1. The Ecusta company’s website, http://www.ecusta.com/products.htm, accessed January 2006, has since been taken down. For background on the company, see The Echo—Anniversary Edition—1939–1949 (Pisgah Forest, NC: Ecusta Paper Corp., 1949).
2. Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill suspected arsenic; see their “Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung: Preliminary Report,” British Medical Journal 2 (1950): 739–48. Franz Hermann Müller suspected the increasing use of stems; see his “Tabakmissbrauch und Lungencarcinom,” Zeitschrift für Krebsforschung 49 (1939): 57–85. J. J. Durrett of the Federal Trade Commission suspected the humectant diethylene glycol; see Hiram R. Hanmer to Paul M. Hahn, “Memorandum on Alleged Causative Relation between Cigarette Smoke and Bronchiogenic Carcinoma,” Sept. 15, 1950, Bates 950218815–8825, p. 7.
The “Bates numbers” I shall be citing are used to identify documents prepared for release in the discovery phase of litigation. These numbers have been stamped onto documents by handheld automatic stamping machines, such as those patented by the Bates Manufacturing Company of Orange, New Jersey, in the 1890s. Bates numbers allow large sets of documents to be uniquely sequenced, though in practice, when archives from multiple trials are combined, more than one document may end up with the same Bates number. Readers can retrieve documents from the online Legacy Tobacco Documents Library by entering the first part of the Bates number (preceding the hyphen) in the search field at http://legacy.library.ucsf.edu.
3. See Louis Kyriakoudes, “Historians’ Testimony on ‘Common Knowledge’ of the Risks of Tobacco Use: A Review and Analysis of Experts Testifying on Behalf of Cigarette Manufacturers in Civil Litigation,” Tobacco Control 15 (2006): iv107–16; also my “Should Medical Historians Be Working for the Tobacco Industry?” Lancet 383 (2004): 1174–75.
4. U.S. liability laws generally do not require proof that parties guilty of negligence knew they were doing harm; it is enough that they failed to act in accord with the “state of the art.” For legal purposes, then, the question is not so much when the industry “knew” but rather when they “should have known.”
5. Testimony of the “Seven Dwarfs” before Henry Waxman’s congressional committee can be found at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/
settlement/timelines/april942.html#nope. For the testimony of Geoffrey Bible, see Minnesota v. Philip Morris, March 2, 1998, Bates BIBLEG030298, p. 5782.
6. Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes: America’s Hundred-Year Cigarette War, the Public Health, and the Unabashed Triumph of Philip Morris (New York: Knopf, 1996).
7. The Plaza Hotel meeting is described in “Tobacco Industry Meeting, New York, December 14, 1953,” Bates 680262226–2228.
8. On January 26, 2006, the Air Resources Board of California’s Environmental Protection Agency recognized secondhand smoke as a significant cause of breast cancer, based on a five-year review of epidemiology. The report also concluded that secondhand smoke constitutes a “toxic air contaminant” responsible for more than fifty thousand American deaths per annum. For documentation, see http://www.arb.ca.gov/regact/ets2006/ets2006.htm; and for an updated assessment, Canadian Expert Panel on Tobacco Smoke and Breast Cancer Risk report of April 2009, http://www.otru.org/pdf/special/expert_panel_tobacco_breast_cancer.pdf.
9. Industry executives were privately admitting the reality of cigarette addiction more than a quarter-century prior to the Surgeon General’s report of 1988, the first to arrive at this conclusion. British American Tobacco (BAT) Chief Scientist Sir Charles Ellis in 1961 characterized smokers as “nicotine addicts,” for example, and two years later Brown & Williamson’s chief counsel and executive vice president confessed (privately) that “nicotine is addictive” and that the company was “in the business of selling nicotine, an addictive drug.” See Ellis, “Meeting in London with Dr. Haselbach,” Nov. 15, 1961, Bates 301083862–3865; Addison Yeaman, “Implications of Battelle Hippo I & II and the Griffith Filter,” July 17, 1963, Bates 435.
10. Louis Kyriakoudes notes that American etiquette guides as late as the 1970s (Amy Vanderbilt’s, for example) were still recommending that a good hostess provide cigarettes and ashtrays for her guests after a dinner party; he cites this as evidence that many people were not yet ready to talk about smoking as a deadly addiction. See his testimony in Boerner v. Brown & Williamson, May 9, 2003, Bates Kyriakoudesl050903.
11. On baldness: J. G. Mosley and A. C. C. Gibbs, “Premature Grey Hair and Hair Loss among Smokers: A New Opportunity for Health Education?” BMJ 313 (1996): 1616. On premature menopause: E. R. te Velde, P. L. Pearson, and F. J. Broekmans, eds., Female Reproductive Aging (London: Parthenon, 2000), p. 255. On Hollywood films: M.A. Dalton et al., “Effect of Viewing Smoking in Movies on Adolescent Smoking Initiation: A Cohort Study,” Lancet 362 (2003): 281–85; also James D. Sargent, “Effect of Seeing Tobacco Use in Films on Trying Smoking among Adolescents,” BMJ 323 (2001): 1394–97. On plasticizers released into the lungs: D. E. Mathis (Eastman Kodak Co.), “Factors Affecting Filter Firmness,” n.d., Bates 599006814–6819. On hookah: Wasim Maziak, “The Waterpipe: Time for Action,” Addiction 103 (2008): 1763–67; also Erika Dugas et al., “Water-Pipe Smoking among North American Youths,” Pediatrics 125 (2010): 1184–89.
12. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Reducing the Health Consequences of Smoking: 25 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989), chap. 4, tables 6, 15, and 16 and figs. 1 and 2.
13. Steven A. Schroeder, “Tobacco Control in the Wake of the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement,” New England Journal of Medicine 350 (2004): 293–301; J. R. Hughes et al., “Prevalence of Smoking among Psychiatric Outpatients,” American Journal of Psychiatry 143 (1986): 993–97; R.J. Reynolds, “Project Scum,” Dec. 12, 1995, Bates 518021121–1129. Simon Chapman, Mark Ragg, and Kevin McGeechan have published a fascinating account of how scholars tend to exaggerate the fraction of mentally ill who are smokers; see their “Citation Bias in Reported Smoking Prevalence in People with Schizophrenia,” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 43 (2009): 277–82.
14. Eavescasting is a word I asked the linguist Iain Boal to craft to designate this hidden intent to broadcast; the word is formed from a truncated amalgam of “eavesdropping” and “broadcasting.”
15. See my “ ‘Everyone Knew but No One Had Proof’: Tobacco Industry Use of Medical History Expertise in US Courts, 1990–2002,” Tobacco Control 15 (2006): iv117–25.
16. Lorillard in 1963 launched a newspaper—Science Fortnightly—to cloak its popular Kent brand in the authority of science. The publication was designed for doctors’ offices, with careful attention given to the quality of paper used and even the font and format of the typeface, all to catch the doctor’s eye and the attention of patients. Published from 1963 through 1964, the paper actually makes quite a good read, with articles on cosmology and dinosaurs and the achievements of racial minorities in science. The hope was to use top-notch popular science reporting to burnish the image of Kent as a “safer” cigarette, which is why every issue had at least two prominent ads for that brand and for no other product. Science Fortnightly was good popular science, but it was also an effort to convince doctors of the superiority of Kent, with its “Micronite” (formerly asbestos) filter. Doctors were always a group the industry wanted to influence and for obvious reasons: a 1950s industry document noted that for every physician “reached,” a thousand patients were also being reached. Lorillard in 1994 ordered the destruction of its collection of Science Fortnightly along with associated documentation; see “Record Transfer List,” May 5, 1994, Bates 87929836–9837.
17. My Stanford colleague Matthew Kohrman has recently mapped over three hundred of the world’s tobacco factories—“cigarette citadels”—which can now be viewed interactively at https://www.stanford.edu/group/tobaccoprv/cgi-bin/wordpress/.
1. Francis Robicsek, The Smoking Gods: Tobacco in Maya Art, History, and Religion (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978).
2. Robert K. Heimann, Tobacco and Americans (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), p. 203. Heimann was an NYU-trained sociologist who skyrocketed into the executive ranks of the American Tobacco Company (AT) in the early 1950s. His book was actually a collaboration between AT, Hill & Knowlton, the Tobacco Institute, and Philip Morris. Details of the publication history can be found in J. S. Fones and E. P. Quinby to George Weissman, “Notes and Suggestions on ‘Americans and Tobacco,’ ” May 4, 1959, Bates 1005038147–8155.
3. Harris Lewine, Good-Bye to All That (New York: McGraw Hill, 1970), pp. 11–12. Several other versions of this story circulate: the Rizla rolling paper company in France, for example, talks about soldiers in the Napoleonic wars using pages from books to wrap tobacco; see http://www.rizla.co.uk/riztory/riztory.php. Accounts of the origin of the cigarette differ according to whether one is talking about “small cigars,” the word cigarette, or paper wrapping.
1. There are three principal ways to classify tobacco: by breed, place of growth, and method of curing. The categories blend into one another, since the varieties grown in specific regions tend also to be cured in specific ways, and the quality of the smoke produced is strongly influenced by the soil in which it is grown. Flue-cured, or “bright,” tobacco is also known as Virginia tobacco, because that is where it was originally cultivated. Seeds taken from Virginia tobacco and planted in Cuba, however, will produce leaves best suited for Cuban cigars. American Tobacco’s Robert K. Heimann commented on this in 1960, noting that the tobacco plant was “more true to the earth in which it grows than the seed from which it springs”; see his Tobacco and Americans, pp. 146–85.
2. Direct heating by means of propane gas, begun after World War II, has been suspected of increasing the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines in tobacco and cigarette smoke; see Dietrich Hoffmann and Ilse Hoffmann, “The Changing Cigarette: Chemical Studies and Bioassays,” in Risks Associated with Smoking Cigarettes with Low Machine-Measured Yields of Tar and Nicotine (Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute, 2001), pp. 159–91.
3. Laurence Brockliss and Colin Jones in their The Medical World of Early Modern France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997) note that eighteenth-century methods for reviving bodies fished from the Seine included “rubbing eau-de-vie and ammoniac on various parts of the body and blowing tobacco smoke up the anus” (p. 744).
4. Heimann, Tobacco and Americans, p. 244.
5. A good review is G. F. Peedin, “Flue-Cured Tobacco,” in Tobacco: Production, Chemistry and Technology, ed. D. Layten Davis and Mark T. Nielsen (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), pp. 104–42.
6. Turkish leaf also produces a low-alkaline smoke, which is why it has often been used in cigarettes. American’s Pall Mall brand, introduced in 1913, originally used Oriental (= Turkish) tobacco and didn’t shift over to flue-cured until 1936. Chambers’ Edinburgh Journal in 1868 reported on the popularity of cigarette smoking following the Crimean War of 1853–56, advising that “for full benefit” smoke from Turkish-leaf cigarettes should be inhaled into the lungs; see Richard B. Tennant, The American Cigarette Industry: A Study in Economic Analysis and Public Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), p. 130.
7. Francis J. Weiss (Sugar Research Foundation, for R. J. Reynolds), “Tobacco and Sugar,” Oct. 1950, Bates 502477793–7881. An excellent review of the role of sugars in tobacco chemistry is Reinskje Talhout, Antoon Opperhuizen, and Jan G. C. van Amsterdam, “Sugars as Tobacco Ingredient: Effects on Mainstream Smoke Composition,” Food and Chemical Toxicology 44 (2006): 1789–98.
