Chronology

1879	Born March 14 in Ulm, Germany, first child of Hermann and Pauline (née Koch), bourgeois, largely non-observant, Jews.
1880	Family moves to Munich where Hermann and brother Jakob form electrical engineering firm Electrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie.
1881	Sister Maria (Maja) born on November 18; lifelong confidant, she joins Albert in Princeton in 1939.
1888	Enters the newly established Luitpold Gymnasium (today, Albert Einstein Gymnasium) in Munich on October 1, only Jew among some 70 classmates.
1889	21-year-old medical student Max Talmud, befriended by Einstein family, introduces Albert to Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason and to other philosophical and scientific writings. Begins study of differential and integral calculus.
1894	J. Einstein & Cie fails, going into liquidation in June; family moves to northern Italy where brothers reopen electrical business. Albert remains in Munich under care of relatives; in December withdraws from Gymnasium without graduating, joining parents in Milan, then Pavia.
1895	Fails entrance exam for Swiss Federal Polytechnical School in Zurich in October; enters cantonal school at Aarau, Switzerland.
1896	Renounces German citizenship in January to avoid military service; affirming of “no religious denomination”, remains stateless until acquiring Swiss citizenship in 1901. Passes entrance exam and enters Zuirch Polytechnical School in October; among classmates are Marcel Grossmann and Mileva Marić.
1900	Graduates with diploma qualification to teach mathematics and physics at secondary schools. In December, submits first scientific paper to Annalen der Physik, leading German physics journal.
1901	Works as substitute teacher and tutor at small towns outside Zurich. Dissertation on molecular forces in gases submitted to University of Zurich in December, withdrawn in March 1902.
1902	At end of January, Mileva Marić gives birth to Einstein’s daughter Lieserl at parent’s home in Novi Sad; Einstein never sees child, presumably given for adoption. Around Easter, together with Maurice Solovine and Conrad Habicht, forms “Olympia Academy” in Bern, informal reading and discussion group of philosophical, physical, and literary texts. With Grossmann’s assistance, obtains temporary employment in June as Technical Expert, Third Class, at Swiss patent office in Bern. In September, first of trilogy of papers on statistical thermodynamics published in Annalen der Physik.
1903	Despite objections of both families, marries Mileva in January; second paper of statistical trilogy published in April.
1904	Son Hans Albert born in Bern in May. Final trilogy paper published in June, presenting theory of energy fluctuations in equilibrium systems. Probationary employment at Bern patent office becomes permanent in September.
1905	Annus mirabilis with papers on light-quantum hypothesis (March), Brownian motion (April), special relativity (June), and equivalence of energy and mass (September), all appear in Annalen der Physik.
1906	Receives doctorate in January from University of Zurich; thesis “A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions” published in Annalen der Physik. “On the Theory of Light Production and Light Absorption” appears in April, the paper “announcing birth of the quantum theory” (Kuhn). Promoted that month to Technical Expert, Second Class. In November completes paper that extends quantum theory of radiation to electrons moving in solid materials, providing explanation of anomalous specific heats; published on December 28.
1907	On January 7, the “most fortunate thought of my life” leads to principle of equivalence. In September, commissioned to write report on relativity theory and its consequences for Johannes Stark’s Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität; appearing in December, it contains first explicit statement that the principle of equivalence extends principle of relativity to uniformly accelerating systems.
1909	On May 7, appointed associate (Ausserordentlicher) professor of physics at University of Zurich. Two significant papers: the first, “On the Present Standpoint of the Radiation Problem”, sent in January to Physikalische Zeitschrift, applies energy fluctuation theory to blackbody radiation, a new argument for existence of light quanta. The second, invited address in September to assembly of German scientists in Salzburg, argues theory of light to become a kind of “merger” (Verschmelzung) of wave and particle theories. In July, awarded honorary doctorate by the University of Geneva, first of twenty-three such honors.
1910	In July, second son Eduard is born in Zurich. Berlin physical chemist Walter Nernst (Nobel Prize, 1920) pays visit to discuss problem of specific heats.
1911	Nernst reports “brilliant confirmation of the quantum ‘theory’ of Planck and Einstein” in March paper providing experimentally determined values for specific heats of a number of metals and diamond at low temperatures. Appointed Professor of Theoretical Physics at the German University of Prague on April 1. In October, attends prestigious First Solvay Conference in Brussels devoted to “The Theory of Radiation and the Quanta”. Youngest invitee at age 32, gives report on current state of problem of specific heats.
