neyzi, “Object or Subject? The Paradox of ‘Youth’ in Turkey,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 33, no. 3 (2001): 418.
40. Ahmet Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2012), 69.
41. Talip Kucukcan, “Sacralization of the State and Secular Nationalism: Foundations of Civil Religion in Turkey,” George Washington International Law Review 41, no. 4 (2010): 970.
42. Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe, 97.
43. Bayat, Life as Politics, 243.
44. The Mavi Marmara is a boat owned by a Turkish human rights organization used to break the Israeli embargo of the Gaza Strip. The ship was attacked by Israeli military forces, though it was manned by civilians, in May 2010. Nine activists were killed. The event inspired passionate discussion about Israel and the United States in the villages.
CHAPTER 2: ISLAMIC TIME AND THE VILLAGE
1. Carol Greenhouse, A Moment’s Notice: Time Politics Across Cultures (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996), 3.
2. Hakan Yavuz, “The Assassination of Collective Memory,” Muslim World 89, nos. 3–4 (1999): 200.
3. Zeynep Gürsel, Coffee Futures (Watertown, MA: Documentary Educational Resources, 2009).
4. Esra Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Everyday Politics in Turkey (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).
5. Ibid., 61.
6. Samanyolu is financially and ideologically connected to Fethullah Gülen and Kanal 7 is affiliated with the former Refah Party, according to Kira Kosnick, Migrant Media (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2007), 113.
7. It happens that I recorded this discussion while it happened and therefore decided to preserve the spoken language of the young girl in which she said “sins” as künahlar rather than with the correct Turkish, günahlar.
8. Asef Bayat, “Islamism and the Politics of Fun,” Public Culture 19, no. 3 (2007): 433–59.
9. Ibid., 457.
10. Ibid., 436.
11. See Samuli Schielke, “Habitus of the Authentic, Order of the Rational: Contesting Saints’ Festivals in Contemporary Egypt,” Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 12, no. 2 (2003): 155–72.
12. Saba Mahmood, Politics of Piety (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), 143.
13. Ahmet Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2012), 26.
14. The Yasin, chapter 36 of the Qur’an, is regarded as its “heart,” and is read often on such occasions as when people visit a saint’s tomb, upon visiting the graves of relatives on Arife Günü, and by women during their prayer gatherings.
15. I thank Esra Özyürek for this insight.
16. Arnold Van Gennep, The Rites of Passage (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960).
17. International Strategic Research Organization, “Turkish President Approves Laws on Paid Military Service and Match-Fixing Penalties,” December 14, 2011, Journal of Turkish Weekly, www.turkishweekly.net/news/127959/turkish-president-approves-laws-on-paid-military-service-and-match-fixing-penalties.html (last accessed January 15, 2013).
18. The PKK, or Kurdistan Workers’ Party, founded in 1977, is a neo–Marxist organization led by Abdullah Öcalan, currently in prison in Turkey. The organization has led a Kurdish uprising called at times a civil war in southeastern Turkey. Kurds associated with the PKK want to establish an independent Kurdistan. See Hamit Bozarslan, “Kurds and the Turkish State,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, edited by Reşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 333–56.
19. Murafa Üstünova and Kerime Üstünova, “Soldier Wedding in Kaynarca,” Journal of Folklore Research 43, no. 2 (2006): 177.
20. Ibid., 184.
21. Yael Navaro-Yashin, Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 119.
22. Robert Bellah, “Civil Religion in America,” Daedalus 96, no. 1 (1967): 1–21; Talip Kucukcan, “Sacralization of the State and Secular Nationalism: Foundations of Civil Religion in Turkey,” George Washington International Law Review 41, no. 4 (2010): 963–83.
23. Michael Herzfeld, “Performative Categories and Symbols of Passage in Rural Greece,” Journal of American Folklore 94, no. 371 (1981): 48.
24. Zeynep Kezer, “Contesting Urban Space in Early Republican Ankara,” Journal of Architectural Education 52, no. 1 (1998): 14.
25. Winnifred Fallers Sullivan, The Impossibility of Religious Freedom (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 94–95.