8. Fritz Lickint, Ätiologie und Prophylaxe des Lungenkrebses (Dresden: Steinkopff, 1953), pp. 68, 134–35.
9. See Prabhat Jha and Frank J. Chaloupka, eds., Tobacco Control in Developing Countries (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); also my “Tobacco and the Global Lung Cancer Epidemic,” Nature Reviews Cancer 1 (2001): 82–86. For the hypodermic needle comparison: Henner Hess, Rauchen: Geschichte, Geschäfte, Gefahren (Frankfurt: Campus, 1987), p. 49.
1. Thomas H. Steele et al., Close Cover before Striking: The Golden Age of Matchbook Art (New York: Abbeville Press, 1987).
2. “Camel Is Still Going Strong after 60 Historic Years,” RJR World (Jan.–Feb. 1974): 4, Bates 507849712–9729.
3. “George W. Hill: Pioneer Dynamo,” Newsleaf, Nov. 1984, Bates 950213874–3877, p. 8.
4. James A. Bonsack, “Cigarette-Machine,” U.S. Patent No. 238,640, awarded March 8, 1881; B. W. C. Roberts and R. F. Knapp, “Paving the Way for the Tobacco Trust: From Hand Rolling to Mechanized Cigarette Production,” North Carolina Historical Review 69 (1992): 257–81.
5. An excellent source on the history of tobacco mechanization is the Philip Morris document by Pat Walford: “The Development of Cigarette Technology,” Feb. 28, 1979, Bates 1000774237–4245; compare also “Cigarette Manufacture: A Backward Glance,” Molinismo (London: Molins Machine Co., Ltd., 1971).
6. Richard Hall, The Making of Molins: The Growth and Transformation of a Family Business, 1874–1977 (London: Molins Ltd., 1978), p. 2. Bernhard Baron, an American inventor, began manufacturing cigarette-making machines in London’s East End in the 1880s and in 1896 incorporated his Baron Cigarette Machine Company. John Player & Sons started using the Baron in Nottingham in 1893 and by the end of the century had installed eighteen such machines in its factories. The Glasgow firm of Stephen Mitchell & Son also bought sixteen Barons; see Howard Cox, The Global Cigarette: Origins and Evolution of British American Tobacco, 1880–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 53.
7. Cited in Allan M. Brandt, The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America (New York: Basic Books, 2007), p. 510 n. 49.
8. Cox, Global Cigarette, p. 53.
9. On Italy’s machines, see Giuseppe Cavallini, “La machina italiana per la confezione delle sigarette,” Il Tabacco, no. 548 (1942); and for Germany’s: M. Richard Creuzburg, “Die Tabakmaschinenindustrie,” Chronica Nicotiana 1, no. 2 (1940): 30–53.
10. BATCo, “Report on Visit to U.S.A., May 1973,” 1973, Bates 100226995–7033, p. 2; “Administration January-March, 1971” (BATCo), Bates 105360706–0735, p. 1; J.H. Simpson and I. W. Tucker, “The Technical Research Department of Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corporation: A Comprehensive Report of Its History, Current Status and Recommendations,” Dec. 1953, Bates 650032904–2943, p. 29. For Reynolds’s machines: “QA Production Division,” July 25, 1986, Bates 509908904–8948. The Molins Machine Company of London for many years was an innovator in cigarette machine design; Desmond Walter Molins was running the company in the early 1970s, when rumors swirled that the Russians had bought 150 of his Mark VIII machines. Molins was also a pioneer of packing (vs. rolling) machines: its Mark I machine from 1919 fit ten cigarettes into a soft pack, eliminating hand-packing; see Walford, “Development of Cigarette Technology,” pp. 4–5. Liggett in 1974 patented an “automatic feed device” linking makers with packing machines, allowing them to pack upwards of 3,600 cigarettes per minute; see Philip Morris’s Technical Newsletter, April 1974, p. 2. An excellent analysis of machine speeds is BAT’s “Technological Forecasting: A Brief Survey of Trends,” 1976, Bates 526022434–2566. For Hauni: “Status of Manufacturing Department Projects and Activities,” May 13, 1981, Bates 500253245–3255. In 2008 the Hamburg-based Hauni company, with a staff of 3,700, claimed to be “by far the largest and most successful provider of technologies and solutions for tobacco processing” and “the global market and technology leader in machine building” for the industry; see http://www.hauni.com/about_uso.html?&L = o.
11. Bryan Burrough and John Helyar, Barbarians at the Gate: The Fall of RJR Nabisco (New York: Harper and Row, 1990), p. 218.
1. Philip Morris, Public Affairs Department, “Tobacco Action Program Manual,” 1980, Bates 2053630242–0341, pp. 1–1–8.
2. Puffing on cigarettes could give away one’s position, which is why Sassanian soldiers developed the habit of smoking from the lit end of the cigarette, to hide the coal. In more recent wars smoking has become more dangerous from the use of night-vision goggles, which can easily spot the heat from a cigarette.
3. Ted Bates and Co., “Copy of a Study of Cigarette Advertising Made by J. W. Burgard: 1953” (Lorillard), n.d., Bates 04238374–8433.
4. “Tobacco Boosts Defense Morale,” News (Paris, TX), Nov. 29, 1959, Bates 1003543302–3654.
5. See my The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 258–347.
6. George Seldes, “US to Force Europe to Take $911,100,000 in Tobacco, Only 2 Billions in Food in ERP Plan,” In Fact, March 22, 1948, pp. 1–3. The Marshall Plan was designed to send goods rather than cash to Europe, with the goal of keeping Europe’s “farm and factory production machine humming.” The goal was also, though, to help keep U.S. farm prices high; see “How to Do Business under the Marshall Plan,” Kiplinger Magazine, May 1948, p. 6.
7. In September 1947 the Committee for European Economic Cooperation (CEEC) drew up a plan for European reconstruction and presented it to the U.S. government. Tobacco, significantly, was not included in this. Compare also the list in “First official meeting of the OEEC in Paris to determine national needs prior to passage of appropriations bill by U.S. Congress,” April 15, 1948, in the U.S. National Archives.
8. George Seldes, Lords of the Press (New York: Julian Messner, 1938); also his “Tobacco Shortens Life,” In Fact, Jan. 13, 1941, pp. 1–5; and Jan. 27, 1941, 3–4.
9. Hill & Knowlton, “Confidential Memorandum,” 1954, Bates 501941222–1229.
10. “To Smoke or Not: The Issue Involves Personal Choice, Not the Public Health,” Barron’s, Jan. 20, 1964, p. 2. The U.S. government by 1970 was paying $31 million per year for tobacco for the Food for Peace program, plus another $28 million for tobacco export subsidies and $240,000 for promotion of cigarettes in places such as Japan, which used some American tobacco.
1. Francisco Comin and Pablo Martin Acena, Tabacalera y el estanco del tabaco en España: 1636–1998 (Madrid: Fundación Tabacalera, 1999); Jacob M. Price, France and the Chesapeake: A History of the French Tobacco Monopoly: 1674–1791, 2 vols. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1973).
2. For 1935 data: C. F. Bailey and A. W. Petre, “The Modern Cigaret Industry,” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 29 (1937): 11–10, where we hear that “generally, the world over, tobacco revenues rank first or second in importance as a source of governmental income of this class.” For France, Italy and Formosa: “Tobacco’s Taxing Dilemma,” Time, May 7, 1965, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898779,00.html. Many Eastern European nations have (or formerly had) state-owned tobacco companies. Bulgartabac, for example, remains a state-owned enterprise despite numerous recent efforts at privatization. TEKEL is Turkey’s state-owned alcohol and tobacco monopoly; other monopolies combine tobacco and salt (Japan, the Vatican), wine (Taiwan), ginseng (Korea), etc.
3. See my Nazi War on Cancer for details.
4. See Yali Peng, “Smoke and Power: The Political Economy of Chinese Tobacco” (Ph.D. diss., University of Oregon, 1997). The World Health Organization has published a bibliography on smoking in China; see Joy de Beyer et al., Research on Tobacco in China: An Annotated Bibliography (New York: WHO, 2004). For China’s earlier history, see Cox, Global Cigarette; and Sherman Cochran, Big Business in China: Sino-Foreign Rivalry in the Cigarette Industry, 1890–1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990).
5. Tobacco taxes in the latter part of the nineteenth century—prior to the establishment of a national income tax—provided the U.S. government with nearly a third of its total revenue. As recently as 1992 Philip Morris was still the largest single taxpayer in the United States, coughing up $4.5 billion in income taxes.
6. According to a study by the Center for Public Integrity in Washington, D.C., BAT, Philip Morris, and Reynolds have all “worked closely with companies and individuals directly connected to organized crime in Hong Kong, Canada, Colombia, Italy, and the United States.” The Center also comments on an Italian government report, according to which Philip Morris and Reynolds agents in Switzerland were “high-level criminals who ran a vast smuggling operation into Italy in the 1980s that was directly linked to the Sicilian Mafia”; see International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, “Tobacco Companies Linked to Criminal Organizations in Lucrative Cigarette Smuggling,” CPI Special Report, March 3, 2001 (online).
7. Canada’s remarkable story is told in Rob Cunningham’s excellent Smoke and Mirrors: The Canadian Tobacco War (Ottawa: IDRC, 1996), pp. 125–35. For Sweden: AFP, “Sweden Scraps Its Heavy New Tobacco Tax Due to Booming Smuggling,” July 29, 1998, Bates 106012256. For Colombia: Mark Schapiro, “Big Tobacco,” The Nation, May 6, 2002 (online).
8. “North-East Argentina” (BATCo), 1992, Bates 503918336–8348.
9. Brown & Williamson, “Tobacco in Italy,” 1982, Bates 501016079–6083. Luk Joossens in 2007 estimated that 11 percent of the world’s cigarette transactions were “illicit,” including smuggling, illicit manufacture (by legitimate companies), and counterfeiting. In 2007 this amounted to about 600 billion cigarettes. BAT in 1992 predicted how many cigarettes would be smuggled into Hong Kong as a result of the island’s duty increases; see Graham Burgess, “Company Plan 1993—1997,” Oct. 16, 1992, Bates 304010203–0231 at 0216.
10. For the Ukraine: F. Delman, “Taxation & Smuggling,” TMA Executive Summary, Jan. 29, 1999, Bates 519977898–7901. For BAT: Jennie Matthew, “Company Denies Cigarette Smuggling Allegations,” Cyprus Mail, Dec. 18, 2001. For Chinatown: Angelica Medaglia, “Cigarettes Are Costly, but Often Less So in Chinatown,” New York Times, Sept. 18, 2007.
11. Susie Mesure, “Imperial Director Charged after German Customs Swoop,” The Independent (London), Jan. 15, 2003.
12. Luk Joossens and Martin Raw, “Cigarette Smuggling in Europe, Who Really Benefits?” Tobacco Control 7 (1998): 66–71. BAT Nigeria’s Richard Hodgson on Jan. 16, 2005, in the Lagos journal This Day opined, “Tobacco use is risky but counterfeit cigarettes are lethal.”
13. See Brandt, Cigarette Century, pp. 431–38.
1. Nannie M. Tilley, The R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985).
2. A fine history of trademarks and brand names is Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York: Pantheon, 1989).
3. For thirty thousand brands: Mark W. Rien and Gustaf N. Dorén, Das neue Tabago Buch (Hamburg: Reemtsma, 1985), p. 119. For Susini and Sons: Tony Hyman, “Louis Susini’s La Honradez: Cuban Cigarettes & the 1st Collectible,” National Cigar Museum Exhibit, www.cigarhistory.info/Cuba/Honradez.html. For Police Club: Jerome E. Brooks, “The Philip Morris Century,” ca. 1978, Bates 96746624–6648.
