12
specific diseases and conditions of pet rabbits
the diseases included in this chapter are by no means all that might be found in pet rabbits. I have tried to include those the rabbit owner would be most likely to encounter and others which are less common but which the rabbit owner may have heard of and would wonder about. A few “diseases” that are actually symptoms, e.g., abscesses, are included because of the common usage of the terms to describe a medical condition in a rabbit. Others are cross-referenced: pasteurellosis is listed both under bacterial diseases and under some of the symptoms or conditions it may cause, e.g. head tilt and abscesses. Please do not rely upon the information in this chapter for a definitive diagnosis of what ails your rabbit. Always consult your veterinarian.
mycotic (fungal) conditions
There are relatively few fungi that may affect your rabbit. Perhaps the greatest danger from fungi is mycotoxicosis, or poisoning caused by the ingestion of feedstuffs contaminated by fungi. Ringworm can occur in rabbits, but it usually responds well to treatment.
Mycotoxicosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Toxins produced by molds.
SYMPTOMS: Ulcers in mouth, anorexia, weight loss, acute bloat, severe pain, rough coat, paralysis, tremors, hypothermia, mucinous feces.
TREATMENT: Subcutaneous fluids, antibiotics, sucralfate (staggered three to six hours apart from other drugs).
A well-loved and cared for rabbit will most likely live a long and healthy life.
TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of contaminated feedstuffs (mycotoxins have been found in alfalfa hay, grass hay, wheat middlings, alfalfa pellets, timothy pellets, and other feeds for rabbits).
PREVENTION: Feed rabbits only high-quality pellets and hay. Check all hay and feed before giving to rabbits. Hay should be dry, green, and sweet-smelling. Any hay or feed which has gotten damp should be destroyed.
Ringworm (dermatophytosis)
CAUSAL AGENT: Trichophyton mentagrophytes var. granulare, Microsporum canis.
SYMPTOMS: Scratching; circular, reddened patches on the skin, frequently appearing first on the bridge of the nose, eyelids, ears, head and then spreading to the rest of the body. It can also be carried asymptomatically.
TREATMENT: Topical antifungal ointments such as enilcona-zole, oral antifungal medications such as griseofulvin.
TRANSMISSION: This fungus is uncommon in rabbits, but may be contracted by contact with infected guinea pigs, cats, dogs, or humans.
PREVENTION: Keep any other affected pets away from rabbits.
parasites
Wild rabbits are almost always infected with one or several parasites, but domestic rabbits are affected less often. Parasites that may attack pet rabbits range from fleas to warble flies to worms and protozoans.
Ectoparasites: The following entries include parasites you will find on the body of your rabbit.
Fleas
CAUSAL AGENT: Many species of fleas, including Ctenocephalides felis, C. canis, Polex irritans, Cediopsylla simples, Odontopsyllus multispinosus. In Europe, Spilopsyllus cuniculi. Most fleas will infest many different species of hosts.
SYMPTOMS: Scratching, dermatitis, flea dirt visible.
TREATMENT: It was formerly thought that fleas in a rabbit could be safely treated with preparations used for cats. However, veterinarians have reported adverse reactions by rabbits when treated with some of the cat-safe preparations, including Advantage® (imidacloprid) and Frontline® (fipronil). Some vets recommend that any medication containing fipronil not be used. Carbarryl and preparations with pyrethrin have been used successfully on rabbits. Program®, given at dosages of half that for a small cat, seems to work on rabbits. If the rabbit shows any of the following symptoms after treatment for fleas, stop the treatment and contact the vet: tremors, anorexia, dermatitis, scratching, unusual behavior. Never use a flea collar on a rabbit. Rabbits have been known to choke themselves trying to get one off, and materials in the collar may be toxic to the rabbit. Be sure to treat the rabbit’s environment for fleas as well.
TRANSMISSION: By contact.
PREVENTION: If other animals in the household are allowed outside, they may bring fleas in to the rabbit. Watch your rabbit closely for signs of infestation if you have dogs or cats in your household that are allowed outside in an area where fleas are common. Fleas can transmit several serious diseases of rabbits, and should never remain untreated.
Fly strike (myiasis)
CAUSAL AGENT: Fly larvae, often of greenbottles (Lucilia spp.) and bluebottles (Calliphora spp.).
SYMPTOMS: Anorexia, restlessness, maggots visible under fur.
TREATMENT: Area must be clipped and cleaned and maggots removed by hand. Rabbit should then be treated with antibiotics and given an analgesic such as carpro-fen. Some veterinarians recommend ivermectin as a precaution for missed maggots.
TRANSMISSION: Eggs are usually laid around anal area.
PREVENTION: Keep rabbit’s bedding clean and dry and clean any matted fur around anal area. Rabbits that are unable to groom themselves properly due to conditions such as malocclusion, obesity, arthritis, and spondylosis are at higher risk.
Fly, warble (warbles)
CAUSAL AGENT: Fly larvae of Cuterebra spp. (This fly is not found in the U.K.)
SYMPTOMS: Depression, anorexia, scratching, hair loss, raised bump about half an inch in diameter with a small hole in the middle. Larva can be seen if hole is watched.
TREATMENT: Larvae must be removed whole: if larvae are ruptured while in rabbit’s skin, rabbit will have severe reaction to released toxins and may die. It is better to have this done by a veterinarian than to attempt it yourself.
TRANSMISSION: Fly lays eggs on rabbit; larvae hatch and then enter the rabbit, often by nose, mouth, or open wounds. Bumps where the larvae create a breathing hole can be found in such places as groin, neck, under the limbs, and on the back and rump.
PREVENTION: Sanitation. Keep rabbit’s environment clean and dry so it does not attract flies. Kill any flies which get into the house. Older rabbits are less likely to be affected.
Mites, ear (ear canker, otoacariasis)
CAUSAL AGENT: Psoroptes cuniculi.
SYMPTOMS: Scratching, shaking head, dermatitis, an accumulation of brown crusty material in the external ear canal. In severe cases ulcerations may be found on the outside of the ears and on top of the head, and there may be spasms of the eye muscles. Severe secondary infections can damage the inner ear and central nervous system, causing wry neck. Rarely, ear mites affect genitalia.
TREATMENT: Ear mites can be treated with mineral oil and miticides used for dogs and cats. The drops should be applied daily in the ear canal, and in a bad case, down the side of the head and neck as well. Injections of ivermectin will also control ear mites. The crusty material may be removed from the ears with cotton soaked in dilute hydrogen peroxide. The rabbit’s cage should be well cleaned to prevent reinfestation.