26. Ibid., 159.
CHAPTER 3: GOOD DEEDS AND THE MORAL ECONOMY
Adapted from Kimberly Hart, “Performing Piety and Islamic Modernity in a Turkish Village,” Ethnology 46, no. 4 (2007): 289–304.
1. Şevket Pamuk, “Economic Change in Twentieth-Century Turkey,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, edited by Reşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 286–87.
2. Cihan Tuğal, “Islamism in Turkey: Beyond Instrument and Meaning,” Economy and Society 31, no. 1 (2002): 98.
3. Laura Deeb, An Enchanted Modern (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 8.
4. See Reinhold Loeffler, Islam in Practice: Religious Belief in a Persian Village (Albany: State University of New York Press Press, 1988).
5. Jonathan Benthall, “Financial Worship: The Quranic Injunction to Almsgiving,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5, no. 1 (1999): 30.
6. John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 91.
7. Benthall, “Financial Worship,” 29.
8. Bill Maurer, Mutual Life, Limited (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 107.
9. Katherine Bowie, “The Alchemy of Charity,” American Anthropologist 100, no. 2 (1998): 476; Maurer, Mutual Life, Limited, 69.
10. Maurer, Mutual Life, Limited, 93.
11. Benthall, “Financial Worship,” 30.
12. Maurer, Mutual Life, Limited, 93.
13. Nawawi, quoted in F. E. Peters, A Reader on Classical Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 153–54.
14. Amy Singer, Charity in Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 68.
15. Marcel Mauss, The Gift, translated by W. D. Halls (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), 18.
16. Tuğal, “Islamism in Turkey,” 103.
17. Günseli Berik, Women Carpet Weavers in Rural Turkey (Geneva: International Labour Office, 1987); T. B. Ehlers, Silent Looms (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000); Jeffrey Cohen, Cooperation and Community (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1999).
18. Tuğal, “Islamism in Turkey,” 91.
19. See Jenny White, Money Makes Us Relatives (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), 93–98.
20. It is far from the case that children do not help their parents in the villages. Many girls weave full-time and contribute to the household income pool until they marry and sons contribute some amount of their earnings when they work in cheese workshops. Adult married children continue to assist their parents economically and look after them in old age.
21. Reşat Kasaba, A Moveable Empire: Ottoman Nomads, Migrants, and Refugees (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009), for example, describes how nomads had animals and transported goods during the Ottoman era. Apparently, former nomads continued to work transporting goods by camel during the early decades of the republic.
22. Carol Delaney, The Seed and the Soil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 107; Loeffler, Islam in Practice, 15; Jenny White, Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 20–21.
23. See, e.g., White, Money Makes Us Relatives, 74.
24. Kimberly Hart, “The Economy and Morality of Elopement in Rural Western Turkey,” Ethnologia Europaea 40, no. 1 (2010): 58–76.
25. Ibid.
26. Suzan Ilcan, “Marriage Regulation and the Rhetoric of Alliance in Northwestern Turkey,” Ethnology 33, no. 4 (1994): 280.
27. James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985), 171.
28. Benthall, “Financial Worship,” 32.
29. Scott, Weapons of the Weak, 172.
30. Paul Stirling, Turkish Village (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966), 246–54.
31. Nilüfer Göle, The Forbidden Modern (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 52.
32. White, Islamist Mobilization, 198–99.
33. Suzan Ilcan, “Social Spaces and the Micropolitics of Differentiation: An Example from Northwestern Turkey,” Ethnology 38, no. 3 (1999): 243–56.
34. White, Islamist Mobilization, 21.
35. Ibid., 68.
36. White, Money Makes Us Relatives, 95–98.
37. Loeffler, Islam in Practice, 15.
38. Ibid.
39. White, Money Makes Us Relatives, 93–96.
40. Loeffler, Islam in Practice, 15.
41. White, Money Makes Us Relatives, 72, 119–20.
42. Tuğal, “Islamism in Turkey,” 99.
CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTING ISLAM
1. Kabir Tambar, “The Aesthetics of Public Visibility: Alevi Semah and the Paradoxes of Pluralism in Turkey,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 52, no. 3 (2010): 652–79.