1912	Returns to Zurich in October as Professor of Theoretical Physics at renamed Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH). Seeks instruction on Riemannian geometry and “absolute differential” (tensor) calculus from Marcel Grossmann, professor of mathematics at ETH.
1913	In June, publishes monographic Entwurf (Outline) of relativistic theory of gravity with Grossmann, who wrote mathematical part. In November, elected to Prussian (Berlin) Academy of Sciences. In December accepts July offer, tendered personally by Max Planck and Walther Nernst, of position as research professor in Berlin with no teaching obligations, and as founding director of future Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Physics. Becomes Prussian citizen yet retains Swiss passport.
1914	Moves to Berlin at end of March; Mileva and two sons arrive in April, return to Zurich at end of July, separation ending in 1919 divorce. WW I begins in August; one of few signatories of immediately censored pacifist “Manifesto to the Europeans” denouncing nationalism and war, first public political declaration. In October systematic exposé of 1913 theory of gravitation in Proceedings of Berlin Academy with several new amendments; “Lochbetrachtung” in §12 invoked as proof of necessary restriction of covariance of gravitational field equations.
1915	At invitation of mathematician David Hilbert, gives six two-hour lectures in Göttingen from June 28 to July 5 on 1913–1914 relativistic theory of gravitation. Hilbert begins work on relativistic gravitational theory coupled to electromagnetic theory of matter. In competition with Hilbert in Göttingen, each Thursday in November Einstein presents paper to Berlin Academy. In the third, on November 18, derives exact observed value of the anomalous precession of the perihelion of Mercury. In last, on November 25, the gravitational field equations in generally covariant form.
1916	Canonical presentation of general theory of relativity (Die Grundlagen der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie) published in March in Annalen der Physik. Elected head of the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft) in May; in June, solution of field equations in linearized approximation yield plane gravitational waves that “always propagate with the velocity of light”; the paper contains a serious error. In July, publishes new derivation of Planck’s blackbody radiation law, distinguishing spontaneous and stimulated emission, basis of maser and laser technologies (1950s). In December, completes popular book on two theories of relativity (Über die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie, gemeinverständlich), appears in early 1917 with many subsequent editions.
1917	On February 8, presents “Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity” to Berlin Academy, introducing “cosmological term” into gravitational field equations. Prompts correspondence, and further developments by, Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter. Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Physics finally established after three years delay due to war; becomes head on October 1.
1918	In January, first paper on gravitational radiation, deriving correct (quadrupole i.e., “spinning dumbbell”) formula expressing amount of energy radiated away by massive source. In March, paper stating general theory of relativity rests upon three principles (equivalence, general covariance, and “Mach’s”). In May, arranges publication of Zurich mathematician Hermann Weyl’s theory of gravitation and electromagnetism in Proceedings of Berlin Academy, followed by appended objection. On November 9, Germany surrenders, Kaiser Wilhelm abdicates, Social Democrats in Reichstag proclaim a republic and form a provisional cabinet; armistice with allies signed November 11. Fighting breaks out in Germany between revolutionary socialists and nationalists, including reactionary paramilitary Freikorps. Together with physicist Max Born and psychologist Max Wertheimer, obtains release of rector and deans of the University of Berlin held hostage in December by a revolutionary student group.
1919	Communist Spartacus League revolt in Berlin crushed by army in January. Divorce from Mileva finalized on February 14; settlement includes monetary award from any future Nobel Prize. Marries cousin Elsa Löwenthal on June 2. Weimar constitution goes into effect on August 11, creating parliamentary democracy in Germany. On November 6 at joint meeting in London of Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society, results of British observations of solar eclipse previous May 29 announced. Key prediction of general theory of relativity confirmed; light rays from distant stars “bent” on passing through solar corona on way to Earth. Becomes media sensation and world-recognized figure.
1920	Target of anti-Semitic nationalists and opponents of relativity theory; responds in both professional and popular venues. Speaks out against oppression of Jews from Eastern Europe.