TRANSMISSION: Direct contact.
PREVENTION: Ear mites are highly contagious, and will persist in the environment for several weeks. Sanitation is critical. It is a good idea to have any new rabbit checked for ear mites whether signs of infestation are present or not.
Mites, fur (skin mange, walking dandruff)
CAUSAL AGENT: In the U.S., usually Cheyletiella parasitovorax. Also Leporacus gibbus (formerly Listrophorus gibbus), the true fur mite.
SYMPTOMS: Dermatitis, scratching, clumps of hair falling out, small sores and scabs on the neck, dandruff visible in fur. Very light infestations may have no noticeable symptoms.
TREATMENT: Medicated shampoo or injections of ivermectin over a two- to three-week period.
TRANSMISSION: By contact. Cheyletiella mites may also bite humans.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation, keeping infected animals away from rabbits.
Scabies (Mange)
CAUSAL AGENT: Sarcoptes scabei or Notoedres cati.
SYMPTOMS: Dermatitis, constant scratching, loss of hair (particularly on face). Secondary infections may occur, causing oozing sores.
TREATMENT: Dipping rabbit in a lime-sulfur preparation. Injections of invermectin three times at two-week intervals.
TRANSMISSION: By contact.
PREVENTION: Scabies is not common in the U.S., but rabbits can become infested through contact with other affected pets or humans. The best prevention is to keep rabbits from affected animals.
Endoparasites: The following entries include parasites you will be unlikely to see on your rabbit since they attack from within the body. I am separating them into worms and protozoal parasites, the latter which are intracellular parasites.
Worms
Pinworm
CAUSAL AGENT: Passalurus ambiguus (a nematode).
SYMPTOMS: Thread-like worms visible in feces, excessive grooming of anal area.
TREATMENT: Because pinworms rarely cause a rabbit problems even if large numbers are present, they are often not treated unless they are upsetting to the owner. Piperazine citrate added to the rabbit’s water can be effective in ridding the rabbit of these worms. Parasiticides such as fenbendazole and oxyfenbendazole have also been used.
TRANSMISSION: Through ingestion of contaminated food and water. Spores are shed in the urine and can remain viable for months. Rabbit pinworms are not transmissible to humans.
PREVENTION: Pinworms are extremely common in rabbits and may be difficult to prevent even with good sanitation.
Roundworm, raccoon
CAUSAL AGENT: Baylisascaris procyonis.
SYMPTOMS: Wry neck (head tilt), tremors, lethargy, falling, paralysis, coma and death. These symptoms occur when the worm larvae have migrated into the brain, liver, eyes, spinal cord, or other organs. This condition is almost always fatal to rabbits.
TREATMENT: Corticosteroids can be given to reduce inflammation of tissues. High dosages of oxybendazole given over long periods of time show some promise in slowing the progress of this condition.
TRANSMISSION: Through contamination by raccoon feces of grass, feed or bedding which is then ingested by the rabbit. Raccoon roundworms are also transmissible to humans, and are usually fatal to humans as well. Note—this parasite is only transmissible by raccoons. Other infected mammals cannot transmit the parasite.
PREVENTION: Caution and good sanitation. Because of the danger of this parasite to humans as well as pets, keep all children and pets from raccoon latrine areas. Destroy any bedding or feed contaminated by raccoons, and wear a protective face mask and gloves while doing so. A propane torch can be used to kill eggs in contaminated soil.
Roundworm, skunk
CAUSAL AGENT: Baylisascaris columnaris.
SYMPTOMS, TREATMENT, TRANSMISSION, and PREVENTION are the same as for raccoon roundworm, except the carrier is the skunk.
Tapeworm
CAUSAL AGENT: Cysticercus pisiformis (larval stage of Taenia pisiformis), Coenurus serialis (larval stage of Taenia serialis ), Echinococcus granulosus, Cittotaenia spp.
SYMPTOMS: Anorexia, enlarged abdomen, swellings under skin.
TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of feed (especially grass) contaminated with eggs.
PREVENTION: The primary host of most tapeworms that affect rabbits is the dog. Rabbits should not be allowed to eat grass in areas where dogs run. Rabbits are the primary host of Cittotaenia, but this tapeworm is usually found in wild rabbits, rarely domestic rabbits.
Protozoal Parasites (Intracellular Parasites)
Coccidiosis, hepatic
CAUSAL AGENT: Eimeria stiedae (protozoan).
SYMPTOMS: Mild or no symptoms; sometimes anorexia, rough coat, weight loss, enlarged abdomen, lethargy, diarrhea. In this form of coccidiosis the parasites invade the liver rather than forming colonies on intestine walls. It is more serious than intestinal coccidiosis.
TREATMENT: Sulfaquinoxaline, sulfamethazine. Treatment is only effective during early stages in the life cycle of the parasite—probably before the owner knows the rabbit is affected.
TRANSMISSION: Rabbits become infested by ingesting food or water contaminated with feces containing sporulated oocysts. Oocysts require two days outside the host to sporulate, but then remain viable in soil, caging, feed, etc. for months.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation practices. Ordinary disinfectants do not kill oocysts. Steam is an effective method for disinfecting an area of oocysts.
Coccidiosis, intestinal
CAUSAL AGENT: Eimeria spp. (protozoa).
SYMPTOMS: Usually mild or no symptoms; sometimes anorexia, watery diarrhea or blood and/or mucous in feces, dehydration, enlarged abdomen.
TREATMENT: Intestinal coccidosis is more common than hepatic coccidosis, and is rarely fatal. It can be treated with sulfa antibiotics such as sulfaquinoxaline and sulfamethazine. The cage should be cleaned with a 10 percent ammonia solution to kill oocysts.
TRANSMISSION: These protozoa are most often transmitted to the rabbit when the rabbit ingests food or water contaminated with sporulated oocysts. Although coccidia are usually quite host specific, some authors claim there is a possibility rabbits could contract the parasite through contact with rodents, cats, dogs, or birds.
Cryptosporidiosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Cryptosporidium cuniculus (protozoan).
SYMPTOMS: No symptoms to fever and death within a few days.
TREATMENT: Parasiticides.
TRANSMISSION: Through ingestion of contaminated feces.
PREVENTION: The rabbit is an intermediate host of this protozoan. Cats are the definitive host. Rabbits in households with cats can potentially jump into the cat’s litter box, step in infected cat feces, and then ingest oocysts when cleaning their feet. Rabbit owners who also own cats should be very careful to keep the cat’s litter box immaculately clean, to wash their hands after cleaning the litter box, and to keep the rabbits from using it, if possible.