2. BBC, “Vatican and Muslims Condemn Swiss Minaret Ban,” November 30, 2009, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/europe/8385893.stm (last accessed November 16, 2012).
3. Carolin Jenkner, “Go-Ahead for Germany’s Biggest Mosque,” Der Spiegel International, August 29, 2008.
4. Gerdien Jonker, “The Mevlana Mosque in Berlin-Kreuzberg: An Unsolved Conflict,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31, no. 6 (2005): 1067–81; Michael Kaczmarek, “The Mosque Controversy,” September 27, 2007, available at www.eurotopics.net/en/home/presseschau/archiv/magazin/kultur-verteilerseite-neu/moscheebauten_2007_09/debatte_moscheebauten_2007_09/Euro-Topics, owned by the Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung) (last accessed January 5, 2013).
5. Clyde Haberman, “Putting ‘Un–American’ in Perspective,” New York Times, March 21, 2011.
6. Sefa Şimşek, Zerrin Polvan, and Tayfun Yeşilşerit, “The Mosque as a Divisive Symbol in the Turkish Political Landscape,” Turkish Studies 7, no. 3 (2006): 489–508.
7. Marc Baer, “The Great Fire of 1660 and the Islamization of Christian and Jewish Space in Istanbul,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 36, no. 2 (2004): 159–81.
8. Zeynep Kezer, “Contesting Urban Space in Early Republican Ankara,” Journal of Architectural Education 52, no. 1 (1998): 11–19; Kezer, “An Imaginable Community: The Material Culture of Nation-Building in Early Republican Turkey,” Society and Space 27, no. 3 (2009): 508–30.
9. Amy Singer, Charity in Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 93.
10. Ibid., 188.
11. Ibid., 189.
12. Ibid., 191.
13. Zeynep Kezer, “Familiar Things in Strange Places: Ankara’s Ethnography Museum and the Legacy of Islam in Republican Turkey,” Perspectives on Vernacular Architecture 8 (2000): 101–16.
14. Reha Günay, A Guide to the Works of Sinan the Architect in Istanbul (Istanbul: Yam Yayın, 2006), 76–96.
15. Nuran Kara Pilehvarian, Nur Urfalıoğlu, and Lütfi Yazıcıoğlu, Fountains in Ottoman Istanbul (Istanbul: Yapı Yayın, 2004).
16. Amy Singer, Constructing Ottoman Beneficence (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002).
17. Anatolian News Agency, “Süleymaniye Library Holds Turkey’s Treasure,” Hürriyet Daily News, May 24, 2012.
18. Kezer, “Familiar Things in Strange Places,” 110.
19. Singer, Constructing Ottoman Beneficence.
20. Ibid., 183.
21. Gülru Necipoğlu-Kafadar, “The Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul: An Interpretation,” Muqarnas 3 (1985): 92–117.
22. Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (New York: Overlook Press, 1999), 411.
23. Necipoğlu-Kafadar, “Süleymaniye Complex.”
24. Kandils are holy evenings in the Islamic calendar.
25. Saba Mahmood, Politics of Piety (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
26. According to the Redhouse Türkce-Osmanlica-Ingilizce Dictionary (17th printing, 1999), maşatlik means “a non-Muslim cemetery, especially a Jewish one.”
27. Ilhan Başgöz, “Rain-Making Ceremonies in Turkey and Seasonal Festivals,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 87, no. 3 (1967): 304–6.
28. Michael Meeker, A Nation of Empire: The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 199 n. 30.
29. Ibid., 108.
30. Ibid., xii.
31. Ibid., 57.
32. Ibid.
33. The lu in Oflu is a suffix meaning “with.” Added to place names, it refers to a person’s origin, such as “Amerikalı.”
34. Meeker, Nation of Empire, 58.
35. Ibid.
36. Muska, also called nuska or nusha, is a triangular amulet made of a packet of cloth with a piece of paper with a Koranic verse selected to address some purpose tucked inside.