1921	January 27, lecture “Geometry and Experience” at Berlin Academy Founder’s Day celebration. Departing Berlin in April, accompanies Chaim Weizmann on fundraising tour in USA on behalf of Hebrew University; in June interview states intellectuals use anti-Semitism for political purposes, and claims recent awareness of need for Jewish cultural and spiritual home in Palestine. On April 25 meets President Warren Harding at White House. In May four lectures on the theory of relativity at Princeton University; published in German and English (as The Meaning of Relativity) in 1922.
1922	In January with assistant Jakob Grommer, completes first paper on unified field theory; shows equations of five-dimensional 1919 theory of Theodor Kaluza unifying gravitation and electromagnetism lack solutions corresponding to singularity-free representations of electrons; appears in January 1923 in publication of Hebrew University. Invited by French scholars, visits France in late March and early April; tours WW I battlefields, lectures in Paris to scientists at Collége de France and philosophers at Sorbonne. In May, joins International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC) affiliated with League of Nations. Following June 24 assassination of friend Walther Rathenau, German Foreign Minister and a Jew, withdraws temporarily from public life. In September, submits note to Zeitschrift für Physik claiming A. Friedmann’s solution of the gravitational field equations showing a non-static universe rest on a mathematical mistake. Embarks on six-month journey to Far East at the end of October, visiting Japan, Ceylon, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai; on return, Palestine and Spain. On November 9, awarded 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of “law of the photoelectric effect”; German ambassador to Sweden accepts at Nobel ceremony in Stockholm on December 10.
1923	Returns to Berlin in February. Withdraws from ICIC in spring, protesting League’s impotence in the face of French-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr. First papers on “affine field theory”, including one translated into English in Nature. Idea, initiated by Arthur Eddington in 1921, pursued until 1926. On July 11, gives “Nobel Lecture” in Gothenburg, Sweden.
1924	In May, rejoins ICIC, urging League to permit German membership. Receives June letter from S.N. Bose (Calcutta), together with manuscript in English re-deriving Planck’s radiation law. Translates Bose’s paper into German, arranging publication in Zeitschrift für Physik. In July publishes analogy between Bose’s statistical treatment of radiation and material gases; i.e., ideal gases of single atoms at very low temperature, showing deviations from classical gas law in this regime.
1925	Two further papers show non-classical quantum behavior of ideal gases at low temperature, using analogy to Bose’s statistical method treating photons as indistinguishable particles. The first, in early January, calls attention to L. de Broglie’s 1924 Paris thesis on wave nature of particles of matter and predicts existence of new state of matter. (“Bose-Einstein condensate” first created in lab in 1995.) Spends month in Argentina (March 24 to April 21), followed by visits to Uruguay and Brazil, returning to Berlin in early June.
1926	Closely follows new quantum mechanics of Heisenberg (with Born and Jordan), then of Schrödinger. In August, among notable signatories of anti-conscription manifesto, urging League of Nations to propose abolition of compulsory military service among member states.
1927	In January and February two-part paper to Berlin Academy exploring Kaluza’s five-dimensional theory connecting gravitation and electromagnetism without restriction to weak gravitational fields; unknowingly duplicates 1926 results of Swedish physicist Oscar Klein. Also in January, with assistant Grommer, publishes derivation of geodesic equation (law of motion for freely falling material point) from field equations of gravitation, results previously obtained by Hermann Weyl in 1923. Fifth Solvay Conference in Brussels in last week of October; begins discussion of foundations of quantum mechanics with Niels Bohr.
1928	Collapses in February in Davos, Switzerland; after diagnosis of heart inflammation, spends four months in bed in Berlin; while recuperating, secretary Helen Dukas hired in April. In June, two papers outline new geometrical framework for unified field theory, a four-dimensional space-time with “distant parallelism” (Fernparallelismus).
1929	Exposition of 1928 theory becomes January public sensation, first printing in Berlin Academy Proceedings (1,000 copies) sells out instantly, three additional printings, also by newspapers in London and New York; displayed in window of Selfridges department store in London. January 17 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences publishes Edwin Hubble’s observational evidence showing expansion of universe consistent with Friedmann’s solutions in 1922.