Encephalitozoonosis (nosematosis)
CAUSAL AGENT: Encephalitozoon cuniculi (protozoal microsporidian). Previously Nosema cuniculi, E. negri.
SYMPTOMS: Usually no symptoms or slight symptoms; rarely the following: depression, anorexia, polydipsia, incontinence, wry neck, muscle weakness, paralysis of hindquarters, convulsions, or sudden death. Mainly affects kidneys and central nervous system, although in seriously infected rabbits all tissues can be affected.
TREATMENT: There is currently no drug therapy that cures encephalitozoonosis, although tetracycline, chloramphenicol, albendozole, or oxyfenbendazole have been used to help stabilize the rabbit. Some rabbits recover without treatment.
TRANSMISSION: Aerosol and by ingestion of spore-containing urine, as when feed is contaminated with urine containing infective spores and then consumed. May also be transmitted placentally from doe to kit.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation. Dwarf rabbits appear to be more susceptible than other rabbits. Encephalitozoonosis is only contagious while the parasites are in the kidneys, a three-month period. Unfortunately the owner will probably not know the rabbit has the parasite at this stage. Therefore, good sanitation practices are the best prevention. Rabbit owners with dogs, cats, hamsters, guinea pigs, or birds should be especially attentive to good sanitation practices. Always wash hands after cleaning dog feces from yards, cat litter boxes, and bird cages. Dispose of any rabbit bedding or feed that becomes contaminated with rodent or bird feces.
Giardiasis
CAUSAL AGENT: Giardia spp. (protozoa).
SYMPTOMS: Diarrhea, weight loss, dehydration, lethargy, low body temperature.
TREATMENT: This is most often seen in very young rabbits, often those from pet stores. Nutritional supplements, heat, fluids, and parasiticides such as fenbendazole and oxyfenbendazole are used to treat it. The antibiotic Flagyl® (metronidazole) is also sometimes prescribed.
TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of cysts from feces.
PREVENTION: Dispose of all dog and cat feces promptly and wash hands afterwards. Cysts can remain on the hair of dogs and cats and could potentially be a source of infection.
Toxoplasmosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Toxoplasma gondii (protozoan).
SYMPTOMS: Fever, convulsions, paralysis, death within a few days.
TREATMENT: This is relatively rare in rabbits, but can occur in households with pet cats.
TRANSMISSION: Through ingestion of cat feces containing infective oocysts.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation.
bacterial diseases
There are several bacteria which commonly infect rabbits, causing a variety of diseases and symptoms. Some of these will be found cross-referenced by body part affected under “Other Diseases and Conditions” later in this chapter.
Abscesses
CAUSAL AGENT: Usually Pasteurella multocida, also Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas, Bacterioides, Proteus.
SYMPTOMS: This is a case where the name of the condition is the symptom. An abscess is a localized collection of pus with pathogenic organisms, and the owner will notice it as a swelling. In rabbits it will often be seen in the mouth, on the head and legs, or anywhere a rabbit has been bitten or otherwise wounded. Abscesses may also occur on internal organs. The pus in a P. multocida abscess in usually thick and creamy-white. Abscesses may be difficult to diagnose. Rabbits may continue to eat well and appear to feel well. Sometimes abscesses may be felt as lumps under the skin; those occurring on the head may cause eye and nose problems.
TREATMENT: Abscesses in rabbits are often difficult to treat successfully. They frequently develop “fingers” that are difficult to clean out and the thick pus is hard to drain. The best treatment is to have a vet remove the abscess surgically and follow with antibiotic therapy. If this is not possible, the vet should prescribe Bicillin® C-R antibiotic therapy. In a promising new treatment, a “bead” containing antibiotics (usually gentamicin or tobramycin) is placed directly in the abscess. In the Textbook of Rabbit Medicine, Frances Harcourt-Brown discusses using honey as a topical treatment for abscess cavities. Abscesses often recur in rabbits, especially if the bone is involved, and are a frequent cause of death in pet rabbits.
In a situation where immediate veterinary care is not available, the owner should cut away the fur, bathe the abscess in hot water, and wash it with an antiseptic such as betadine or iodine. Then gently squeeze the pus out and bathe it again with betadine. Coat with unpasteurized honey. Repeat daily until the inflammation recedes and the abscess heals. Follow up this home care with veterinary care as soon as possible.
PREVENTION: Abscesses in rabbits often occur where the rabbit was bitten or received another wound. Always wash wounds with antibacterial solution to help prevent the formation of an abscess. A good diet with adequate fiber and calcium may help prevent abscesses.
Abscesses, teeth
CAUSAL AGENT: Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella spp., Peptostreptococcus micros, various other bacteria including (rarely) Pasteurella spp.
SYMPTOMS: Tearing if abscess is in upper jaw, anorexia, drooling, and/or failure to groom.
TREATMENT: In the past veterinarians often treated dental abscesses on the assumption the primary bacteria present were Pasteurella species. Recently, researchers have found other bacteria to be more common in these abscesses, bacteria that do not respond to antibiotics normally used in treating Pasteurella. As with other abscesses, complete excision is the best treatment, but this is difficult with dental abscesses. The affected teeth should be removed, the abscess drained and treated with antibiotic beads. Affected rabbits will most likely need to be syringe fed during recovery.
PREVENTION: Abscesses are common in rabbits with tooth infections. They can occur when teeth are fractured (from trimming or a fall where the rabbit strikes his head), and also from wounds sustained in the mouth area. A proper diet and care when handling a rabbit or trimming its teeth are preventative measures that can be taken.
Clostridiosis (Enterotoxemia)
CAUSAL AGENT: Toxin produced by Clostridium difficile, Cl. spiroforme, Cl. perfringens.
SYMPTOMS: Watery diarrhea or no feces, enlarged abdomen, lethargy, rough coat.
TREATMENT: Cholestyramine (also used as a preventative), metronidazole (Flagyl®).
TRANSMISSION: This organism is thought to be normally present in the gastrointestinal tract of the rabbit, but stress and treatment with penicillin can cause the population of the bacteria to rise to dangerous numbers (between 40–80 percent of rabbits develop clostridiosis after receiving oral penicillin). Clostridiosis is most common in young rabbits four to eight weeks old, but can occur in any age of rabbit.