4. Philip S. Gardiner, “The African Americanization of Menthol Cigarette Use in the United States,” Nicotine & Tobacco Research 6 (2004): S55–65; also “The Black Menthol Cigarette Market, February, 1979,” prepared by William Esty for Reynolds, Bates 501071047–1122.
5. Susan Wagner, Cigarette Country: Tobacco in American History and Politics (New York: Praeger, 1971), pp. 56–60.
6. “Call for Philip Morris,” PM People, Jan. 1992, Bates 2054407245–7249.
7. See Rizla’s website, http://www.rizla.co.uk/riztory/riztory.php, where you can also play various video games.
8. David E. Rudd, Illustrated History of Baseball Cards: The 1800s, http://www.cycleback.com/1800s/tobacco1.htm.
9. Brandt, Cigarette Century, p. 7. For skycasting: “Voice from the Sky Resounds over the City,” New York Times, Sept. 18, 1928.
10. S. Clay Williams to W. R. Hearst, Sept. 10, 1935, Bates 501771783–1787; Hearst to Berkowitz, n.d., Bates 501771781–1782.
11. “Radio Continuity, Lucky Strike, 1928–29,” 1929, Bates 945263197–3552.
12. For other shows developed by the industry, see Louis M. Kyriakoudes, “The Grand Ole Opry and Big Tobacco: Radio Scripts from the Files of the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, 1948 to 1959,” Southern Cultures 12 (2006): 76–89.
13. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v = yNuQ6G1G_KQ#.
14. “A New Advertising Medium for KOOL Cigarettes,” Information (BAT), July 1948, 17–18, Bates 400566440–6490.
15. Kyriakoudes, “Historians’ Testimony,” p. iv112.
16. Kim Chong-wan documents these events in his book, One Hundred Years of Korean Film (in Korean), noting that the first screening of “moving pictures” in Korea was in October 1897 (personal communication, Yumi Moon).
17. “PM’s Mobile Cinema,” Tobacco Control 17 (2008): 147–50.
18. Kristen L. Lum, Jonathan R. Polansky, Robert K. Jackler, and Stanton A. Glantz, “Signed, Sealed, and Delivered: Big Tobacco in Hollywood, 1927–1951,” Tobacco Control 17 (2008): 313–23; also http://www.smokefreemovies.ucsf.edu/problem/earlyhollywood.html.
19. R. A. Rechholtz, “1971 Management Plan,” Sept. 28, 1970, Bates 501706277–6278.
20. Sylvester Stallone to Bob Kovoloff, Associated Film Promotion, April 28, 1983, Bates 690132319; and for details, J. F. Ripslinger to Stallone, June 14, 1983, Bates 2295; and more generally: Randall Poe, “Invasion of the Movie Product-Pushers,” Across the Board, Jan. 1984, 36–45; and C. Mekemson and S. A. Glantz, “How the Tobacco Industry Built Its Relationship with Hollywood,” Tobacco Control 11 (2002): 181–91.
21. Gene Tunney, “Nicotine Knockout, or the Slow Count,” Reader’s Digest, Dec. 1941, pp. 21–24. The irony is that even Joe Louis allowed his image to be used in ads for Chesterfields.
22. See the American Tobacco file labeled “Tuxedo, 1913–17,” Bates 945164313–4423. The “King” appellation is from the back of Cobb’s 1910 T206 tobacco card.
23. For Newman, Connery, and Eastwood: “AFP Payments,” 1983, Bates 682154636–4641. For Lark: Michael G. Wilson to Thomas A. Luken, July 19, 1989, Bates TIMN0305044–5045 and 685086478. For Superman II: Pierre Spengler (Dovemead Ltd.) to P. McNally (Philip Morris Europe), Oct. 18, 1979, Bates 2046788819–8821. For props in fifty-six films: “Tobacco Issues, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Transportation and Hazardous Materials, House of Representatives,” July 25, 1989, Bates 2406.01. For “no shortage”: John A. Kochevar (Philip Morris) to Thomas A. Luken, Feb. 2, 1989, Bates 87703545–3547. For merchandising: Frank A. Saunders to James C. Bowling, Jan. 9, 1984, Bates 2021280500.
24. Gary Messatesta to Bill Degenhardt (American Tobacco), “Movie Memorandum,” Nov. 10, 1989, Bates 980345339–5750. Charlton Heston also smokes in at least one Planet of the Apes.
25. Warren Cowan to Gerald Long (Reynolds), May 4, 1981, Bates 503579240–9244.
26. A. R. Hazan, H. L. Lipton, and S. A. Glantz, “Popular Films Do Not Reflect Current Tobacco Use,” American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 998–1000.
27. Robert F. Kennedy’s words are from Sept. 12, 1967, and online at smokefreemovies.ucsf.
28. A. Charlesworth and S. Glantz, “Smoking in the Movies Increases Adolescent Smoking: A Review,” Pediatrics 116 (2006): 1516–28.
29. Sarah Jessica Parker flashes a pack of Marlboro Lights in Smart People (2008) in a scene clearly crafted to highlight the brand. British films may be using product placements, judging from the prominent role played by BAT’s Senior Service in the The Bank Job (2008), for example. Filmmakers sometimes use fictional brand “prop” cigarettes: Quentin Tarantino used a Red Dog brand in Pulp Fiction, for example, and the 1994 film The Shadow, with Alec Baldwin, features a fictional Llama brand made to look like Camels.
30. Kelly, Weedon and Shute, “Philip Morris Cigarette Marketing—A New Perspective,” Nov. 1989, Bates 2501057693–7719, p. 11. James Cameron’s Aliens (1986), also starring Sigourney Weaver, is full of extraterrestrial smoking.
31. American Tobacco Co., “Lucky Strike, 1922–23” (Advertisements), 1922–23, Bates 945196562–6665.
32. Reynolds, Magicians Handy Book of Cigarette Tricks (Winston-Salem, 1930s).
33. Arthur Selwyn Brown v. R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Co., “Transcript—Vol. II. Defendants’ Evidence,” May 1938, Bates 501820114–0257.
34. Martha N. Gardner and Allan M. Brandt, “ ‘The Doctors’ Choice Is America’s Choice’: The Physician in US Cigarette Advertisements, 1930–1953,” American Journal of Public Health 96 (2006): 222–32. For more ads, see http://lane.stanford.edu/tobacco/index.html.
35. See the collection of ads in “Philip Morris Newspapers,” 1940–42, Bates 1003071050–1338.
36. Brown & Williamson in 1948 invited six thousand leading U.S. nose and throat specialists to send in a postcard to obtain twenty-five complimentary packs of Kool cigarettes to hand out to their patients “suffering from colds and kindred disorders.” An astonishing 56 percent “readily and cheerfully accepted” the free cigarettes. The offer was soon thereafter extended to all practicing physicians in the United States; see “Unique Kool Campaign Has Warm Reception,” Information (BAT), July 1948, pp. 9–10, Bates 400566440–6490. Nose and throat specialists were also sent Dr. Kool penguin paperweights as “goodwill builders,” with the hope that these could be placed on the desks of “practically every physician in the United States.” See also Fig. 34.
37. See the schedule for Tareyton cigarettes prepared for American Tobacco by the Lawrence C. Gumbinner Advertising Agency, updated from 1966, Bates 990042857–3531, p. 442.
38. Emerson Foote is cited in L. Heise, “Unhealthy Alliance,” World Watch, Oct. 1988, p. 20; compare John H. Crowley and James Pokrywczynski, “Advertising Practitioners Look at Ban on Tobacco Advertising,” Journalism Quarterly 68 (1991): 329–37. For the impact of advertising: R. W. Pollay et al., “The Last Straw? Cigarette Advertising and Realized Market Shares among Youth and Adults, 1979–1993,” Journal of Marketing 60 (1996): 1–16; J. P. Pierce et al., “Does Tobacco Advertising Target Young People to Start Smoking? Evidence from California,” JAMA 266 (1991): 3154–58; Michael Klitzner, Paul J. Gruenewald, and Elizabeth Bamberger, “Cigarette Advertising and Adolescent Experimentation with Smoking,” British Journal of Addiction 86 (1991): 287–98. For examples of the industry admitting advertising’s impact, see Bates 506768775, 507632657, and 501928462.
39. For “get more triers”: “Resume of Sales Meeting Held in New York Office on December 5, 6, 7, and 9, 1966” Bates 990146737–6773, p. 7. For patches, see Art Padoan (Philip Morris), “Nicotine Skin Patch (NSP) Industry Fact Summary Sheet,” Nov. 3, 1992, Bates 2040573155–3163, where we hear that “Advertising of the patches was halted by the companies in the late spring to cool off demand, which had quickly outstripped supplies.”
40. “YAFScan: A Qualitative Overview of Values Lifestyles Brand Images among Northeast Urban Young Adult Female Smokers,” Oct. 1997, Bates 2073775413–5477.
41. O. P. McComas, “Annual Report Philip Morris,” 1954, Bates 2048017883–7921.
42. “Corporate Totals” (Lorillard), Jan. 16, 1961, Bates 01793607–3612.
43. “Some Reflections on Our Present Discontent—Or Why We Are Losing the Public Affairs War on Tobacco?” 1990, Bates 2500057725–7729.
44. For rivals: Liggett & Myers, “Chesterfield #25A,” March 28, 1951, Bates LG0071270–1300. As of 1991 “Courtesy of Choice” had more than 8,500 participating outlets in forty-nine countries; see Wilson Jones, “Issues Book 2000,” 1991, Bates 2082100111–0279A; and for Australia’s participation: “ETS Activity Status,” Sept. 1993, Bates 2500156096–6105. For PM’s Accommodation Program, see Monique Muggli, Jean L. Forster, Richard D. Hurt, and James L. Repace, “The Smoke You Don’t See: Uncovering Tobacco Industry Scientific Strategies Aimed against Environmental Tobacco Smoke Policies,” American Journal of Public Health 91 (2001): 1419–23; J. V. Dearlove, S. A. Bialous, and S. A. Glantz, “Tobacco Industry Manipulation of the Hospitality Industry to Maintain Smoking in Public Places,” Tobacco Control 11 (2002): 94–104.
45. For “not too bad an advertisement”: Addison Yeaman (Brown & Williamson) to W. E. McCabe, Dec. 3, 1946, Bates 682349456. For “create Philip Morris”: Jack Porterfield to J. E. Gallagher, “Johnny, Jr. Operation,” Dec. 19, 1953, Bates 2010019434. The Tobacco Institute’s William Kloepfer on Nov. 24, 1976, asked Arthur Stevens, general counsel of Lorillard, “why, if the cigarette companies do not want to promote smoking among young people, [do] they allow candy cigarette manufacturers to use their brand names”? (Bates 00487616–7617). Much of my discussion of candy cigarettes is from an unpublished paper coauthored by Julia Powell and myself in 2006–7.
46. “American Tobacco Co., Fiscal Statement,” Dec. 31, 1928, Bates 945284363–4810; W. T. Woodson, “Lorillard v. Glick,” Sept. 9, 1929, Bates 88106915.
47. Addison Yeaman to P. J. Trantham, March 18, 1949, Bates 682349439.
48. Robert B. Meyner to Addison Yeaman, Feb. 20, 1967, Bates 682349375; Addison Yeaman to Meyner, March 7, 1967, Bates 682349373.