37. See Kimberly Hart, “Weaving Modernity, Commercializing Carpets: Collective Memory and Contested Tradition in Örselli Village,” in The Politics of Public Memory in Turkey, edited by Esra Özyürek (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007), 28.
38. Jeremy Walton, “Practices of Neo-Ottomanism: Making Space and Place Virtuous in Istanbul,” in Orienting Istanbul: Cultural Capital of Europe? edited by Levent Soysal, Deniz Göktürk, and Ipek Türeli (London: Routledge, 2010), 94.
39. Zeynep Kezer, “Molding the Republican Generation: Children and the Didactic Uses of Urban Space in Early Republican Turkey,” in Designing Modern Childhoods: History, Space, and the Material Culture of Children, edited by Marta Gutman and Ning de Coninck-Smith (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008), 131.
40. Necipoğlu-Kafadar, “Süleymaniye Complex in Istanbul.”
41. Sultan Camii, completed in 1522, was not built by Mimar Sinan.
42. An imam is a prayer leader and is not expected to compose sermons until reaching the rank of vaiz.
43. Because it was a funny news piece, this was reported in a number of places, including the BBC, “Istanbul’s Tuneless Muezzins Get Voice Training,” http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8665977.stm (last accessed November 16, 2012).
CHAPTER 5: WOMEN’S TRADITIONS AND INNOVATIONS
1. Saba Mahmood, Politics of Piety (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
2. Laura Deeb, An Enchanted Modern (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).
3. Tone Bringa, Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity and Community in a Central Bosnian Village (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
4. See Esra Özyürek, ed., The Politics of Public Memory in Turkey (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007), 3.
5. Ahmet Yükleyen, “Production of Mystical Islam in Europe: Religious Authorization in the Süleymanlı Sufi Community,” Contemporary Islam 4 (2010): 269–88.
6. I asked a few times to make sure I understood the name of the dede but I cannot unravel what oncak means. It is possible I misheard and the word was ocak, meaning hearth, kiln, or oven.
7. Please recall my discussion of the mixing of national and sectarian identities generally in Turkey, such that Turks are imagined to be Muslims. Foreigners (yabancı, gavur), similarly, are regarded as Christians and Greeks, former inhabitants of western Anatolia who fled or were exchanged with Turkish populations after the War of Independence, unless specifically identified as Jews.
8. Ahmet Yükleyen, “Sufism and Islamic Groups in Contemporary Turkey,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, edited by Reşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 386.
9. David Shankland, The Alevis in Turkey (New York: Routledge, 2003), 104–6.
10. Irene Melikoff, “From God of Heaven to King of Men: Popular Islam Among Turkish tribes from Central Asia to Anatolia,” Religion, State, and Society 24, nos. 2–3 (1996): 135.
11. See the Muhammed Zühdü Web site, www.muhammedzuhdu.com/v1/ (last accessed November 2, 2012).
12. Amira Mittermaier, Dreams That Matter: Egyptian Landscapes of the Imagination (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 6.
13. Ilhan Başgöz, “Dream Motif in Turkish Folk Stories and Shamanistic Initiation,” Asian Folklore Studies 26, no. 1 (1967): 5–6.
14. Ibid., 12.
15. The Diyanet posts rules at tombs it administers. These outline what one is forbidden to do, including light candles, wipe one’s face, circumambulate the tomb, leave food, lie down on the tomb, and so on. The signs state in a ham-fisted manner that these practices “have been absolutely forbidden in our religion [dinimizce kesinlikle yasaklanmıştır].” It is notable that the wording indicates that they were forbidden in the past using a passive mode of the reported miş tense, indicating that the Diyanet did not witness the time when they were forbidden. In fact, it was the Diyanet that created these regulations.
16. Esra Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Everyday Politics in Turkey (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 103.
17. Yael Navaro-Yashin, Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 193–94.
18. Sibel Bozdoğan, Modernism and Nation Building (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), 44.
19. The example Özyürek discusses is of a mountaintop in an Alevi village, which all the more effectively points to mystical power. Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern, 103–4.