PREVENTION: Reduce stress, feed young rabbits a low-carbohydrate, high-fiber diet.
Colibacillosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Escherichia coli.
SYMPTOMS: In very young rabbits, a severe yellowish diarrhea followed by death. In older rabbits, diarrhea. This usually only affects very young, unweaned rabbits.
Treatment: Antibiotics in mild cases.
TRANSMISSION: Some authors have suggested that a rabbit could potentially contract this disease by stepping in infective dog or cat feces and then cleaning it off his feet. This would be extremely unlikely, but perhaps possible with a stressed or ill rabbit.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation. E. coli is not normally in the rabbit GI tract, but could possibly gain a foothold if the rabbit is stressed or ill.
Pasteurellosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Pasteurella multocida.
SYMPTOMS: Rabbits with any infection caused by P. multocida are considered to have pasteurellosis. There are several different strains of P. multocida which vary in pathogenicity. Clinical manifestations of pasteurellosis include but are not limited to snuffles, pneumonia, abscesses, weepy eye, wry neck (head tilt) from ear infections, and genital infections. Infections occurring internally may be difficult to diagnose. Toxins produced by the bacteria may also affect the rabbit.
TREATMENT: Antibiotics (enrofloxacin, penicillin—used with great caution and constant monitoring, chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, gentamicin, trimethoprin-sulfur).
TRANSMISSION: Aerosol, fomites (objects such as cages, dishes, clothing) and direct contact. Acute infections of pasteurellosis are highly contagious, chronic infections are less contagious. Rabbits that have runny noses and are sneezing are most likely to spread the bacteria.
PREVENTION: No effective vaccine has yet been made available, although there have been some promising developments in this direction. A high percentage of rabbits carry the bacteria, but it does not normally get out of control. Stress, a poor diet, dust, and high ammonia levels may make a rabbit more susceptible. The best prevention is to reduce stress and practice good sanitation. Some rabbits appear to have immunity to pasteurellosis, but the factors contributing to this immunity are not yet known.
Pneumonia
CAUSAL AGENT: Usually Pasteurella multocida, also Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus.
SYMPTOMS: Fever, anorexia, lethargy. Pneumonia often develops in rabbits with snuffles.
TREATMENT: Antibiotics (chloramphenicol, oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, penicillin).
TRANSMISSION: Aerosol, fomites (objects such as cages, dishes, clothing), direct contact.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation and ventilation.
Salmonellosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Salmonella enteritidis, S. typhimurium.
SYMPTOMS: Most often no symptoms and sudden death; sometimes anorexia, depression, fever; occasionally diarrhea. Young rabbits are most susceptible.
TREATMENT: Usually not treated. Mortality is high. Rabbits that survive may remain carriers and for that reason are sometimes euthanized.
TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of feed contaminated with poultry or rodent feces or by direct contact. Reptiles and humans also carry this bacteria.
PREVENTION: Reduction of stress, good sanitation. Destroy any feed or bedding contaminated by birds or rodents.
Snuffles (rhinitis, nasal catarrh)
CAUSAL AGENT: Usually Pasteurella multocida, also Pseudomonas sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sp., and Bordetella bronchiseptica.
SYMPTOMS: Sticky yellowish discharge from nose, ocular discharge, mouth breathing, swelling, bright red mucous membranes in nose, snuffling, sneezing, coughing, lethargy, depression, wry neck (head tilt). Rabbit may have matter caked on front legs from trying to clear the discharge from the nose and eyes. Infection can involve the bones and structures of the head. Snuffles is often a precursor of pneumonia.
TREATMENT: Antibiotics. It is critical to get early veterinary treatment for your rabbit if it displays any of the above symptoms in order to give the rabbit the best chance of survival. Despite the benign-sounding name, snuffles is responsible for many deaths of pet rabbits.
TRANSMISSION: Aerosol, contact, venereal.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation and ventilation, proper diet. Never ignore symptoms of snuffles, and isolate the rabbit from others until his condition is diagnosed by a veterinarian.
Treponematosis (vent disease, rabbit syphilis, venereal spirochetosis)
CAUSAL AGENT: Treponemia papaluiscuniculi.
SYMPTOMS: Ulcers and scabs on the genitalia. Rabbits may also develop ulcers on the lips, eyelids, ears, face, and paws from grooming themselves. When they do occur on the face and eyelids they may sometimes be mistaken for early signs of myxomatosis.
TREATMENT: Solu-salvarsan inserted under the skin, benzathine penicillin. This bacterium is extremely sensitive to penicillin, and this is one disease where it will probably be necessary to use it. The penicillin should be injected intramuscularly every seven to 10 days.
TRANSMISSION: Usually doe to kit or venereal contact. Rabbit syphilis is not transmissible to humans. Some rabbits may become asymptomatic carriers—rabbits that were infected but show no symptoms until later in life when they become stressed. These rabbits can potentially infect other rabbits.
Tularemia
CAUSAL AGENT: Francisella tularensis.
SYMPTOMS: Abscess at initial site, fever, anorexia, depression, rough coat, death. This disease is rare in pet rabbits.
TREATMENT: Antibiotics.
TRANSMISSION: Direct contact, ingestion, aerosol, biting arthropods (especially ticks, mosquitoes, and biting flies). Rodents, cats, and humans can also contract tularemia.
PREVENTION: Control of above arthropods.
Tyzzer’s Disease
CAUSAL AGENT: Clostridium piliformis (formerly Bacillus piliformis).
SYMPTOMS: Watery diarrhea, anorexia, dehydration, lethargy, depression. This disease usually kills rabbits under 12 weeks old within one to three days. In older rabbits the disease is chronic.
TREATMENT: Currently no effective treatment. Oxytetracycline may help somewhat.
TRANSMISSION: Ingestion of contaminated fecal matter from rabbits and possibly rodents and cats.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation and reduction of stress.
viral diseases
There are relatively few viral diseases which may affect your pet rabbit, but two of them (RHD and myxomatosis) are perhaps the most horrific diseases a pet rabbit could contract. For this reason it is a good idea to be familiar with the names and symptoms of those diseases.
Myxomatosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Myxoma virus (Leporipoxvirus sp.).
SYMPTOMS: Milky, pus-like discharge from eyes, nasal discharge, lethargy, fever, labored breathing, anorexia, rough coat, swelling of genitals, lips, nose, eyelids, and base of ears. There are several strains of myxomatosis, some more virulent than others. In some of the less virulent strains, skin tumors occur in large numbers and then may regress. The strain endemic to the western coast of the U.S. in California and Oregon is rapidly lethal with lesser development of symptoms. The severity of this disease is greater at low environmental temperatures and lower at high environmental temperatures.