1930	Attends Sixth Solvay Conference in Brussels in October; further discussions with Bohr on foundations of quantum mechanics. November 9 article on “Religion and Science” in the New York Times affirms faith in “cosmic religion” revealed by the “miraculous order that manifests itself in all of nature as well as in the world of ideas” but without a personal God. On December 2, leaves for New York, Cuba, then Pasadena (Caltech), remaining until early March. “Two-Percent Speech” in New York on December 14 states that just 2 percent of men resisting military conscription would be too many to jail, forcing governments to settle disputes peaceably. After lengthy correspondence with French geometer Élie Cartan, publishes outline of geometry of 1928–1929 distant parallelism theory in December issue of Mathematische Annalen, accompanied by Cartan’s historical note showing new geometry to be a special case of more general and earlier results.
1931	Responding to 1929 observations of Hubble, accepts non-static (expanding) character of universe, formally renounces the cosmological constant in April. In October, paper with new assistant Walther Mayer introduces novel approach to unified field theory: to each event of four-dimensional space-time is associated a vector space with five spatial dimensions, permitting mixed tensors linking the two manifolds. Achieves formal unification of gravitation and electricity, but authors conclude no light shed on particulate structure of matter nor on known quantum facts. Publication in Leipzig of Hundert Autoren gegen Einstein.
1932	Resigns from ICIC due to lack of effectiveness, yet accepts ICIC invitation to dialogue with another thinker on war and politics; choosing Sigmund Freud, correspondence published in Paris in summer 1933 as pacifist pamphlet Warum Krieg (Why War?). Advocates surrender of national sovereignty to supranational organization in order to eliminate war. Second paper with Mayer appears in April generalizing 1931 theory, formally reproducing field equations of gravitation and electromagnetism, but no solutions correspond to elementary particles; “distant parallelism” given up in late March. Institute of Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton, to begin operations in autumn 1933, extends offer in June to become one of six initial IAS professors; accepts, provided Mayer comes as assistant; arrangement approved in October. In German elections in July, Nazis win 230 of 607 Reichstag seats becoming largest party. In November first of four papers with Mayer on yet another approach to unified field theory, introducing concept of “semivector”. Leaves in December with Mayer and wife Elsa for ostensible three-month visit to Caltech; depart Germany with thirty-three pieces of luggage.
1933	Adolf Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany on January 30 by Reichspräsident Hindenburg; Reichstag fire in March used as pretext for dictatorial decrees violating Weimar constitution. Einstein apartment in Berlin (5 Haberlandstrasse) raided and ransacked; most documents preserved, previously taken to French Embassy. On return to Europe (Antwerp) on March 28, promptly renounces German citizenship and resigns from Berlin Academy. Albert and Elsa reside temporarily in Belgium, Albert leaving for UK in early June to give Herbert Spencer Lecture in Oxford on June 10. On October 3rd speaks at benefit for refugee German scholars before 9,000 in London’s Royal Albert Hall; on October 7, Einsteins, Mayer and Dukas depart Southhampton, arriving in New York on October 17 and Princeton that evening.
1935	January article (in Polity) states pacifists must adopt means other than passive resistance to oppose “the warlike programs of political adventurers”. In March receives Franklin Medal in Philadelphia. On May 15, Physical Review publishes EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen), and July 1 paper with Nathan Rosen proposing topological solution to particle problem in general relativity. In August, purchases single family house in Princeton at 112 Mercer Street.
1936	“Physics and Reality” published in The Journal of the Franklin Institute in March. Short note in December 4 Science derives lens-like action on light from one star traversing the gravitational field of another star. Elsa dies after long illness on December 20.
1937	A paper (“Do Gravitational Waves Exist?”) co-authored with Rosen, denies existence of gravitational waves; withdrawn after submission to Physical Review following a critical referee report, published with altered conclusion in January issue of The Journal of the Franklin Institute. Never again submits to Physical Review. In Princeton for April 16 recital, contralto Marian Anderson accepts Einstein’s offer of lodging after being refused room at whites-only Nassau Inn; they remain friends until Einstein’s death in 1955.
1938	Further work with assistants Leopold Infeld and Banesh Hoffman on geodetic law in general relativity; with assistant Peter Bergmann on five-dimensional Kaluza-Klein theory considered purely as classical field theory (without Planck’s constant). Bestselling popular book (The Evolution of Physics), co-written with Infeld, supports latter’s stay at Institute. Experiments of physical chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann at Kaiser Wilhelm Institute interpreted in December, by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch in Sweden, as showing fission of uranium nuclei.