20. Walter Denny, “Atatürk and Political Art in Turkey,” Turkish Studies Association Bulletin 6, no. 2 (1982): 18.
21. Mary Elaine Hegland, “Flagellation and Fundamentalism: (Trans)forming Meaning, Identity, and Gender Through Pakistani Women’s Rituals of Mourning,” American Ethnologist 25, no. 2 (1998): 240–66.
22. A mevlevihane housed male initiates and members in the Mevlevi order.
23. Perween Hassan, “The Footprint of the Prophet,” Muqarnas 10 (1993): 335–43.
24. F. E. Peters, A Reader on Classical Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 169–70.
25. I am typically not invited into the mosque during the namaz but am during Mevluts.
26. Marco Schöller, The Living and the Dead in Islam, vol. 2 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2004), 578.
27. Ibid., 22.
28. Ibid., 28.
29. Ibid., 36.
30. Asef Bayat, Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), 14–15.
CHAPTER 6: RITUAL PURIFICATION AND THE PERNICIOUS DANGER OF CULTURE
Adapted from Kimberly Hart, “The Orthodoxization of Ritual Practice in Western Anatolia,” American Ethnologist 36, no. 4 (2005): 735–49.
1. Kristen Ghodsee, Muslim Lives in Eastern Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010).
2. Ibid.
3. Cihan Tuğal, Passive Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009).
4. Brian Silverstein, Islam and Modernity in Turkey (New York: Palgrave, 2011).
5. Amira Mittermaier, Dreams That Matter: Egyptian Landscapes of the Imagination (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).
6. Kai Kresse, “Muslim Politics in Postcolonial Kenya,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 15, no. 1 (2009): S81.
7. Cihan Tuğal, “The Appeal of Islamic Politics,” Sociological Quarterly 47 (2006): 257.
8. Ibid., 265–66.
9. Pierre Nora, “Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Memoire,” Representations 26 (1989): 7–24.
10. Brian Silverstein, “Disciplines of Presence in Modern Turkey: Discourse, Companionship, and the Mass Mediation of Islamic Practice,” Cultural Anthropology 23, no. 1 (2008): 134–35.
11. Berna Turam, “The Politics of Engagement between Islam and the Secular State,” British Journal of Sociology 55, no. 2 (2004): 259–81; Hakan Yavuz and John Esposito, Turkish Islam and the Secular State: The Gülen Movement (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003).
12 Laura Deeb, An Enchanted Modern (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 8.
13. Talal Asad, Genealogies of Religion (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 210.
14. Mandana Limbert, “The Sacred Date: Gifts of God in an Omani Town,” Ethnos 73 (2008): 375.
15. June Anderson, Return to Tradition (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1998), 65.
16. Tuğal, “Appeal of Islamic Politics,” 258.
17. Asad, Genealogies of Religion, 210.
18. Martin Stokes, “Music, Fate, and State: Turkey’s Arabesk Debate,” Middle East Report 160 (1989): 29.
19. Martin Stokes, “Islam, the Turkish State, and Arabesk,” Popular Music 11, no. 2 (1992): 214.
20. Nancy Tapper and Richard Tapper, “The Birth of the Prophet: Ritual and Gender in Turkish Islam,” Man 22 (1987): 73.
21. Carol Delaney, The Seed and the Soil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 317–19; Julie Marcus, “Equal Rites and Women in Turkey,” Mankind 17, no. 2 (1987): 120–28; Nazli Ökten, “An Endless Death and an Eternal Mourning,” in The Politics of Public Memory in Turkey, edited by Esra Özyürek (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007), 98–99; Tapper and Tapper, “Birth of the Prophet.”
22. Tone Bringa, Being Muslim the Bosnian Way: Identity and Community in a Central Bosnian Village (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 169–71.
23. Tapper and Tapper, “Birth of the Prophet”; Bringa, Being Muslim the Bosnian Way; Marcus, “Equal Rites and Women in Turkey.”
24. The upturned washbasin resembles the “frame drum” discussed by Doubleday, who argues that this type of drum is associated with women in the Mediterranean region since ancient times. The village women never mentioned that they once had actual drums. Veronica Doubleday, “The Frame Drum in the Middle East: Women, Musical Instruments, and Power,” Ethnomusicology 43, no. 1 (1999): 101–34.