TREATMENT: There is no effective treatment for this disease. Very few affected rabbits survive, although some have recovered given intense nursing care including warmth, fluid therapy, nutritional support, and antibiotics. Rabbits that do survive develop partial to total immunity. In the U.S. the disease is restricted to the coastal area of California and Oregon, where there are outbreaks in the summer months about every eight to 10 years.
TRANSMISSION: Direct contact, biting arthropods (especially fleas, mosquitoes, fur mites, and biting flies). Fleas are of special concern because of their relatively long lives and the potential for other pets to bring them into a home.
PREVENTION: A vaccine is available in Europe. In the U.S. the best prevention is to control of above arthropods. Be sure to treat pets for fleas if you live in an area with myxomatosis.
Oral Papillomatosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Papillomavirus sp. (distinct from Shope papilloma virus).
SYMPTOMS: Warts on bottom of tongue and floor of mouth.
TREATMENT: None necessary—the warts usually regress in a few weeks, and the rabbits remain healthy.
TRANSMISSION: Contact.
PREVENTION: This is common in cottontails. It is most often found in domestic rabbits in the northeastern part of the U.S.
Papillomatosis
CAUSAL AGENT: Papillomavirus sp. (Shope papilloma virus). Symptoms: Large horn-like warts on the neck, shoulders, ears, abdomen.
TREATMENT: These warts usually regress in a few months. Most rabbits remain healthy, but some will develop squamous cell carcinoma (see “cancer” in this chapter).
TRANSMISSION: Arthropods that transmit disease, especially mosquitoes and rabbit ticks.
PREVENTION: This is a common disease of cottontails and jackrabbits. If you live in areas with wild rabbits, control of above arthropods is critical for prevention.
RHD (rabbit hemorrhagic disease, RCD, rabbit calicivirus disease, RCV, rabbit calicivirus, necrotic hepatitis, rabbit plague, rabbit viral septicemia, viral hemorrhagic pneumonia, VHD, viral hemorrhagic disease).
CAUSAL AGENT: Lagovirus sp. (a calicivirus).
SYMPTOMS: Most often death with no previous symptoms. When symptoms do appear, death will usually follow within six to 24 hours. Symptoms include fever, anorexia, lethargy, rapid breathing, bleeding from the nose, rectum, and mouth, foamy nasal discharge, convulsions. Mortality nears 100 percent, usually within 48 hours of initial exposure, although rarely a rabbit may survive. Very young rabbits (usually five weeks old or less) frequently do not develop symptoms or die, but may become carriers of the virus.
TREATMENT: There is no effective treatment for this disease.
TRANSMISSION: This virus may be transmitted through the air, urine, feces, saliva, and on objects. This disease is highly contagious, and will rapidly infect all the rabbits at a premise. The virus often survives past 30 days, and occasionally up to 105 days. At lower temperatures it can survive up to 225 days.
PREVENTION: A killed virus vaccine is available in Europe, Asia, and Australia, but it is not available in the U.S. at this time. Currently there is no vaccine available in the U.S., although researchers are currently working on different possibilities.
The best prevention for U.S. residents at this time is cleanliness and caution. Always wash hands when coming indoors. If you live in an area near an outbreak, change clothes and bathe before handling your rabbits. Do not wear street shoes inside your home. Check the Internet often for information on this disease and any new U.S. outbreaks.
HISTORY: RHD was first reported in China in 1984. From there it spread to the rest of Asia, Europe, and Africa. In 1988 it was reported in Mexico (although later declared eradicated there), and has also been reported in Cuba, South America, New Zealand, and Australia. It was not reported in the U.S. until 1994. The next confirmed outbreak in the U.S. occurred in Crawford County, Iowa, in 1999. In 2001 another outbreak originated in Utah county, Utah, and in December of the same year rabbits in New York tested positive for RHD.
Rabbit Pox
CAUSAL AGENT: Orthopoxvirus sp.
SYMPTOMS: Discharge from eyes and nose, fever, skin rash, swelling of face and genitals. Rabbit may die within a week to several weeks.
TREATMENT: There is no treatment.
TRANSMISSION: Contact. The disease is not transmissible to man.
PREVENTION: This disease is mostly found in laboratory rabbits.
gastrointestinal conditions
It is a rare rabbit owner who will escape having to deal with some kind of gastrointestinal condition in their rabbit at one time or another. Rabbits’ digestive systems are susceptible to being upset. Although most of the gastrointestinal problems a rabbit may have are relatively easy to treat if caught in time, time is the critical factor. Therefore it is important that rabbit owners be able to recognize the early symptoms of gastrointestinal problems.
Acute Bloat (tympany)
CAUSE: Gas may accumulate due to hairball or other obstruction, ileus, infection, change in diet, twisted intestine.
SYMPTOMS: Enlarged abdomen, anorexia, depression, failure to defecate, subnormal temperature, loud gurgling from the rabbit’s stomach, signs of severe pain such as grinding teeth, sitting in a hunched-up posture. This condition has a rapid onset and the rabbit may die within 24 hours if not treated.
TREATMEN: Administration of an analgesic, ringer’s solution, and application of external heat. A stomach tube can be inserted for decompression (the stomach should never be decompressed by needle puncture), followed by administration of simethicone. Depending on the cause of the bloat, surgery may be the only chance to save the rabbit. However, the vet will have a difficult time telling which cases require surgery, and the rabbit’s chance of surviving such surgery is low.
PREVENTION: A high-fiber diet. Diets which are too high in protein can contribute to this condition. Give rabbit good quality fresh vegetables in quantities not exceeding one cup per day for a five- to six-pound rabbit. Avoid cabbage and related vegetables.
Hairballs (trichobezoars, wool block) and gastrointestinal obstructions
CAUSE: Of hairballs, mass of hair in stomach which blocks pylorus. Other causes of gastrointestinal obstruction include tumors, carpet fibers, items such as dried peas and beans.
SYMPTOMS: Polydipsia, anorexia, few feces or no feces, weight loss, enlarged abdomen, lethargy. Death usually will occur two to three weeks after fecal pellets stop if untreated.
(Note: Hair in the feces is not necessarily a sign of a trichobezoar. Some hair in the intestinal tract is normal in rabbits. If a rabbit eats enough hay, the hair is passed safely through without the formation of a blocking mass.)