49. Addison Yeaman to Tell Chocolate Novelties, March 16, 1948, Bates 682349453; also his letters to Victoria Sweets, Oct. 14, 1948, Bates 682349448; to Stephen Szilagyi of the Smiley Candy Co., Jan. 17, 1950, Bates 682349433; and to Sylvan Sweets, April 7, 1950, Bates 682349428. The Lorillard document cited is Anna F. Woessner to Fujio Inoue (Hakuhoda Inc.), Jan. 31, 1961, Bates 00487966.
50. Gus Wayne to J. E. Gallagher, “Sales Promotion,” Dec. 6, 1953, Bates 2010019425–9427, with punctuation corrected. Gallagher considered this notion of giving kids Philip Morris chocolate cigarettes “an excellent suggestion”; see his letter to Ray Jones, Dec. 24, 1953, Bates 2010019424. Gus Wayne, Buddy Douglas, Al Altieri, and Leon Polinsky were the four “Johnny Juniors” used to market Philip Morris cigarettes when the original “Johnny” (Roventini) wasn’t available. Philip Morris valued the “Johnny Junior” trademark at $300 per month in 1949, though the “Johnnys” themselves weren’t paid very well and were regarded as more perishable than the usual trademark: advertising executive Seymour Ellis pondered “the comparatively short life” of a Johnny—“they are not much good to us after 40, or even before”—and so urged a salary of about $70 per month for their services. See Seymour Ellis to Allan Thurman, July 27, 1949, Bates 2010017043–7044.
51. Alan Blum, “Candy Cigarettes,” New England Journal of Medicine 302 (1980): 972; Jonathan Klein et al., “Candy Cigarettes: Do They Encourage Children’s Smoking?” Pediatrics 99 (1992): 27-31.
52. Margaret E. Hilton, “Teaching them Young,” Medical Officer, Feb. 22, 1963, p. 111; Robert C. Conlon (Lorillard) to World Candies, Inc., Jan. 31, 1969, Bates 88682607; Guy M. Blynn (Reynolds) to World Candies, Inc., Jan. 15, 1980, Bates 515864270–4271.
53. J. S. Speer III to E. W. O’Toole, “Kent Trade Mark,” Feb. 5, 1969, Bates 00487906.
54. For “ugly heads”: R. E. Scanlan to New York State TAN Advisory Committee, “New York Activities,” Feb. 15, 1983, Bates 680532741–2742. For Tootsie Roll: Henry F. Mohler to T. J. Kelly (Kelly Candy and Tobacco), May 29, 1971, Bates 1005098971–8975. For ban defeated: “Committee against Unjust Cigarette Taxes Reactivated,” Tobacco Reporter, Feb. 1968, p. 66.
55. For leaflets: William Kloepfer (Tobacco Institute) to J. Kendrick Wells, May 26, 1978, Bates 680546989–6999. For lobbying: Michael F. Brozek to William P. Buckley, “Legislative Update—Minnesota,” May 10, 1985, Bates LG0304982–4986. For friends: Philip Morris, “Tobacco-Related Web Addresses,” 1995, Bates 2078863603–3617.
56. J. Kendrick Wells to Samuel Cohen (World Candies), May 9, 1985, Bates 640516197–6198; J. Kendrick Wells to Counsel for World Candies, May 22, 1985, Bates 521002266.
57. D. M. Antonellis (Stark Candy) to C. G. Lamb (Brown & Williamson), Oct. 23, 1990, Bates 486100575.
58. For “BIG TOBACCO BUSINESS”: R. J. Reynolds, “School Days Are Here,” Sept. 9, 1927, Bates 502399083–9085. For “most cigaret experts”: George Seldes, “Cigarets for Children,” In Fact, July 28, 1947, p. 1.
59. For Japan: Yoshihiro Nagai to Yutaka Suzuki (Philip Morris), “Book Cover Advertising Report,” Feb. 18, 1987, Bates 2504042177–2178. For Argentina: G. Irman (Brown & Williamson), “Notes on Project ‘Bristol,’ ” April 1980, Bates 661122258–2277.
60. For “new starters”: D. V. Cantrell (Brown & Williamson) to I. D. Macdonald et al., “Kool Isn’t Getting the Starters,” Feb. 17, 1987, Bates 621079918. For “replacement smokers”: Diane S. Burrows (Reynolds), “Younger Adult Smokers: Strategies and Opportunities,” Feb. 29, 1984, Bates 505458067–8160. For “young adult market aged 14–21”: Charles A. Tucker, “1975 Marketing Plans Presentation, Hilton Head” (presented to RJRI Board of Directors), Sept. 30, 1974, Bates 501421310–1335. For “initiation”: “Smoking-Cigarettes and Advertising” (Brown & Williamson), 1975, Bates 680561705–1712. The Roper report is at Shirley Wilkins and Bud Roper to Steve Fountaine, “Suggestions for Research,” June 12, 1970, Bates 2078100038–0042. For “today’s teenager”: Myron E. Johnston to Robert B. Seligman, “Young Smokers,” March 31, 1981, Bates 1003636640–6688. For “aggressive monkeys”: Frank J. Ryan, “Hyperkinetic Child as a Prospective Smoker,” July 18, 1975, Bates 680903115–3143, p. 22.
61. For “Marlboro’s leadership”: “Philip Morris EEC Region Three Year Plan 1992–1994,” Bates 2500064227, p. 30. For “prime target group”: A. G. Buzzi (Leo Burnett Advertising for Philip Morris Holland), “Marketing Plans 1982,” Jan. 14, 1982, Bates 2501026818–6952, p. 18. For YAMS: “Soccer Sponsorship,” Feb. 9, 1994, Bates 2504051405–1451. For “starters” and “switchers”, see Imperial Tobacco Ltd., “Fiscal ‘80 Media Plans: Phase 1,” March 1, 1979, Bates 202345172–5352, pp. 19–22. The “young skew” of the marketing plan for du Maurier reflected, according to company marketing experts, the “large amount of starters duMaurier receives.”
62. Roper Research Associates (for Philip Morris), “A Study of Cigarette Smokers’ Habits and Attitudes in 1970,” May 1970, Bates 1002650000–0392, pp. 3–4.
63. T. L. Achey to Curtis Judge (Lorillard), “Product Information,” Aug. 10, 1978, Bates 94684934–5122 at 5039.
64. Lorillard, “Replies to 5-Year Plan Questionnaire,” 1981, Bates 85525469–5510, p. 27.
65. Claude E. Teague Jr., “Some Thoughts about New Brands of Cigarettes for the Youth Market,” Feb. 2, 1973, Bates 502987357–7368, pp. 10–11.
66. For Teague’s 1973 memo, see note 65 above. For the 1975 update: Jim F. Hind to C. A. Tucker, Jan. 23, 1975, Bates 505775557. Hind states that Reynolds’s “Meet the Turk” campaign was designed “to shift the brand’s age profile to the younger age group.” Compare the same company’s secret “Planning Assumptions and Forecast for the Period 1977–1986,” March 15, 1976, Bates 503327127–7146. For “perfect Camel demographics”: Stadium Motorsports, “Camel Point of Sale and Increased Exposure Opportunities 1983,” Aug. 24, 1982, Bates 504054574–4576. For Sweden: Marie Friefeldt (IMU-Testologen), “Changes in Smoking Habits and Attitudes towards Marlboro Red,” Oct. 18, 1990, Bates 2501173074–3134.
67. For “youthful eye”: Philip Gaberman (Creative Director, Brian Associates) to Charles Seide, Aug. 13, 1970, Bates 92352889–2890; also the exposé in Consumer Reports, Jan. 1971, p. 5, Bates 504823488. For “video game craze”: M. A. Sudholt to S. T. Jones (Lorillard), “New Idea Sessions in the Research Department, July 1982,” Aug. 13, 1982, Bates 96509462–9472. In Minnesota v. Philip Morris (1998), when evidence was presented that the industry had marketed to twelve-year-olds, the defense argued that this was “a typo and they meant 21 year-olds”; see Devarati Mitra (quoting Channing Robertson), “Tobacco: Behind the Smokes and Mirrors,” Stanford Scientific (Spring 2003): 26.
68. Marketing and Research Counselors, Inc., “What Have We Learned from People? A Conceptual Summarization of 18 Focus Group Interviews on the Subject of Smoking” (for Ted Bates Advertising for Brown & Williamson), May 26, 1975, Bates 680559454–9490; original emphasis.
69. Lev L. Mandel, Stella A. Bialous, and Stanton A. Glantz, “Avoiding ‘Truth’: Tobacco Industry Promotion of Life Skills Training,” Journal of Adolescent Health 39 (2006): 868–79; Melanie Wakefield, Kim McLeod and Cheryl L Perry, “ ‘Stay Away from Them Until You’re Old Enough to Make a Decision’: Tobacco Company Testimony about Youth Smoking Initiation,” Tobacco Control 15 (2006): iv44–53. For “alarmingly like a colorful pack”: “Blown Cover,” Advertising Age, Sept. 11, 2000, 34–35.
70. http://tobaccoanalysis.blogspot.com/2006/03/harvard-medical-school-professors.html. Produced by Sunshine Communications with the help of PM’s Youth Smoking Prevention Department. For “Raising Kids Who Don’t Smoke”: http://www2.pmusa.com/en/prc/activities/downloadresources.asp. And for the impact of such ads: M. C. Farrelly et al., “Getting to the Truth: Evaluating National Tobacco Countermarketing Campaigns,” American Journal of Public Health 92 (2002): 901–7.
71. R. Dunn, “Camel and the Hollywood Maverick,” 1986, Bates 515606728–6729.
72. Teague, “Some Thoughts about New Brands of Cigarettes for the Youth Market,” pp. 10–11, with thanks to Geoffrey Schiebinger for this insightful analysis of dual rhetoric.
73. Paul M. Fischer et al., “Brand Logo Recognition by Children Aged 3 to 6 Years: Mickey Mouse and Old Joe the Camel,” JAMA 266 (1991): 3145–48; Henry A. Waxman, “Tobacco Marketing Profiteering from Children,” JAMA 266 (1991): 3185–86; Kathleen Deveny, “Joe Camel Is Also Pied Piper, Research Finds,” Wall Street Journal, Dec. 11, 1991, pp. B1–B4; and for the whitewash: David Smith, A Camel Called JOE: The Illustrated Story of an American Pop Icon (Boston: duCap Books, 1998).
74. Bruce Eckman and Shelly Goldberg (for Philip Morris), “The Viability of the Marlboro Man among the 18–24 Segment,” March 1992, Bates 2040178502–8519, p. 13.
75. For Jews: Gehrmann Holland (Reynolds), “A Study of Ethnic Markets,” Sept. 1969, Bates 501989230–9469; also the ninety-seven-page listing of Reynolds slogans in Bates 514029640–9736. For the military market: Action Marketing Ltd., “Brown & Williamson Military Marketing Plan,” April 1978, Bates 660048045–8308. For gays and lesbians and pets and gold jewelry: Leo Burnett Agency (for Philip Morris), “1995 Media Recommendation for Benson & Hedges 100’s,” Dec. 8, 1994, Bates 2060370113–0175, p. 14; also Joanne Lipman, “Philip Morris to Push Brand in Gay Media,” Wall Street Journal, Aug. 13, 1992, Bates 2045995474–5475. For “breath conscious”: J. W. Carson and B. W. McCarthy, “Report of the Final Days of the SCIMITAR Campaign for B.A.T.,” July 1990, Bates 400211403–1465, pp. 4–8; also Bates 506254897. For “virile segment”: D. W. Shouse to J. A. Herberger, “Project LF,” Feb. 3, 1987, Bates 507371356. For “work is a job”: Tobacco Merchants Association, “A Cigarette for You,” TMA Tobacco Weekly, Feb. 22, 1990, Bates 2501285534–5535. For “burnouts”: R. J. Reynolds, “Differentiating within the FUBYAS Group,” 1984, Bates 503897087–7101. For “They got lips”: Hilts’s interview from May 20, 1996, Bates 2070090240–0259.