25. I thank Abbas Karakaya for this insight.
26. Asef Bayat, Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), 139.
27. Rasmussen describes how youthful Tuareg (a Muslim population in Niger, West Africa) enjoy music and dance festivals but older people avoid them and instead turn to prayer. Many, she says, believe that the musical instruments young people play are inhabited by the devil. Susan Rasmussen, “Wedding of Calm and Wedding of Noise: Aging Performed and Aging Misquoted in Tuareg Rites of Passage,” Journal of Anthropological Research 57, no. 3 (2001): 285–86.
28. Nancy Tapper and Richard Tapper, “‘Thank God We’re Secular!’ Aspects of Fundamentalism in a Turkish Town,” in Studies in Religious Fundamentalism, edited by Lionel Caplan (Albany: State University of New York Press Press, 1987), 59; Jenny White, Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2002), 35.
29. Lara Deeb, “Piety Politics and the Role of a Transnational Feminist Analysis,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 15, no. 1 (2009): S122.
30. Saba Mahmood, Politics of Piety (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
31. See the essays in Gaonkar’s collected volume for examples of how scholars have assessed the meaning of modernity in nonwestern contexts. Dilip Parameshwar Gaonkar, ed., Alternative Modernities (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001).
32. Nilüfer Göle, The Forbidden Modern (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 113.
33. Tuğal, “Appeal of Islamic Politics,” 259.
34. Göle, Forbidden Modern, 113.
35. Lila Abu-Lughod, Writing Women’s Worlds: Bedouin Stories (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 9.
36. Michael Herzfeld, Cultural Intimacy: Social Poetics in the Nation-State (New York: Routledge, 1997), 1.
37. Mark Liechty, Suitably Modern (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 22.
38. Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 17.
39. James Carrier, “Occidentalism: The World Turned Upside Down,” American Ethnologist 19, no. 2 (1992): 195–212.
40. Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978).
41. Renato Rosaldo, “Imperialist Nostalgia,” Representations 26 (1989): 107–22.
42. Esra Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Everyday Politics in Turkey (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 4–6.
43. Deeb, Enchanted Modern, 33.
44. Orhan Pamuk, Istanbul: Memories and the City (New York: Vintage International, 2004), 35.
45. Ibid.
46. Herzfeld, Cultural Intimacy, 3.
47. Hakan Yavuz, “The Assassination of Collective Memory: The Case of Turkey,” Muslim World 89, nos. 3–4 (1999): 200.
48. Richard Pfaff, “Disengagement from Traditionalism in Turkey and Iran,” Western Political Quarterly 16, no. 1 (1963): 95.
CHAPTER 7: SECULAR AND SPIRITUAL ROUTES TO KNOWLEDGE
1. Henry J. Rutz and Erol M. Balkan, Reproducing Class: Education, Neoliberalism, and the Rise of the Middle Class in Istanbul (New York: Berghahn, 2010).
2. Paul Stirling, Turkish Village (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1966), 230.
3. John Renard, ed., Tales of God’s Friends (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 9.
4. Vernon James Schubel and Nurten Kiliç-Schubel, “Sari Islamail: The Beloved Disciple of Haci Betas Veli,” in Tales of God’s Friends, edited by John Renard (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 147.
5. Sam Kaplan, The Pedagogical State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006), 42.
6. Feroz Ahmad, “Politics and Political Parties in Republican Turkey,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 4, Turkey in the Modern World, edited by Reşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 229.
7. Quoted in ibid., 229.
8. Andrew Mango, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey (New York: Overlook Press, 1999), 475.
9. Ibid., 476.
10. Ahmad, “Politics and Political Parties,” 232.
11. Mona Hassan, “Women Preaching for the Secular State: Official Female Preachers (Bayan Vaizler) in Contemporary Turkey,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 43, no. 3 (2011): 457.
12. Henry J. Rutz and Erol M. Balkan, Reproducing Class.
13. Kaplan, Pedagogical State, 45–46.
14. Bergama is no longer a regional center but connected to the province of Izmir. Manisa continues to be the center of its own province.