TREATMENT: Many veterinarians now consider the most common cause of hairballs to be a lack of intestinal motility from stress or other medical conditions. Increasing dietary fiber (lots of grass hay and some fresh vegetables) and fluids may be enough to solve the problem, and in more severe cases motility drugs such as Propulsid® (cisapride) or Reglan® (metoclopramide) can be prescribed. More traditional treatments include giving 10 ml/day of fresh or frozen pineapple juice and an inch of Laxatone® or Petromalt®. (The latter is recommended only if the rabbit is not dehydrated—some vets feel that if these preparations are given to a dehydrated rabbit it may prevent the hairball from dissolving.) As a last resort, a vet may attempt to remove the mass surgically. Most hairballs removed surgically are found to be small, rock-hard hairballs lodged in the pylorus. However, rabbits have a poor survival rate from this kind of surgery.
Rarely, an object such as a dried pea which is causing an intestinal blockage will move through the intestine on its own, causing recurring symptoms until it has passed. More often, blockages from objects such as dried legumes and carpet fibers are likely to result in acute bloat, and early diagnosis and surgery are probably the only chance to save the rabbit.
PREVENTION: This is a condition where prevention is critical. Groom rabbits regularly. Rabbits should always have access to sufficient dietary roughage in the form of good timothy hay. If a rabbit is pulling out and consuming excessive hair, try to find the cause. Check the teeth to be sure they are not maloccluded. A rabbit may also pull his hair out because of stress or boredom. Be sure he or she has adequate toys and that the cage is not located in a stressful area.
Rabbits with dental problems may be more likely to swallow food whole, and should be watched carefully. Do not feed any rabbit items like dried peas, corn, and beans. If your rabbit is digging carpet and consuming fibers, keep him out of the area or block him from digging (see “Rabbit Proofing,” Chapter 3).
Ileus (chronic stasis), gastrointestinal hypomotility, G.I. stasis
CAUSE: Ileus is a slowdown or shutdown of the normal movement of the intestines. It can be caused by bad diet, stress, pain, intestinal blockage, and many diseases and conditions. When this normal intestinal movement slows, harmful bacteria grow in the rabbit’s cecum. Toxins from the bacteria accumulate and may poison the rabbit. Gas may also accumulate. Eventually the liver is damaged. This is a very serious condition which can kill your rabbit.
SYMPTOMS: Enlarged abdomen, anorexia, fewer fecal pellets or smaller fecal pellets, low body temperature, lethargy.
TREATMENT: Treatment strategy is to hydrate the rabbit and get the intestine moving again. Increase fiber in the rabbit’s diet, give simethicone for gas, and an analgesic if the rabbit shows signs of pain. A motility drug such as Reglan® (metoclopramide) or Propulsid® (cisapride) can be administered. The former drug stimulates the upper intestinal tract, and the latter helps restore normal contractions to the lower tract. Although it does not naturally occur in rabbits, there is some evidence that acidophilus will help rabbits with ileus because of its inhibitory effect on Escherichia coli and other harmful bacteria. The most helpful probiotic is a cecotroph from a healthy rabbit.
PREVENTION: Diet and exercise. The rabbit should have a good high-fiber diet. Diets too high in protein can contribute to the problem.
Mucoid Enteropathy
CAUSE: In question. No consistent association with a pathogenic organism has been found. It may be related to ileus or an imbalance in the flora of the intestines.
SYMPTOMS: Anorexia, enlarged abdomen, low temperature, dehydration, polydipsia, severe pain, depression, mucinous diarrhea. This is most common in rabbits seven to 14 weeks old.
TREATMENT: Electrolytes, antibiotics.
TRANSMISSION: Unknown.
PREVENTION: Stress reduction.
Volvulus
CAUSE: Intestine twists upon itself, causing a blockage. Severe gas may contribute to this condition, as may a lack of muscle tone.
SYMPTOMS: This condition has a rapid onset. Rabbit may have appeared completely healthy just a few hours earlier. Symptoms include enlarged abdomen, anorexia, constipation, dehydration, rapid heart beat, acute pain, rapid deterioration due to endotoxemia.
TREATMENT: Rabbits with this condition will die in less than 24 hours from onset of symptoms if not treated. Surgical correction of the intestine is the only treatment, but the rabbit rarely survives such surgery.
PREVENTION: Feed rabbit high-fiber diet. Restrict fresh vegetables to a cup per day for a five-pound rabbit and avoid cabbage and similar vegetables. Be sure rabbit gets adequate exercise. This condition may be more common in older rabbits. If your rabbit exhibits symptoms of bloat, treat with simethicone immediately. Immediate treatment of bloat can prevent complications such as volvulus from developing, and simethicone will not harm the rabbit even if it turns out the rabbit is not bloated.
other diseases and conditions
In this section I have included broken bones, dental problems, heat prostration, cancer, and other conditions which did not fit easily into any of the other categories.
Allergies and environmental irritants
CAUSE: Irritation by allergens or environmental irritants such as cigarette smoke, dust, high ammonia concentrations, fumes from household chemicals and preparations.
SYMPTOMS: Sneezing, coughing, ocular and nasal discharge. Irritation of the respiratory membranes by allergens and irritants makes rabbits more susceptible to bacterial pathogens such as Pasteurella multocida.
TREATMENT: Possible bacterial causes must first be eliminated. Identification of allergen and its elimination from environment if possible. Some rabbits have allergies to particular grains which can be eliminated from their diets. If the allergen cannot be identified and the reaction of the rabbit is severe, allergy can be treated with antihistamines or corticosteroids.
PREVENTION: Good sanitation and good ventilation. Do not use strong household chemicals near rabbits (or products with strong fumes such as stain and varnish).
Broken Back (vertebral fracture or dislocation)
CAUSE: Usually fracture or dislocation of the seventh lumbar vertebra (backbone) from improper handling, stepping on a rabbit, shutting it in a door, or self-injury when the rabbit is startled or frightened. Older rabbits and rabbits that don’t receive enough exercise are more prone to this injury because of reduced bone density, as are rabbits with inadequate calcium in their diets.
SYMPTOMS: Rabbit remains in corner of cage, is lethargic, displays urinary and fecal incontinence, and paralysis of hindquarters.
