23. Crosses, Candlesticks, and Swords: The Crimea

0.     “L’Empire, c’est la paix.” Repeated by Louis Napoléon throughout 1852–1855.

0.     Moniteur Universel, 2 mars 1854; see also, Anceau, op. cit., p. 279.

0.     Sydney N. Fisher and William Ochsenwald, The Middle East, A History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990), p. 294.

0.     Fisher and Ochsenwald, Ibid., pp. 269–270. Mehmet Ali (Muhammad Ali, in Arabic form) was the self-declared khedive of Egypt, 1805–1848, while remaining under the nominal authority of the Ottoman sultan. See also in Fisher and Ochsenwald, pp. 167, 178, 194–297. For summaries of the Treaties of Adrianople and Hunkiar Iskelesi, see these same authors, pp. 168–270. See also The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 10: The Zenith of Power, 1830–1870, the 1960 edition. Ch. XVIII, “The Crimean War.”

0.     Clarendon to Cowley, April (?), 1853, Henry R. C. Wellesley, Earl Cowley, The Paris Embassy of Lord Cowley (London: Butterworth, 1928), p. 26—this is a most instructive work. Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, Stratford Canning, British ambassador to the Subime Porte, 1841–1858. See also David Wetzel, The Crimean War, A Diplomatic History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), Ch. 3, “The Eastern Crisis, 1853.” Nicholas I ruled from 1825 to 1855. The 4th Earl of Clarendon, George Villiers, served as foreign secretary, Feb. 1853–Feb. 1858; Nov. 1865–July 1866, and again Dec. 1868–June 1870; the first Earl Cowley, Henry Wellesley, 1804–1884, nephew of the Duke of Wellington, served as British ambassador most ably during the critical period, 1852–1867. He had a special relationship with both Louis Napoléon and Eugénie—who trusted him implicitly.

0.     Fisher and Ochsenwald, op. cit., p. 291. By 1850 Brit. exports worth £2.4 million. England also imported a substantial amount of wheat from Russia and Turkey.

0.     Anceau, op. cit. 278. Louis Napoléon to Lord Malmesbury, Feb 1853. Louis Napoléon to Ambassador Walewski in London, May 25, 1853, in Milza, op. cit., p. 385. Talleyrand quote, Giraudeau, op. cit., p. 346.

0.     Cowley, op. cit., Lord Cowley to Foreign Secretary Clarendon, Jan, 28, 1854, p. 39, and Eugene, p. 37.

0.     See Françoise de Bernardy, Walewski (Paris: Perrin, 1976), pp. 127 ff.

0.   Cowley, op. cit., p. 39, Cowley to Clarendoon, Jan. 2, 1854; Milza, op. cit., p. 383, 386; Anceau, op. cit., pp. 279–280; Nap. III, Oeuvres de Napoléon II (Paris: Aymot, 1869), vol. III, p. 162; and AN 400 AO47 on the exchange of notes, between Louis Napoléon and Nicholas I, January 1854.

0.   Jerrold, op. cit., vol. IV, pp. 10–11. Correspondence between Napoléon III and Nicholas I, Jan. 17 and 29, 1854, Tsar Nicholas demanded complete control of all Holy Places, the Danubian provinces, etc., and the rejection of the Five-Power Treaty of July 1841. To avoid war Louis Napoléon was willing to share custodianship of Jerusalem, etc. Bernardy, op. cit., pp. 134–138. See also The New Modern Cambridge History, vol. 10, op. cit.; and Pierre Renouvin’s classic, La Politique Extérieure du Second Empire (Paris: Centre de Documentation Univérsitaire, 1940).

0.   Jerrold, op. cit., vol. IV, pp. 11 and 23 for the Boulogne meeting.

0.   Jerrold, Ibid., vol. IV, pp. 40–41. Anceau, op. cit., p. 278. Moniteur Universel, 2 mars 1854, Supplément Extraordinaire, p. 245. See also Anceau, op. cit., p. 178.