1939	Vacationing at Peconic on eastern Long Island in July, Einstein dictates famous letter to President Roosevelt warning of military uses of atomic fission. WW II begins in Europe on 1 September with Germany’s invasion of Poland.
1940	March 19 statement in New York Times supports Bertrand Russell (“Great spirits have always found violent opposition from mediocrities”); nonetheless, Russell’s contract to teach at the College of the City of New York rescinded at court trial on March 30. In ceremony at Trenton, New Jersey, becomes naturalized US citizen retaining Swiss citizenship on October 1.
1943	January paper with Wolfgang Pauli Jr. proves non-existence of stationary, non-singular particle solutions in a five-dimensional generalization of relativistic theory of gravity. Begins per diem consulting arrangement on high explosives with US Navy Bureau of Ordinance in May.
1944	Freshly rewritten manuscript of 1905 relativity paper auctioned in War Bond drive at Kansas City on February 3 raising $6.5 million (approx. $90 million in 2016); manuscript subsequently presented to Library of Congress. Two papers, the first with assistant Valentin Bargmann, on “bi-vector fields”; bi-vectors proposed as new mathematical concept to replace metric tensor in four-dimensional space-time continuum.
1945	Germany surrenders on May 7; WW II ends on September 2, following use of atomic weapons against Japan. In October adopts final approach to unified field theory, four-dimensional space-time with asymmetric metric tensor and complex components; papers on this theory co-authored with last research assistant Bruria Kaufmann in 1954 and 1955.
1946	On May 23 named chair of Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists (ECAS), group promoting international control of atomic energy and warning of danger of proliferation of atomic weapons. Remains head until organization disbanded in 1951. Writes “Autobiographical Notes” for forthcoming Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist volume edited by philosopher Paul Schilpp.
1948	Essay “Quantum Mechanics and Reality” (Quanten-Mechanik und Wirklichkeit) sent in April to Swiss journal Dialectica, and separately to Max Born. After abdominal surgery, diagnosed in December with aneurysm of major abdominal aorta.
1949	Recuperating in Florida, in February completes responses (“Remarks Concerning the Essays Brought Together in this Co-operative Volume”) to essays in Schilpp volume.
1950	Signs last will and testament in March, leaving papers to Hebrew University. April Scientific American contains “On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation”, popular exposition of developments leading to current approach to unified field theory; contains self-description as “tamed metaphysicist”.
1951	Death of sister Maja in Princeton.
1952	Declines offer of Presidency of Israel in November, following death of Chaim Weitzmann. Essay “Relativity and the Problem of Space”, added to fifteenth English edition (1954) of popular relativity book from 1917, concludes “Spacetime does not claim an existence on its own, but only as a structural quality of the field”.
1953	Paper in Max Born Festschrift argues quantum mechanical descriptions cannot be extended to classical limit. Letter to Brooklyn schoolteacher in May, urging non-compliance with Joseph McCarthy’s Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, elicits denunciations from major US newspapers, including The New York Times. Further attacks follow support in December given to electrical engineer union member refusing to answer questions posed by the committee.
1954	In April, advises Robert Oppenheimer, Director of IAS, not to cooperate with Atomic Energy Commission hearing on suspension of Oppenheimer’s security clearance; Oppenheimer chooses to testify, losing clearance at the end of June.
1955	Signs last letter, to Bertrand Russell on April 11, agreeing to lend name for “Einstein-Russell Manifesto” on nuclear disarmament. Dies April 18 in Princeton hospital from ruptured aneurysm of abdominal aorta. Helen Dukas inhabits 112 Mercer Street until her death in 1982.
1979	Celebration of centennial of Einstein’s birth with conferences in Jerusalem, Berlin and Princeton (The Institute of Advanced Study); commemorative proclamations by Jimmy Carter, 39th President of the USA, and Pope John Paul II.
1987	Princeton University Press begins publication of Collected Papers and correspondence.
2005	Centennial of annus mirabilis named “World Year of Physics” by International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP).
2015	Centennial of general theory of relativity celebrated by Physical Review journals, American Institute of Physics, NASA, IUPAP, and conferences around the world; on September 14 gravitational waves, predicted in 1916, are first observed.