TREATMENT: If the spinal cord is not completely severed or seriously damaged, this condition sometimes resolves itself in three to five days as the swelling around the spinal cord recedes. Corticosteroid treatment with cage rest and nursing is sometimes prescribed. Rabbits with moderate damage that do not remain incontinent will often heal within six to eight weeks of cage rest with intensive nursing. If the paralysis continues after a week or the rabbit remains incontinent the outlook is not good. However, the number of owners who continue to care for rabbits with this condition instead of euthanizing their pets is increasing, and special supplies are available to improve the quality of the rabbit’s life (see Chapter 9).
PREVENTION: Correct handling of rabbits is the best way to prevent this injury. Always support the hindquarters and hold the rabbit firmly (see Chapter 4). A rabbit which kicks and twists while being held can easily fracture its spine. Do not let very young children handle a rabbit. If your rabbit begins to jump from your arms while you are standing, drop to your knees so the rabbit has a shorter distance to fall. Do your best to keep your rabbits from being seriously frightened, as a very frightened rabbit is likely to panic and throw itself against the cage or room walls, risking fractures. Be sure your rabbit is out of his cage often enough to get adequate exercise so he does not become more prone to the injury through loss of bone density. Diets deficient in calcium may also predispose your rabbit to spinal fracture.
Cancer
SYMPTOMS: Symptoms of uterine, mammary, and testicular cancer are tumors, usually multiple. With uterine adenocarcinoma there may be a vaginal discharge, often bloody. This may appear as a red patch in the center of a puddle of urine. Symptoms of lymphoma (lymphocarcinoma) are abdominal masses, anemia, and lymph node enlargement. Lymphoma is most common in rabbits between eight months to 1½ years, and neoplasms are most often found on liver, spleen, and kidneys. Eyes are also a common site for lymphomas, and may be seen as a dark lump or spot on the eye. Squamous cell cancers may develop from horny warts and can metastasize to any organ.
TREATMENT: Uterine cancer is difficult to treat, as it usually metastasizes, frequently to the lungs. It is slow developing, but fatal. Mammary cancer also usually metastasizes. Corticosteroids may slow the growth of lymphoma, although in general the prognosis for rabbits with lymphoma is poor. In cases where the lymphoma has developed in a limb, amputation of the limb may be advised. When lymphoma develops in eye tissue, the rabbit can sometimes be treated successfully by having the eye removed. Squamous cell carcinomas need early treatment and removal.
PREVENTION: The best way to prevent the most common cancer of rabbits, uterine cancer, is to have does spayed before they are two years old. (Dutch, Californian, and New Zealand rabbits have the highest incidences of uterine cancer.) Mammary and testicular cancers are also less common in altered rabbits. Certain rabbits may carry a gene that makes them more susceptible to lymphoma, but the owner will not be able to tell by breed.
Heat Exhaustion (heat prostration, heat stress, heat stroke)
CAUSE: Prolonged exposure to temperatures above 85 degrees F (28 degrees C), especially with humidity over 70 percent.
SYMPTOMS: Weakness; lethargy; rapid or labored breathing; polydipsia; anorexia, drooling; rectal temperature above 104 degrees F (40 degrees C); blue-tinged mouth, nose, ears; incoordination; convulsions; coma; death.
TREATMENT: Spray the rabbit with a mist of water, wrap rabbit in a cool dampened cloth, immerse rabbit in cool (not cold) water, control seizures.
PREVENTION: Heat exhaustion is more common in rabbits with thick coats, obese rabbits, and older rabbits. On hot days freeze a plastic bottle or carton of water and put it in the cage with the rabbit, place a refrigerated ceramic tile in the cage, put ice cubes in the rabbit’s water dish, or have a fan blowing the air near (but not directly on) the rabbits. Do not locate a rabbit cage in direct sunlight or next to a heat vent.
Hutch Burn (urine burn)
CAUSE: Membranes of the genitals and anus become inflamed and chapped from contact with urine. Secondary infections may occur.
SYMPTOMS: Swelling of anus and genital region, brownish crusts over genital area, oozing pus.
TREATMENT: Trim matted fur and apply antibiotic ointment. Clean rabbit’s cage.
PREVENTION: Hutch burn is most commonly seen when a rabbit hutch or cage has dirt floors that are wet with urine. Keep the surfaces of your rabbit’s cage clean and dry at all times. Incontinent rabbits or rabbits that dribble or urinate excessively from other conditions may develop hutch burn.
Inflammation of the ear (ear infection, otitis externa, otitis media, otitis interna)
CAUSE: When the external ear canal is affected, often ear mites. Sometimes secondary infections resulting from a heavy infestation of ear mites can damage the inner ear. Pasteurella multocida is often present in middle and inner ear infections.
SYMPTOMS: When the external ear canal is affected: head shaking, pawing at the ears, scratching. When it affects the middle ear there are often no symptoms. In one study, about one third of adult rabbits were found to have otitis media, or inflammation of the middle ear. There may be some hearing loss, but hearing loss in a rabbit is often hard for an owner to recognize. When the inner ear is affected, head tilt is a common symptom.
TREATMENT: If the cause is ear mites, treatment with ivermectin followed by antibiotic therapy if a secondary infection has developed. P. multocida infections of the ear should be treated as for pasteurellosis.
Lead Poisoning, heavy metal poisoning
CAUSE: Ingestion of lead, usually through chewing of surfaces painted with lead-based paint, or ingestion of other objects containing lead of other heavy metals such as zinc.
SYMPTOMS: Lethargy, depression, anorexia, weight loss. Lead poisoning may depress the immune system and make the rabbit susceptible to diseases such as pneumonia.
TREATMENT: For lead, subcutaneous administration of Ca-EDTA. If ileus is present, treat with cisapride or metaclo-pramide.
PREVENTION: If you allow your rabbit to roam free in your house, watch to be sure it does not chew on anything painted with older lead-based paint.
Malocclusion (mandibular prognathism, brachygnathism)
CAUSE: Normal wearing of teeth does not occur. This happens most often with the upper and lower incisors, rarely the molars. In young rabbits it is usually an inherited condition (autosomal recessive with incomplete penetrance), although it can sometimes be caused by a rabbit pulling on cage wires with his teeth. If it occurs later in life it may be a result of a trauma, tumor, or infection. It can also be caused by tooth trimming in older rabbits.
The inherited condition is more common in dwarf rabbits. These rabbits were bred for a cuteness of face resulting from a skull shaped more like that of a juvenile, and the teeth may not meet correctly in this type of skull.
SYMPTOMS: Dermatitis on chin, drooling, weight loss, anorexia, fur pulling, pawing at the mouth, piercing of mouth by teeth, ulcerations of the lips and tongue, abscesses in the mouth, eventual death from starvation if not treated.