76. “Benefits—Brand Family Segments” (Reynolds marketing document), Bates 503046115–6123; Reynolds, “Segment Summary” (Reynolds), 1981, Bates 501984818–4823.
77. For Arabs: Yankelovich, “Marlboro Qualitative Research Presentation, Saudi Arabia,” June 1993, Bates 2501084045–4103. For Poland: Philip Morris International, “Poland Marketing Plan,” 1993, Bates 2501261059–1171. For Virginia Slims in Korea: “Brand History: Virginia Slims,” Sept. 1993, Bates 2057095264–5322 at 5291. For “highly focused attack”: Flemming Morgan (BAT Nederland) to T.M. Wilson, Nov. 2, 1993, Bates 500012270–2272. For “hedonic rating”: Brown & Williamson, “Total Competitive Smokers,” n.d., Bates 465710875–0982. For “Camel Loyal Segments”: GRD et al. to D. H. Murphy, “Camel/ Winston Significant Activities,” July 20, 1994, Bates 514211259–1260. For “on the verge”: Gerald H. Long, “Remarks . . . to the Tobacco Seminar,” June 8, 1983, Bates 85173427–3654, p. 6.
78. “Cigarette Promotion at Sri Lanka’s Major Religious Festival,” Marketing News (BAT), Dec. 1974, 11–15, Bates 400953289–3319.
79. For “Negroes read”: Moss H. Kendrixto J. W. Glenn (Reynolds), March 16, 1948, Bates 500322204; and the marginal note by EHD on Kendrix to W. T. Smither, June 8, 1948, Bates 500322201. For communist agitators: Tilley, Reynolds Tobacco Company, 373–414. For Nigger Hair: “The American Tobacco Co.,” Fortune, Dec. 1936, pp. 96–102, 154–60, in “Publicity Articles,” Bates 945359792–0452. Niggerhead was a term widely used outside the tobacco context, describing specific varieties of coal, termites, oyster tins, and a species of New Zealand sage. Kansas Niggerhead was a flower in the American Midwest, niggerhead coal was a variety that comes in large roundish lumps, and so forth.
80. ‘ “Sold American’: Basic Plan,” 1944, Bates 945246830–7157, p. 5.
81. For “Negro dollar”: A. Bernstein (American Tobacco) to J. F. McDermott, “Pall Mall Sales in Southern Negro Market,” Dec. 30, 1958, Bates 990066086–6090. For “negro cigarette”: “Philip Morris Campaigns for Negro Market,” White Sentinel, ca. July 1956, Bates 2045990400. For 27 percent: G. Weissman (Philip Morris), Oct. 7, 1953, Bates 1001750585–0590. For boycott of “nigger lovers”: “Klan Chief Urges Boycott of 3 Firms for NAACP Aid,” New York Post, June 24, 1956, Bates 2041942549.
82. J. F. Craft, “Winston Negro Problem Markets,” June 21, 1966, Bates 501106692–6701; James Spector to R. Fitzmaurice, “Marlboro Menthol Analysis—Grand Rapids,” Sept. 12, 1974, Bates 2040321326–1330.
83. Lorillard, “Why Menthols? A Meandering Rationale Relating Certain Phenomena about Menthol Smokers to an Interesting Opportunity for Newport,” 1970, Bates 00486171–6175; original emphasis. This document is not signed, but it appears in Lorillard’s files in close proximity to documents to and from Arthur J. Stevens, chief counsel for the company in its New York office. The surrounding documents include correspondence from Stevens to Lennen & Newell, the advertising agency handling the company’s Newport account, on how additives such as menthol influence “mouth taste” and “breath freshening.” Much of this correspondence is unavailable, having been sequestered as “privileged.”
84. For Big Boy: Brown & Williamson, “Project Big Boy,” Nov. 14, 1988, Bates 621708903–8929. For military markets: “Special Markets,” Pipeline (May 1983): 3, Bates 670118791–8811. For “plums”: G. R. Telford to R. D. Hammer et al., “Newport Planning,” Jan. 26, 1983, Bates 85172803–2806.
85. For Hispanics operating on a “fantasy level”: J. Pericas to C. L. Sharp, “Analysis of the MDD Segmentation Study among Hispanic Smokers,” Feb. 18, 1982, Bates 503522931. For Doris Day vs. Clint Eastwood: “Cigarette Market Segmentation Study” (Reynolds), Aug. 12, 1974, Bates 03537963–8000.
86. For “high Jewish populations”: Nancy S. Kaufman to J. W. Goss, “1983 Jewish Market Pantry Survey,” Feb. 13, 1984, Bates 503490299–0302. For Yiddeshen taam: Joseph Jacobs, “The Sounds of Tel Aviv—Winston Filter Cigarettes,” Feb. 20, 1962, Bates 500110339–0344. Reynolds’s 1986 “Strategic Summary” talks about Vantage, Salem, and Now as “priority brands in the Jewish market” and notes that Vantage cigarettes were sampled “through the Joseph Jacobs organization that reaches major gatherings of Jewish people in the New York Metropolitan market” (“Jewish Market,” Oct. 15, 1985, Bates 504952070–2072).
87. For “short in length”: R.. Reynolds, “Segment Summary,” 1981, Bates 501984818–4823. For “worrier segment”: Ron Beasleyet al., “R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, Philadelphia Metro,” July 23, 1976, Bates 501792034–2077. For “Blatant Lesbians”: F. B. Satterthwaite (Lorillard) to R. Smith et al., “Segmenting the Women’s Market by Women’s Role, Women’s Lib and Other Social Forces,” June 18, 1973, Bates 84277013–7022. The goal of this latter study was to explore ways to harness “social forces for the cigarette market,” including “Women’s Lib, Ecology, Homosexuality, Consumerism, Anti-Materialism, Self-Fulfillment, etc.”
88. Richard Klein, Cigarettes Are Sublime (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995).
1. Alexis Smith, “ ‘Satisfiers,’ Smokes, and Sports: The Unholy Marriage between Major League Baseball and Big Tobacco,” Sport History Review 38 (2007): 121–33.
2. Liggett & Myers, “Minutes of Annual Meeting,” March 8, 1948, Bates LG015 5486–5497; “Statement of Chairman,” March 14, 1949, Bates LG0154785–4790; “Statement of Chairman,” March 13, 1950, Bates LG0154791–4795.
3. Liggett & Myers, “The Perry Como Show,” Jan. 1, 1950, Bates LG0368276–8500; Oct. 11, 1950, Bates LG0084016–4021; Liggett & Myers, “Chesterfield Contract Advertising,” Dec. 15, 1950, Bates LG0282755–2756. A swell photo of the Chesterfield Star Team can be found in the Sporting News of October 4, 1950.
4. Liggett & Myers, “The Perry Como Show,” Oct. 10, 1951, Bates LG0084444–4450; Liggett & Myers, “Personal #5 Philadelphia Only,” May 5, 1953, Bates LG0392119; “Young America,” Aug. 21, 1953, Bates LG0392167; “Factory Visit #2” (Liggett & Myers), Aug. 21, 1953, Bates LG0392158; “The Chesterfield Supper Club,” Jan. 1, 1944, Bates LG0374195–4293; “The Chesterfield Supper Club,” Jan. 1, 1945, Bates LG0374294–4816; James E. Kleid to Larry Bruff, Dec. 20, 1957, Bates LG0301956–1959.
5. Alan Blum, “Tobacco Industry Sponsorship of Sports: A Growing Dependency,” paper presented to the Surgeon General and Interagency Committee on Smoking and Health, Oct. 27, 1988, Bates 980171240–1336.
6. “Sponsorship: List of Activities Currently and Previously Sponsored by T.A.C. Member Companies,” Dec. 18, 1978, Bates 2024928572–8573.
7. Philip Morris, “Why Tobacco Sponsorship?” July 1980, Bates 2025015678–5681.
8. Motorsports Merchandising, “R. J. Reynolds and Automobile Racing,” March 23, 1970, Bates 505579294–9314. An excellent early review is BAT’s “Motor Sport Sponsorship . . . A Review,” Marketing News, Feb. 1972, pp. 1–15, Bates 400952490–2781.
9. R. A. Rechholtz, “1971 Management Plan,” Sept. 28, 1970, Bates 501706277–6278.
10. “Action on Smoking and Health,” Social Audit 2 (Autumn 1974): 5–7. John Player & Sons sponsored auto racing in Canada beginning in 1961, and the company’s Gold Leaf logo was on Lotus cars at Australia’s Grand Prix in Melbourne by 1968. Rothmans took over South Africa’s famous Durban July Handicap in 1964 and for thirty-seven years the country’s premier horse race was known as the “Rothmans July.”
11. “Blum—Tobacco and Sports,” 1988, Bates 2025867484–7485.
12. Lisa Greene (Sports Marketing Enterprises) to Seth Moskowitz, Oct. 18, 1989, Bates 507760716–0718; and “1990 Fact Sheet: Sports Marketing,” Bates 512574950–4954.
13. N. W. Glover to W.H. Melton (Reynolds), “Doral Skiing Program,” Dec. 29, 1970, Bates 500743623–3624; “Proposed United States Ski Association Doral Citizens Racing Program,” Oct. 12, 1972, Bates 500767255–7258; also Bates 500743927–3938 and 500079297–9302.
14. “1995 Motorsport Conversion Efforts,” March 22, 1995, Bates 514179190–9204; “Camel Conversion Programs,” Nov. 1, 1996, Bates 516459420–9430; “Winston Select Expert Panel #1: Conversion Program,” 1995, Bates 513254093–4110.
15. For cost per convert: “Conversion #’s: 1995 Camel Character Conversion,” July 15, 1996, Bates 515125113–5118. For “conversion specialists”: “Motorsports Conversion,” March 31, 1994, Bates 509239981–9984. For “cost per smoker”: “Camel Event Marketing,” 1996, Bates 515125133–5138. For personal “intercepts”: “Camel Cash Conversion Results,” July 20, 1992, Bates 513827243. For strippers as “Camel ambassadors”: Cultural Initiator Task Force, “Requirements,” July 17, 1997, Bates 520399812–9815.
16. David Fell to P. Turner et al., “1996 World Cup Cricket,” July 12, 1993, Bates 303564376–4377.
17. Alan Turner to Peter Turner (W. D. & H. O. Wills), “Potential International Sponsorship for Benson & Hedges World Cup of Cricket 1996,” May 19, 1993, Bates 303564380–4388.
18. “Virginia Slims Tennis Sponsorship,” June 21, 1994, Bates 2047527761–7763.
19. WTA, “Program Overview,” Dec. 1993, Bates 2043686293–6304; ad text is from a 1987 Virginia Slims ad in “Marketing Intelligence Report,” Bates 505894926–4954 at 4945.
20. For the MCBF: Mrs. Frank A. Jeffett (Nancy), Chairman, Virginia Slims of Dallas, and President, Maureen Connolly Brinker Tennis Foundation, to Ellen Merlo, Philip Morris, Nov. 7, 1986, Bates 2049403232–03233. For players as young as eleven: “Virginia Slims of Dallas,” 1989, Bates 2043631397–1587. For the Ginny, see Bates 2058503716.
21. Canada’s tobacco-tennis tryst is nicely sketched in Robert Boughton, “Canadian Open Tennis Hall of Shame,” April 23, 2003, http://airspace.bc.ca//content/view/25/53/.