15. Ahmet Tugaç, “Indices of Modernization: Erenköy, a Case of Local Initiative,” in Turkey: Geographic and Social Perspectives, edited by Erol Tümertekin, Peter Benedict, and Fatma Mansur (Leiden: Brill, 1974), 159.
16. Yael Navaro-Yashin, Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 97; Esra Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Everyday Politics in Turkey (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 165.
17. Jenny White, Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 235.
18. Erisa Dautaj Şenerdem, “Headscarf Issue Needs Social Consensus, Turkish Expert Says,” Hürriyet Daily News, October 24, 2010.
19. Jonathan Head, “Quiet End to Turkey’s College Headscarf Ban,” BBC, December 31, 2010, www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11880622 (last accessed January 2, 2013).
20. Daren Butler, “Turkey Lifts Headscarf Ban in Religious Schools,” Reuters, November 28, 2012, www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/28/us-turkey-headscarf-idUSBRE8AR0JW20121128 (last accessed January 2, 2013).
21. White, Islamist Mobilization, 225.
22. Deniz Kandiyoti, “Emancipated by Unliberated? Reflections on the Turkish Case,” Feminist Studies 13, no. 2 (1987): 328.
23. Catharina Raudvere, The Book and the Roses (Istanbul: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2002), 37.
24. Kaplan, Pedagogical State, 98; Esra Özyürek, Nostalgia for the Modern: State Secularism and Everyday Politics in Turkey (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 45.
25. It is interesting to note that once, while discussing Çevriye’s leadership role in the village, she noted that it was because her husband encouraged her and “gave her permission to work.” All women need permission from their husbands or fathers to work. Her husband also described his supportive role, which helped Çevriye become a leader in the cooperative, but he did not emphasize how he had given her “permission.”
26. Hakan Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 147.
CHAPTER 8: AN ENTREPRENEURIAL “NEO-TARIKAT” AND ISLAMIC EDUCATION
1. Olivier Roy, Globalized Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 221.
2. Brian Silverstein, Islam and Modernity in Turkey (New York: Palgrave, 2011), 183.
3. Ahmet Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2012), 65.
4. Jenny White, Islamist Mobilization in Turkey: A Study in Vernacular Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 139.
5. Winnifred Fallers Sullivan, The Impossibility of Religious Freedom (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
6. Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, “Treatment of Alevis by Society and Government Authorities; State Response to Mistreatment (2008–May 2012),” June 1, 2012, TUR104076.E, available at www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4fead9552.html (last accessed January 15, 2013).
7. Roy, Globalized Islam: 221–22.
8. Ibid., 222–23.
9. Ahmet Yükleyen, “Sufism and Islamic Groups in Contemporary Turkey,” in The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. 4, edited by Reşat Kasaba (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 384.
10. Ahmet Yükleyen, “Production of Mystical Islam in Europe: Religious Authorization in the Süleymanlı Sufi Community,” Contemporary Islam 4 (2010): 269–88.
11. Banu Eligür, The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 46.
12. Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), 407).
13. Brian Silverstein, “Sufism and Governmentality in the Late Ottoman Empire,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 29, no. 2 (2009): 171–85.
14. Eligür, Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey, 47.
15. Yükleyen, “Production of Mystical Islam in Europe,” 64.
16. Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe, 383.
17. Roy, Globalized Islam, 222.
18. Roy refers to the Gülen movement as a neo-tarikat; ibid., 80.
19. Jeremy Walton, “Horizons and Histories of Liberal Piety: Civil Islam and Secularism in Contemporary Turkey” (Ph.D. diss., Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, 2009), 113.
20. Berna Turam, Between Islam and the State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 12.
21. Fiachra Gibbons, “Turkey’s Enlightenment Languishes, Like the Journalists in Its Prisons,” The Guardian, March 13, 2012.
22. Hakan Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 148.
23. “Religious Communities and the State in Germany,” Federal Ministry of the Interior, www.bmi.bund.de/EN/Themen/PolitikGesellschaft/KirchenReligion/StaatRelegion/StaatReligion_node.html (last accessed November 16, 2012).