TREATMENT: Clean around the teeth if hair and other debris accumulate. Clip or file teeth frequently (they grow about 2 mm/week). Have your veterinarian show you how to do this, or if you are not comfortable doing it, take the rabbit in regularly to have it done. Improperly clipping teeth can lead to fracture and infection. In severe cases of malocclusion affected teeth may be surgically removed. Some veterinarians do not recommend extraction because it is extremely difficult to remove all the root tissue. If any remains new teeth can develop, sometimes growing out of the cheek or into the eye, requiring euthanasia of the animal.
PREVENTION: Acquired malocclusion may sometimes be prevented by adequate calcium in the diet and by providing the rabbit with grass and safe sticks to chew. If tooth trimming is necessary for an older rabbit it should be done carefully, as excessive trauma when trimming teeth can cause malocclusion.
Sore Hocks (ulcerative pododermatitis)
CAUSE: Trauma to skin on bottom of feet with development of secondary infections (usually Staphyloccus aureus) that may extend to the bone.
SYMPTOMS: Anorexia, loss of weight, crusty ulcers on hind feet. Rabbit may sit with his weight on his front feet and tiptoe when walking. Death can occur in rare cases.
TREATMENT: Bathe sores with warm water, treat with topical antibiotic ointment such as mupirocin. Some rabbits will tolerate light bandages on the feet, others will not. Recurrence is common.
PREVENTION: This condition is more frequently seen in the large breeds of rabbits, rex rabbits, older rabbits, incontinent rabbits, rabbits not given enough exercise, and rabbits living in cages with wire floors. Watch for bald places on the bottoms of the hind feet. Rabbits don’t have pads on their feet like cats and dogs, and need hair to cushion their feet. If your rabbit cage has wire floors, provide the rabbit with a piece of plywood to sit on. Size of cage may also be a factor; be sure your rabbit has room to move around. If your rabbit suffers from incontinence, be sure you keep both the rabbit and his cage clean.
Splayleg
CAUSE: This is usually a genetic condition although it can have other causes. It most often affects the hind limbs, although the forelimbs can also be affected. Genetic splayleg affecting the hind limbs is caused by a mutant autosomal gene inherited in a simple autosomal recessive pattern. It is seen most often in lops.
SYMPTOMS: Hind legs are splayed. There may be skeletal deformity. Growth may be slightly stunted. The legs may remain functional or become partially or totally paralyzed.
TREATMENT: Rabbits with splayleg are usually alert and responsive. With care they may live several months to years.
Urolithiasis (stones in the urinary tract—kidneys, ureter, bladder, or urethra)
CAUSE: Precipitation of salt crystals (calcium carbonate and tricyclic phosphate) out of urine when the pH of the urine reaches 8.5–9.5 (normal urine pH is 8.2). When the crystals come together, they can form uroliths, or “stones.” Factors thought to lead to stone formation include too much calcium in the rabbit’s diet, not enough water, and infections.
SYMPTOMS: Thick creamy urine, sludgy urine, failure to use litter box for urine, inability to urinate, straining to urinate with hind leg and tail tremors, anorexia, weight loss, depression, symptoms of pain. If the rabbit becomes unable to urinate, immediate veterinary treatment is necessary to save the rabbit’s life.
TREATMENT: Fluids, manual expression of bladder, reduction of dietary calcium, treatment to acidify urine. Other treatments include flushing the bladder and surgical removal of bladder stones (uroliths).
PREVENTION: This condition is more common in males. Frequent urination may help prevent urolith formation, so be sure your rabbits have fresh water available at all times. Limit treats like crackers and bread which are high in calcium. Although the connection is not proven, it has long been assumed that excessive dietary calcium is a cause of uroliths. To reduce calcium in your rabbit’s diet, cut the amount of alfalfa-based pellets given your rabbit and supplement the diet with rolled oats, timothy-based pellets, and green vegetables. Remember, some calcium is necessary in a rabbit’s diet for healthy teeth and good bones.
Wet Dewlap (slobbers, moist dermatitis)
CAUSE: Fold of skin on doe’s neck stays wet from drinking water or drooling. It may then become inflamed and develop a bacterial infection. A similar condition can develop in bucks.
SYMPTOMS: Dewlap is visibly moist and swollen. Hair loss may occur. In cases where it becomes infected with Pseudomonas the dewlap may appear greenish.
TREATMENT: Clip fur from dewlap, treat with topical or systemic antibiotics. Treat any underlying dental problems that may be causing drooling.
PREVENTION: Provide does with water bottles instead of water crocks to drink from. If the condition was caused by drooling because of maloccluded teeth, keep the teeth trimmed.
Weepy eye, conjunctivitis
CAUSE: Irritated eye from dust, dirt, pollen, bacterial infection, blocked tear ducts.
SYMPTOMS: Ocular discharge (epiphora). Tears may run down cheeks when the rabbit shuts its eye. Discharge will sometimes crust on the eye (in this case the cause is usually bacterial).
TREATMENT: Opthalmic ointments. If the cause is bacterial it will most often (40–60 percent) be Staphylococcus aureus. Pasteurella multocida accounts for about 12 percent. Penicillin, streptomycin, and topically administered chlortetracycline are used to treat bacterial infections. Minor eye irritation can be treated with Gentocin®
eye ointment or drops.
TRANSMISSION: If bacterial, by direct contact and through contact with fomites (objects).
PREVENTION: Weepy eye from blocked tear ducts is more common in lops. Keep cages and litter boxes clean to prevent ammonia build-up from causing tearing.
a final thought
to anyone who has persevered reading this book to this page, it may indeed seem that rabbits are fragile creatures, difficult to care for and to keep healthy. In truth, it is only that they and their needs are unfamiliar to us. After a little time has passed, it becomes second nature to monitor a rabbit’s health and diet and keep its area clean and safe. My house rabbits take very little more time to care for than my two house cats, and with the exception of my special needs rabbit, my rabbits have been just as healthy and hardy as my cats.
Rabbits force us to learn new ways of looking at things and new ways of doing things. Rabbits, being the cautious prey animals they are, will not be hurried into relationships. They make us slow down and take time to know and appreciate them and earn their trust. They require us to become more perceptive, to learn to read the meaning behind the slight turning of an ear or the nudge of a head. They teach us to live in the moment, to find joy in simply being alive. Perhaps, in this fast-paced, hectic, ever more violent world, that is their greatest gift.
A rabbit companion can bring joy and contentment.