22. Arthur Ashe in his autobiography notes that while tobacco sponsorships troubled some of his colleagues, many were willing collaborators—players such as Roy Emerson of Australia, Manuel Santana of Spain, Rafael Osuna of Mexico, and Ashe himself, all of whom served as consultants for Philip Morris in the 1960s. Ashe also befriended Philip Morris President Joseph F. Cullman III, who, he said, became “a second father to me, an invaluable mentor”; see Ashe’s Days of Grace (New York: Random House, 1993), p. 207.
23. The “Ginny” insignia first appears as the “coveted ‘silver Ginny’ trophy” awarded to the player who had accumulated the most points on the Virginia Slims Circuit at the 1973 Virginia Slims Championship in Boca Raton, Florida.
24. “New Virginia Slims Circuit Bows,” Philip Morris Call News, May 1982, Bates 5001 59505–9520.
25. For under age eighteen: William Esty Co., “Salem Cigarettes: Professional Male Tennis as New Special Event,” June 1973, Bates 500726538–6553. For “brand activity”: F. Saunders, “Corporate Relations Report,” March 30, 1971, Bates 2010027749–7752. For “hypocrite”: “Why We Accept Cigarette Ads,” Business and Society Review, Oct. 1, 1977, Bates TIMN 0066734–6737.
26. Leo Burnett U.S.A., “Philip Morris, U.S.A. Magazine Ad Position Report,” 1977, Bates 2040670554–0574.
27. The sarcastic query is Kluger’s in his Ashes to Ashes, p. 390.
28. Tip Nunn’s Events, “Virginia Slims Opinion Poll 2000: Publicity Proposal,” March 29, 1999, Bates 2070648649–8660; compare Ellen Merlo to T. Keim et al., Oct. 17, 1983, Bates 2049404778–4779.
29. “Attachment 3—1975 Bowling Program,” n.d., Bates 503994403–4404; “Winston-Salem Bowling,” n.d., Bates 501316467–6472, p. 57. Bowling was the third most heavily sponsored sport for Reynolds, behind racing and rodeo. For Negro bowlers: C. B. Malcolm to J. O. Watson (Reynolds), “Information Sheet on Bowling,” Oct. 24, 1973, Bates 501163466–3467.
30. “Accommodation Program,” Nov. 1, 1994, Bates 2045518816 and 8817; “Accommodation Program: 1995 Plan,” Bates 2045518949–8981.
31. “Raleigh Cigarettes to Sponsor Professional Purse for Bowling Spectacular” (B&W Press Release), Feb. 27, 1976, Bates 699009908–9909.
32. An excellent overview is J. F. Torroella (Brown & Williamson) to K. Daily, “Lucky Strike Sponsorships and Parallel Communications,” May 10, 1983, Bates 660921173–1182.
33. National Cancer Institute, The Role of the Media in Promoting and Reducing Tobacco Use—Monograph 19 (Bethesda, MD: USDHHS, 2008). In 2000 Nottingham University accepted £3.8 million from British American Tobacco to create an International Centre for Corporate Social Responsibility; see Derek Yach and Stella Aguinaga Bialous, “Junking Science to Promote Tobacco,” American Journal of Public Health 91 (2001): 1745–48.
34. Rogers & Cowan, “Final Report on Research for the RJR Social Responsibility Program,” Jan. 1984, Bates 502658739–8805. For “small business”: World Health Organization, “Tobacco Industry and Corporate Responsibility . . . An Inherent Contradiction,” Feb. 2003, WHO.
35. One goal of Philip Morris’s Virginia Slims Legends tour was to generate names for the company’s computerized database and to extend “brand visibility . . . through advertising and public relations”; see “Virginia Slims Creative Brief,” 1998, Bates 2071664865–4866. For Merit: Philip Morris, “Merit Bowling Key Talking Points,” Aug. 17, 1994, Bates 2024253002. For useful allies: International Bowling Industry, “Smoking: Neutral Stance Sought,” Jan. 1, 1996, Bates 2070109386. For Steve Podborski: “Most Feel Tobacco, Booze Firms Should Sponsor Sports, Poll Says,” Toronto Star, June 4, 1984, Bates TIMN452658.
36. For Palmer: “Bay Hill Classic 1981,” Feb. 23, 1981, Bates 680409736–9826. For Bunn: Tobacco Advisory Council, “Sports Sponsorship by Tobacco Companies,” April 1985, Bates 2501214107–4118. For Mancuso: Camel Mud & Monster Series press release, Nov. 20, 1989, Bates 507443942–3944. NASCAR driver Richard Lee Petty in 1983 claimed that being able to sell oneself to a well-heeled sponsor was “about as important in racing today as driving ability” (Bates 2172326–2929). Grand National Champion Bobby Isaac, holder of the world record for a closed speedway, hailed Winston sponsorship as “a terrific boost” for stock car racing; see “Company to Sponsor ‘Winston 500’ Stock Car Race,” Intercom, Dec. 16, 1970, Bates 503139801–9802.
37. Lacy Lee Rose (Stanford) to Clifford H. Goldsmith (Philip Morris), July 19, 1982, Bates 2040941149, with thanks to Josh Wong. For sponsorship requests, see the letters from Meg Meurer, Manager of Event Promotions, Philip Morris, April 9, 1990, Bates 2048481264 through 2048481277.
38. Frank Saunders “Report of Meeting,” Corporate Relations Report, March 30, 1971, Bates 2010027749–7752.
39. Ron Scherer, “Tobacco Sponsorships Disputed,” Christian Science Monitor, Jan. 16, 1991, Bates TIMN 371435; A. Charlton et al., “Boys’ Smoking and Cigarette-Brand-Sponsored Motor Racing,” Lancet 350 (1997): 1474.
40. R. J. Reynolds, “Corporate Public Relations and Public Affairs Monthly Events Calendar, Sept. 1985,” Aug. 22, 1985, Bates 505466959–6964; also Bates 661200261.
41. BAT Central Africa by 1966 was sponsoring golf and motor racing but also “soccer, rugby, cricket, horse racing and show jumping”; see the company’s “Annual Report and Accounts,” Nov. 10, 1966, Bates 300076922–6936.
42. For $77 million: Barry Meier, “A Controversy on Tobacco Road,” New York Times, Dec. 4, 1997. For “world’s leading corporate sponsor”: “A Day in the Life: This Is Philip Morris,” 1994, Bates 2050272003.
43. “Soccer Sponsorship,” Feb. 9, 1994, Bates 2504051405–1451.
44. “Some Non-Tobacco Trademarks Owned by US Tobacco Companies,” 1994, Bates 2041221080–1084. Skoal also sponsored the U.S. ski team and NASCAR and by the 1990s was broadcasting a daily “Skoal Motorsports Report” on more than a hundred radio stations; see “Corporate Sponsors Drive the Right Messages Home,” U.S. Tobacco and Candy Journal, July 27–Aug. 24, 1987, pp. 46, 84. For Louis Bantle: Mike Knepper, “Speed Merchants: Why are American Companies Spending $5 Million at the Track?” Continental, Feb. 1983, pp. 58–61 and 78–79, Bates 990750922–1020.
45. Chris Hastings and Patrick Hennessy, “Revealed: The Truth about Tony Blair’s Role in the Ecclestone Affair,” Sunday Telegraph, Oct. 11, 2008.
46. For BAT’s Kent: Samuel Abt, “Take a Puff, It’s the Tour of China!” International Herald Tribune, Nov. 3, 1995. BAT sponsored the 555 Hong Kong-Beijing Rally annually from 1990. For television: “Marketing Conference PRC Presentation,” Dec. 10, 1992, Bates 2504017237–7257. For Beckham: Geoffrey A. Fowler, “Treaty May Stub out Cigarette Ads in China,” Wall Street Journal, Dec. 2, 2003, http://www.mindfully.org/WTO/2003/China-Cigarette-Ads2deco3.htm.
47. “Soviet Union: Low Nicotine Novelty,” World Tobacco (Sept.–Oct. 1973): 35, Bates 1000271932; Anastasia Osipova, “Smoke of the Motherland,” Russian Life (Jan.–Feb. 2007): 51–54.
48. J. T. McCarthy (Reynolds), “Winston Rodeo Series,” Oct. 1, 1979, Bates 500138938–8944.
49. “Benson & Hedges Series Night Cricket in South Africa,” Marketing News (BAT), Aug. 1983, pp. 4–7, Bates 400981948–2247.
50. For Kim logo: “Promotional Activity Report: BAT Pleads Not Guilty to TV Loophole Charge,” June 14, 1983, Bates 660938618–8619. For Winston 500: “Sponsoring a Major GN NASCAR Race,” July 9, 1970, Bates 500728566–8575. For “under ten years of age”: Trees Newsletter, March 1986, Bates 107342173–2206, p. 12. Philip Morris ended its Marlboro Trail racing sponsorship in 1972, when Brown & Williamson started entering powerful Viceroy cars. Philip Morris didn’t relish the idea of seeing “Viceroy entries carrying off Marlboro prize money”; see “In the U.S.A. Viceroy Takes to the Track,” BAT’s Marketing News, Feb. 1972, Bates 400952490–2781.
51. B. L. Murtaugh to T. B. Owen, “Winston Championship Auto Shows,” Jan. 15, 1982, Bates 503897257–7269.
52. Peter Chapman to Monty Kiernan, “Kent Sports Business,” Sept. 16, 1983, Bates 87277428–7429.
53. For African American reps: B. M. Bruner and R. N. Gladding to H. R. Hanmer and W. R. Harlan, Aug. 23, 1961, Bates 966003997–3999. For Newport giveaways, see the deposition of Marie R. Evans for Evans v. Lorillard, May 29, 2002.
54. KNT Plusmark, “Camel: Project Big Idea Concept Development,” June 21, 1988, Bates 506888749–8801.
55. “1981 Winston Pro Series: Motorcycle Racing Program,” 1981, Bates 503777627–7637.
56. Lauren Lazinsk to Ina Broeman, “Virginia Slims Fashion Spree Markets,” Feb. 28, 1992, Bates 2043524905–4908.
57. For press clippings: Cohn & Wolfe, “Virginia Slims Championships, 1993 Wrap-Up,” Jan. 24, 1994, Bates, 2040233876–4240. For readership: “Event Marketing Publicity Results,” 1998, Bates 2071664878. For protests: “1997 Spring Results,” 1997, Bates 2071664874.
58. “Conference Addresses Domestic Violence,” PM Globe, Oct. 1998, Bates 2076281639–1642.
59. See the NCI’s Monograph 19, esp. Lisa Henricksen’s chapter 6, “Tobacco Companies’ Public Relations Efforts,” pp. 184–85.
60. “Philip Morris Companies Inc. and the Virginia Slims Legends Salute Pittsburgh AIDS Task Force,” in “The Virginia Slims Legends Tour,” Oct. 17, 1998, Bates 2070897424–7470 at 7429.
61. Philip Morris America Latina, “Por un mundo mejor: Protegemos nuestros recursos naturales,” 1998, Bates 2074086560–6575; Cathy L. Leiber to William Webb, Jan. 9, 1998, Bates 2074086559.
62. Bob Herbert, “Tobacco Dollars,” New York Times, Nov. 28, 1993, Bates 20246012635; Steve Herman, “Cartoons, Cotton-Candy, and the Marlboro Man: The Targeting of Children for Addiction by the Tobacco Industry,” Dec. 23, 1995, Bates 2075792203–2243.