0.   Marshal Armand Jacques Leroy de Saint-Arnaud, 1798–1854, a veteran of the long war in Algeria, died of cholera, Sept. 1854, Dictionnaire du Second Empire, or DSE, op. cit., pp. 1153–1154. First Baron Raglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, 1788–1855, ODNB (The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography) (Oxford Univ. Press, 2004), vol. 51, pp. 582–586, Raglan was succeeded by the less than successful Sir James Simpson, 1792–1868, ODNB, vol. 50, pp. 693–694.

0.   The other two divisional commanders were Canrobert and Bosquet, both promoted to the rank of marshal. “François Canrobert, 1809–1895,” DSE, pp. 229–230. Plon-Plon’s desertion is suppressed by editor Jean Tulard in, DSE, article, “La Guerre de la Crimée,” by Jean Ganiage, pp. 378–379, Jérôme later abandoned his post in Algeria as well—Bertaut, Jérôme, op. cit., pp. 154–155; and Louis Madelin’s La Catastrophe de Russie (Paris: Plon, 1949), p. 139.

0.   James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan, 1797–1868, ODNB, vol. 8, pp. 344–347. It was because of the scandal re the appalling living and medical conditions, and the lack of clothes and supplies in the Crimea that Lord Aberdeen’s government fell in January 1855.

0.   DSE, op. cit., “Crimée,” p. 382.

0.   Gen. Aimable Péĺissier, 1794–1869, becoming commander in chief of the French army, May 16, 1855–1856. He, supported by Gen. MacMahon, directed the taking of Malakoff Tower, DSE, p. 991. Gen. Adolphe Niel, 1802–1869, DSE, pp. 910–911. An incompetent Sir James Simpson, 1792–1868, was next replaced in Nov. 1855 by Sir William Codrington, see “James Simpson,” ODNB, vol. 50, pp. 693–694.

0.   DSE, “Crimée, Aspects de la Campagne Naval,” by Etienne Taillemite, p. 381. Hamelin was relieved of his command by Adm. Bruat at the end of 1854, while Richard Dundas was replaced by Admiral Lyons. Dundas was then transferred to the Baltic to replace “Black Charley” Napier in Feb. 1855. Dundas, 1802–1861, was the highly influential second son of Viscount Melville, ODNB, vol. 17, p. 288. Admiral Bruat, 1796–1855, died of cholera, Nov. 1855, DSE, “Armand Joseph Bruat,” pp. 214–215. Admiral Ferdinand Alphonse Hamelin, 1796–1864, DSE, p. 613.

0.   Dictionnaire du Second Empire, op. cit., p. 382; Vice Adm. Sir Charles Napier, 1786–1860, see the NODNB, vol. 40, pp. 151–156. Adm. Alexandre Parseval-Deschênes, 1790–1860, DSE, p. 971.

0.   Étienne Taillemite gives these figures, DSE, p. 382.

0.   The Times, Monday, Dec. 31, 1855, p. 7; Moniteur Universel, Journal Officiel de L‘Empire Français, dimanche, 30 déc., 1855, p. 1442.

0.   The Times, Ibid., Dec. 31, 1855.

0.   The full address, in the Moniteur Universel, dimanche, 30 déc. 1855, p. 1442.

0.   The Times, Dec. 31, 1855, p. 7.

0.   Anceau, op. cit., p. 285. 95,000 French troops killed in battle, or died of wounds or disease, chiefly cholera. His figure of 22,000 British dead is incorrect. See the New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 10, p. 485, for British casualties: 2,755 killed in action, 11,848 died of wounds, and 17,799 of sickness, for a total of 32,402. See also DSE, op. cit., p. 382; and Orlando Figes, Crimea (London: Penguin, 2011), p. 252. According to Austrian Ambassador Alexandre, Count von Hübner, in August 1855 the Russians had 66,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 20 batteries of artillery in the Crimea. Hübner, Neuf ans de Souvenirs d’un Ambassadeur d’Autriche à Paris, 1851–1859 (Paris: Plon, 1905), p. 339, and yet Nicholas II claimed 500,000 casualties. If he also had another 170,000 troops around the Baltic, there would appear to be a discrepancy somewhere.