24. The government has granted most of the country’s major religious communities “public law corporation” (PLC) status, the benefits of which include the ability to collect contributions in accordance with rules similar to tax laws, building and tax regulation privileges, and the right to offer denominational religious education in state schools. PLCs also receive funds from the country’s “church tax”—between 8 and 9 percent of one’s income tax that is paid to the officially recognized denomination of which an individual is a registered member. Traditions that lack a centrally organized national structure—most notably Islam—have had difficulty attaining PLC status and the benefits that come with it. Georgetown University, Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs, http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/germany (last accessed November 16, 2012).
25. Yükleyen argues that the Süleymanlı are more correctly a religious community, cemaat, not a Sufi order. Nevertheless, their practices, as Yükleyen describes, involve engagement with mystical teachings from their founder. Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe.
26. Yükleyen, “Production of Mystical Islam in Europe,” 274.
27. Ibid., 275.
28. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, 146.
29. Jonker writes about the early history of the Süleymancıs: “The founders of the Turkish Sufi lay communities kept their distance from these state theologians as a matter of course.” Gerdien Jonker, “The Transformation of a Sufi Order into a Lay Community: The Süleymancı Movement in Germany and Beyond,” in European Muslims and the Secular State, edited by Jocelyne Cesari and Sean McLoughlin (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 2005), 172.
30. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, 146.
31. Yükleyen, “Sufism and Islamic Groups,” 384.
32. Eligür, Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey, 57–58.
33. Kira Kosnick, Migrant Media (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007).
34. Katherine Pratt Ewing, Stolen Honor: Stigmatizing Muslim Men in Berlin (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 102.
35. Yükleyen, Localizing Islam in Europe, 27.
36. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, 147.
37. Recall that Süleyman Tunahan studied with the Nakşibendi and branched off this group, when he founded his own.
38. Turam, Between Islam and the State, 49.
39. Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey, 148.
40. Ibid.
41. See, for example, Leyla Neyzi, “Remembering to Forget: Sabbateanism, National Identity, and Subjectivity in Turkey,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 44, no. 1 (2002): 137–58.
42. Yükleyen, “Production of Mystical Islam in Europe,” 279.
43. Kimberly Hart, “Love by Arrangement: The Ambiguity of ‘Spousal Choice’ in a Turkish Village,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 13 (2007): 345–62.
44. At the time we arrived to visit, the brother was working in the forests converting cut trees to charcoal. This had been a common occupation in the southern region of the Yuntdağ before the mountaintops were deforested about fifty years ago. As the former camel driver described, they took loads of charcoal to the cities by camel train and returned with goods to trade, such as salt, vegetables, and cloth.
45. Yükleyen, “Production of Mystical Islam in Europe,” 277.
46. Ibid.
47. Cihan Tuğal, Passive Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 1.
48. Eligür, Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey, 131.
49. Barbara Wolbert, “The Visual Production of Location,” Visual Anthropology Review 17, no. 1 (2001): 21–35.
CHAPTER 9: DEALING WITH THE SECULAR WORLD
1. Though many towns continue the practice, Kezer describes how in provincial towns in the early republic, because there were few radios, loudspeakers were connected to one radio, so that the whole town could hear national events being broadcast. Zeynep Kezer, “An Imaginable Community: The Material Culture of Nation-Building in Early Republican Turkey,” Society and Space 27 (2009): 523–24.
2. Yeşim Arat, Rethinking Islam and Democracy: Islamist Women in Turkish Politics (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005), 23; Nilüfer Göle, The Forbidden Modern (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 5.
3. This town has many return migrants from Germany, referred to as Alamancılar or Almancılar, so it is not that surprising that an elderly townsperson would not be astounded to see a woman who seems quasi–Turkish and quasi–foreign.
4. Sam Kaplan, The Pedagogical State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006).
5. In Turkish this would not be a gendered term, polis, but the implication of the conversation was that females cannot be police, though there are many policewomen in Turkey.
6. Asef Bayat, Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), 210.
7. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretations of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 448.
8. Bayat, Life as Politics, 210.