63. BAT Marketing News, July 1983, Bates 690133902–3929, pp. 1–7.
64. J. DeParle, “Warning: Sports Stars May Be Hazardous to Your Health,” Washington Monthly, Sept. 1989, pp. 34–49.
65. BAT, “Note to the Chief Executive’s Committee: Formula One Sponsorship Proposal,” 1997, Bates 800414168–4181.
1. Charles E. Lewis (president of Charlie’s) to Ina Broeman (PM’s director of marketing), Oct. 26, 1989, Bates 2048669807–9808; compare Vicki Berner to Brian Cury, Dec. 14, 1989, Bates 2047987689–7690. Philip Morris’s sampling procedures are detailed in its “Marlboro Sampling Manual,” 1980, Bates TIMN0064405–4417.
2. “PM USA Sponsorship,” 1999, Bates 2064977096.
3. For Gold Club: “Gold Club Surveillance in Kitchener-Waterloo Region March-June 2003,” in Filter-Tips: A Review of Cigarette Marketing in Canada, 4th ed., Winter 2003. For viral advertising: Yogi Hendlin, Stacey J. Anderson, and Stanton Glantz, “ ‘Acceptable Rebellion’: Marketing Hipster Aesthetics to Sell Camel Cigarettes in the US,” Tobacco Control 19 (2010): 213–22.
4. An excellent overview is Reynolds’s “Special Promotions,” Sept. 28, 1982, Bates 504021512–1546—which also has a précis of sponsorships by the alcohol industry. For Spanish language media: Mary Munkenbeck to Jack McAuley, Oct. 18, 1982, Bates 2045086452–6453. For Marlboro Menthol: C. Cohen, “Marlboro Menthol Inner City Bar Night Program,” May 11, 1988, Bates 2048479521.
5. R. W. A. Hermans (Philip Morris Europe) to R. W. Murray, “Sponsorship of the Arts,” July 14, 1978, Bates 2024258179–8181, where we also hear that support for the arts “enhances the image of the sponsor because it has the tendency to be aimed at the top end of the social scale. In that sense it certainly has commercial value.”
6. Alisa Solomon, “The Other Nicotine Addiction,” Village Voice, Oct. 18, 1994, Bates 2041128423–8548.
7. For examples in the United States, see “Miscellaneous Anti-Smoking Subjects,” 1995, Bates 2072914997–5005, also at http://www.tobacco.org/Misc/collaborators.html#aa1.
8. For “innocence by association”: http://www.tobacco.org/Misc/collaborators.html#aa1. For “Elgar and Tchaikovsky”: Peter R. Taylor, The Smoke Ring: Tobacco, Money, and Multinational Politics (New York: Pantheon, 1984), p. 28.
9. Solomon, “The Other Nicotine Addiction.”
10. Philip Morris, “Marlboro Music Stage: Bringing the Best Latin Talent to the Marlboro Music Stage,” 1995, Bates 2040591382.
11. “Kool Strategic Brand Plan—Executive Summary,” 1980, Bates 661081684–1713.
12. “ ‘Kool Jazz Festivals’ Promotion Study,” Sept. 21, 1979, Bates 670548387–8438. Other manufacturers established music labels: Silk Cut in the mid-1990s produced a CD titled Silk Cut Classics, for example, and Reynolds had earlier reissued Benny Goodman and his Orchestra through its Camel Caravan Label, decked out in full cigarette regalia.
13. For “half a million Blacks”: “To: All Field Personnel: Kool Jazz Festivals General Information,” June 18, 1981, Bates 670138027–8028. For “great bonanza” and “dream come true”: “George Wein Presents the Kool Jazz Festival,” 1982, Bates 685053242–3302.
14. Louanna O. Heuhsen to Martha W. Verscaj, May 14, 1990, Bates 2065055750.
15. Reynolds, “Field Marketing Presentation Draft,” Dec. 15, 1982, Bates 504072296–2304.
16. Brandt, Cigarette Century, p. 94.
17. Reynolds, “Camel Expeditions Presentation,” March 1, 1981, Bates 501482619–2629.
18. “Tobacco: External Communications” (for Reynolds), 1982, Bates 500657677–7683.
19. For Green Fashion Fall: Brandt, Cigarette Century, pp. 84–86. For Ebony Fashion fairs: M. G. McAllister to C. W. Fitzgerald, “Ebony Fashion Fair,” May 7, 1975, Bates 501139280–9281, and Reynolds’s “Field Marketing Presentation,” Dec. 15, 1982, Bates 504072296–2304. For Newport tattoos: Apres Events, “Proposal to Lorillard for Newport Special Events and Sampling Program for Long Island,” May 7, 1994, Bates 93114296–4299. And for wilder ideas: “Virginia Slims Idea Generation,” March 2000, Bates 2078801860–1863.
20. Guy L. Smith IV to R. William Murray, Oct. 9, 1989, Bates 2023277090–7091. For a film festival, see “ ‘Benson & Hedges 100 Movie Classics’ Booking Schedule,” June 1976, Bates 2042016629.
21. BAT, “Guidelines on Communication Restrictions and New Opportunities in Marketing,” June 14, 1979, Bates 670828367–8381.
22. “Salem Business Review,” July 27, 1998, Bates 522879546–9548.
23. Kathryn Mulvey, Mary Assunta, and Konstantin Krasovsky et al. for INFACT, Global Aggression: The Case for World Standards and Bold US Action Challenging Philip Morris and RJR Nabisco (New York: Apex Press, 1998), pp. 57–58.
24. C. A. Tucker, “1975 Marketing Plans,” Bates 501421310–1335 at 1320.
25. Mulvey et al., Global Aggression, 86.
26. Paul Nuki, “Tobacco Firms Brew up Coffee to Beat Ad Ban,” Sunday Times, Jan. 18, 1998, Bates 2074783874.
27. HotNews.ro, “Multinationals in Breach of Romanian Tobacco Ads Law,” Romanian-Newsy, Oct. 3, 2006.
28. “Elementary Schools Named after Tobacco Industry in China,” China Hush, Jan. 20, 2010; “Should Tobacco Sponsorship of Education Be Banned?” Beijing Review, Feb. 5, 2010; “China Wrestles with Tobacco Control: An Interview with Dr. Yang Gonghuan,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88 (2010): 241–320.
29. Philip Morris, “Marketing New Products in a Restrictive Environment,” 1990, Bates 2044762173–2364 at 2236.
30. For an impressive list of promotional activities of one company in just one month, see Reynolds’s “Competitive Promotional Activity Report,” Dec. 1971, Bates 2049307194–7198. More than a hundred possible ideas for how to market the company’s Dakota brand can be found in “Other Ways to Reach the Target,” Oct. 2, 1989, Bates 507176999–7016.
31. See my Cancer Wars, 270–71.
1. The literature here is vast; see Joe Giesenhagen, Collector’s Guide to Vintage Cigarette Packs (Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 1999); Fernando Righini and Marco Papazonni, International Collectors’ Book of Cigarette Packs (Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 1998); Mark F. Moran, Warman’s Tobacco Collectibles (Iola, WI: Krause Publications, 2003).
2. More familiar is the theory that baseball’s “bullpen” derives from American Tobacco’s practice of giving players prizes for hitting its Bull Durham billboards at the back of the field—behind which were cages where the pitchers warmed up.
3. Charles Henry Bingham, “Vending Apparatus for Cigars, Cigarettes, &c.,” U.S. Patent Office, Aug. 23, 1887, Patent No. 368,869.
4. H.A. Kent (Lorillard) to Todd Wool, March 17, 1938, Bates 80686600–6601.
5. Philip Morris Research and Development, “Vending Machine Growth,” tif Smoke Signals, June 8, 1979, Bates 1000769885–9892.
6. J. W. Marsh (Reynolds), “Status Report—December 1982,” Jan. 10, 1983, Bates 504090775–0780. And for the elaborate fees paid by the companies to place specific brands in specific rows, see AT’s “Circular Book” for Aug. 1 to Sept. 30, 1963, Bates 947043747–4226.
7. See the Computer History Museum’s “Timeline of Computer History,” http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/?category = cmptr.
8. Clara L. Gouin, “Non-Smokers and Social Action,” in Proceedings of the Third World Conference on Smoking and Health, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), p. 356.
9. “Attachment II: General Line of Questioning,” Oct. 30, 1997, Bates 466853974–3978; compare Bates 2060569570–9574.
10. Edward Sanders to Cathy Ellis, Aug. 18, 1998, Bates 2060569578–9581. Phillips poured about $600,000 into this project in the mid-1990s, prior to pulling out when the tobacco industry started having significant legal difficulties.
11. Tobacco Documentation Centre, “Directory of Internet Resources,” June 1996, Bates 503921732–1764.
12. Tobacco Research Board, “Tobacco and the Internet,” ca. 1995, Bates 800159973–9990.
13. Michelle Pentz, “Smoke Gets on the Net,” Convergence, Summer 1996, Bates 503921783–1790.
14. http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/reports/internet/. In October 2008 the official site for Marlboro Miles listed twelve clickable sites for purchasing cigarettes online. Cigarettes bought on such sites are much cheaper than retail: $14.90 for a carton of 200 Marlboro Reds, for example, which is less than a third what one would pay in, say, New York City. See http://marlboromiles.cigarettes-online-store.com/marlboro-miles-catalog.html.
15. U.S. General Accounting Office, Internet Cigarette Sales (Aug. 2002), http://www.gao,gov/new.items/do2743.pdf.
16. Kurt M. Ribisl, Rebecca S. Williams, and Annice E. Kim, “Internet Sales of Cigarettes to Minors,” JAMA 290 (2003): 1356–59.
17. Kathleen Hunter, “States Hunt Down Online Cigarette Buyers,” May 3, 2005 (online).
18. “Credit Card Firms Agree Not to Enable Web Cigarette Sales,” Direct Newsline, March 21, 2005, Bates 551804079.
19. See, for example, the Wiki CigarettePedia site, http://www.cigarette.pedia.com, where you can view tens of thousands of different kinds of cigarette packs.
20. See http://www.trinketsandtrash.org/tearsheet.asp?ItemNum = 212384.
21. http://www.smokingfetishsites.com/scores.htm; compare http://www.smokinbabe.com/free/index.php. Lorillard’s Youth Smoking Prevention website in the early 2000s was www.buttoutnow.com; it has since become a pornography site.
22. http://www.oltra.org/a trade association. OLTRA itself links to a number of pro-smoking groups, such as smokinglobby.com, The Smoking Outdoorsman, etc.
23. “BlackBerry Connection,” http://www.blackberry.com/newsletters/connection/it/i6–2007/sampson.shtml. And on YouTube more generally: Becky Freeman and Simon Chapman, “Is ‘YouTube’ Telling or Selling You Something? Tobacco Content on the YouTube Video-Sharing Website,” Tobacco Control 16 (2007): 207–10.
24. http://whyquit.com/pr/043008.htmlQuit.
25. G.T. Fong, D. Hammond, and S. C. Hitchman, “The Impact of Pictures on the Effectiveness of Tobacco Warnings,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 87 (2009): 640–43.
1. Egon Lorenz et al., “The Effects of Breathing Tobacco Smoke on Strain A Mice,” Cancer Research, 3 (1943): 123; compare also Egon Lorenz, “Experimental Studies on Tobacco Smoke,” Proceedings of the National Cancer Conference, 1949, p. 203. Nowhere in either publication is it mentioned that major support for these projects came from the American Tobacco Company.
2. Ecusta documents were first introduced into litigation by Woody Wilner et al. in Henry W. Boerner v. Brown & Williamson, tried in May 2003 in Arkansas; I introduced further documents testifying in Frankson v. American Tobacco, Nov. 18–19, 2003.
3. Ernst L. Wynder, Evarts A. Graham and Adele B. Croninger, “Experimental Production of Carcinoma with Cigarette Tar,” Cancer Research, 13 (1953): 855–66; and for its impact: Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, pp. 162–66, and Stanton Glantz et al., The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 33–35.
1. Glenn Sonnedecker, “Drug Standards Become Official,” in The Early Years of Federal Food and Drug Control (Madison, WI: American Institute of the History of Pharmacy, 1982), pp. 28–39. Karl L. Reimann and Christian W. Posselt isolated nicotine in pure form in 1828; see Paul Koenig, Die Entdeckung des reinen Nikotins im Jahre 1828 an der Universität Heidelberg (Bremen: A. Geist, 1940).
2. United States Pharmacopoeia, 8th rev. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1905), p. lxii. This new edition still recognized belladonna, opium, cannabis, cocaine, silver cyanide, and numerous arsenic and mercury compounds as legitimate drugs.
3. See M. V. Cornil, “Sur les greffes et inoculations de cancer,” Bulletin de l’Académie de médecine 25 (1891): 906–9.
4. K. Yamagiwa and K. Ichikawa, “Experimentelle Studie über die Pathogenese der Epithelialgeschwülste,” Mitteilungen aus der medizinischen Fakultät der kaiserlichen Universität zu Tokyo 15 (1916): 295–344.
5. Wilhelm C. Hueper, Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1942); Donner Foundation, Index to Literature of Experimental Cancer Research 1900 to 1935 (Philadelphia: Donner Foundation, 1948), pp. 994–95.
6. Anton Brosch, “Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Pathogenesis und Histogenesis der malignen Geschwülste,” Virchows Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie 162 (1900): 32–84, esp. p. 70.
7. Ulysses S. Grant’s death from cancer of the throat in 1885 was widely traced to his smoking; see James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), pp. 1–35. Tobacco industry chronologies prepared for internal use in the 1940s and 1950s recognized smoking as an undisputed cause of oral and esophageal cancer; see Paul Larson and Harvey Haag, “Cancer of the Esophagus, Stomach and Intestines, Liver and Bladder,” Jan. 1—Dec. 31, 1950, Bates 500508793–8794.
8. Victor E. Mertens, “Zigarettenrauch eine Ursache des Lungenkrebses? (Eine Anregung),” Zeitschrift für Krebsforschung 32 (1930): 82; R. G. J. P. Huismann, “Tobacco and Lung Cancer,” 1940, Bates 503244772–4792.
9. Fritz Lickint, “Tabak und Tabakrauch als ätiologischer Factor des Carcinoms,” Zeitschrift für Krebsforschung 30 (1929): 349–65; Herbert L. Lombard and Carl R. Doering, “Cancer Studies in Massachusetts,” New England Journal of Medicine 198 (1928): 481–86.
10. Müller, “Tabakmissbrauch,” 78, emphasis in original; and for background, see my Nazi War on Cancer, 173–247.
11. Eberhard Schairer and Erich Schöniger, “Lungenkrebs und Tabakverbrauch,” Zeitschrift für Krebsforschung 54 (1943): 261–69; also my Nazi War on Cancer, 183–217. Ernest L. Wynder and Evarts A. Graham, “Tobacco Smoking as a Possible Etiologic Factor in Bronchiogenic Carcinoma,” JAMA 143 (1950): 329–36. Austin Smith, Fishbein’s successor as editor of JAMA, solicited the articles by Wynder and Graham and by Morton Levin published in the May 27, 1950, issue of JAMA; see Hiram R. Hanmer, “Memorandum on Telephone Conversation with Mr. Hahn,” June 16, 1950, Bates MNAT00733134. Wynder and Graham’s research had already attracted attention; see William L. Laurence, “Cigarettes Linked to Cancer in Lungs,” New York Times, Feb. 27, 1949. Doll and Hill’s careful work includes their “Smoking and Carcinoma” and their “The Mortality of Doctors in Relation to Their Smoking Habits,” BMJ 1 (1954): 1451–55. And for an overview: Colin White, “Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer: A Landmark in the History of Chronic Disease Epidemiology,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 63 (1990): 29–46.
12. Lorenz et al., “Effects of Breathing Tobacco Smoke.” For “reassuring experiments”: Hiram Hanmer to Henry S. Patricoff, March 9, 1949, Bates 950204894. And for a press report: “Smoking Mice Live Normal Span: U.S. Experiments Fail to Prove Cancer Rise,” U.S. News and World Report, Feb. 3, 1950, pp. 22–23.
13. A.C. Hilding, “Phagocytosis, Mucous Flow, and Ciliary Action,” Archives of Environmental Health 6 (1963): 61–73.
14. Otto Mühlbock, “Carcinogene Werking van Sigarettenrook bij Muizen,” Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskund 99 (1955): 2276–78, Bates 2023693883–3885; MurcoN. Roegholt to Sydney Negus, Sept. 5, 1955, Bates 950166932. Roegholt here also mentions the view of the pathologist H. E. Schornagel of Rotterdam affirming the link between smoking and cancer of the lung as “doubtless.”
1. Angel H. Roffo, “Was Man von dem Krebs wissen muss. Auflklärungsschrift,” Buenos Aires, 1928.
2. Angel H. Roffo, “Durch Tabak beim Kaninchen entwickeltes Carcinom,” Zeitschrift für Krebsforschung 33 (1931): 321. Roffo had earlier produced precancerous leukoplakias on the ears of rabbits using tobacco tars; see his “Leucoplasia tabáquica experimental,” Boletín del Instituto de Medicina Experimental 7 (1930): 130–44.
3. Angel H. Roffo, “El tabaco como Cancerígeno,” Boletín del Instituto de Medicina Experimental 42 (1936): 287–336; also his “Krebserzeugendes Benzpyren gewonnen aus Tabakteer,” Zeitschrift für Krebsforschung 49 (1939): 588–97. Some of this work was done by Roffo’s son, A. E. Roffo Jr.; see his “Espectrografía de los derivados obtenidos por destilación directa de los tabacos y su relación como agentes cancerígenos,” Boletín del Instituto de Medicina Experimental 45 (1937): 311–99. R. J. Reynolds scientists later claimed to have “corroborated the published findings with respect to 3,4-benzpyrene, obtained this compound in crystalline form, and positively identified it as a constituent of cigarette smoke on the basis of its chemical and physical properties”; see Alan Rodgman to Kenneth H. Hoover, Nov. 2, 1959, Bates 500945942–5945, p. 1. Reynolds measured 81 micrograms of 3,4-benzpyrene in the smoke of one kilogram of Winstons; see A. Rodgman and L. C. Cook, “The Analysis of Cigarette Smoke Condensate,” Dec. 1, 1958, Bates 504912197–2250. Brown & Williamson scientists in 1952 reported “a partial isolation and identification of the aromatic hydrocarbon, benzopyrene, in both smoke and original tobacco from Raleigh blend cigarettes.” The report refers to benzopyrene as a “carcinogenic hydrocarbon”; see “Report of Progress,” Dec. 24, 1952, Bates 650200084–0095.
4. Angel H. Roffo, “Krebserzeugende Tabakwirkung,” Monatsschrift für Krebsbekämpfung, 8 (1940): 97–102; also his “El tabaco rubio como cancerígeno,” Boletín del Instituto de Medicina Experimental 47 (1938): 5–22; Roffo, “El tabaco como cancerígeno,” p. 333.
5. For large pool, see Angel H. Roffo, “Krebserzeugende Einheit der verschiedenen Tabakteere,” Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 65 (1939): 963–67. For skin cancer: Angel H. Roffo, “Cáncer y sol: Carcinomas y sarcomas producidos por la acción del sol total,” Boletín del Instituto de Medicina Experimental 11 (1934): 353 ff. For skin pigmentation: Roffo’s son authored the most elaborate study of this type; see A. E. Roffo Jr., “Reacción cutanea a las radiaciones actinicas en relación con la pigmentación congenita de la piel,” Boletín del Instituto de Medicina Experimental 43 (1936): 287–408. For sex differences: Roffo, “Durch Tabak,” p. 322. For “fast experimentelle Wert”: Angel H. Roffo, “Der Tabak als krebserzeugendes Agens,” Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 63 (1937): 1268. This last-cited article can be found in translation in Lorillard’s files; see “Selected Lorillard Chronology Materials,” n.d., Bates 98919147–9546.
6. Sir Richard Doll, “Commentary: Lung Cancer and Tobacco Consumption,” International Journal of Epidemiology 30 (2001): 30–31.
7. Schairer and Schöniger, “Lungenkrebs”; Müller, “Tabakmissbrauch”; Fritz Lickint, Tabak und Organismus: Handbuch der gesamten medizinischen Tabakkunde (Stuttgart: Hippokrates, 1939), pp. 869–71; Leonard Engel, “Cigarettes Cause Cancer?” Reader’s Scope (Aug. 1946): 3–7; Edwin J. Grace, “Tobacco Smoking and Cancer of the Lung,” American Journal of Surgery 60 (1943): 361–64.
8. For “until recently”: Hanmer to Hahn, “Memorandum on Alleged Causative Relation.” For “highly carcinogenic”: Claude E. Teague, “Survey of Cancer Research,” Feb. 2, 1953, Bates 504184873–4894. For the industry’s expert witness: Lauren V. Ackerman (Expert Report), Oct. 1, 1959, Bates 2025018461–8608. For “plaintiffs may focus”: Jones, Day, Reavis & Pogue, “Dr. Claude E. Teague, Jr., Deposition Preparation,” Oct. 16, 1990, Bates 515873224–3304, p. 6; henceforth cited as: Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep.” Roffo was cited in most of the cancer research bibliographies constructed by the industry: Paul S. Larson, Harvey B. Haag, and H. Silvette’s massive Tobacco: Experimental and Clinical Studies: A Comprehensive Account of the World Literature (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1961), for example, cites forty-three Roffo articles. The Donner Foundation’s 1935 Index to Literature of Experimental Cancer Research lists fifty-nine.
9. H.R. Hanmer to Edward Elway Free, May 11, 1939, Bates MNAT00637003. Hanmer cited a passage from the Zeitschrift für Krebsforschung (translated from the German) questioning the methods Roffo had used to diagnose carcinoma, showing that the industry by this time was employing translators to render foreign medical publications into English. The only known full-article translations of Roffo prior to 2006 are those done by Lorillard in the 1980s, probably for litigation; see Bates 85869514–9521 and my “Angel H. Roffo: The Forgotten Father of Experimental Tobacco Carcinogenesis,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization 84 (2006): 494–95.
10. Ernst L. Wynder, Evarts A. Graham, and Adele B. Croninger, “Experimental Production of Carcinoma with Cigarette Tar” Cancer Research 13 (1953): 855; Roffo, “Der Tabak,” p. 1269.
11. Hans Reiter, “Der Stand der wissenschaftlichen Erforschungen der Tabakgefahren,” Reine Luft 23 (1941): 97–101. On nicotine-free cigarettes and “light beer”: “Vorsorge und Fürsorge am Menschen und am Arbeitsplatz—Entwöhnung—Ersatzmitttel,” Reine Luft 23 (1941): 65–67.
12. Leonardo Conti, “Der Reichsgesundheitsführer,” Reine Luft 23 (1941): 87–93. Smoking caused “den schwersten Schaden, der dem deutschen Volke zugefügt werden kann.” Lickint by 1953 found it “inconceivable” that a serious argument could be made against the smoking-lung cancer link; see his Ätiologie und Prophylaxe des Lungenkrebses, translated as “Tobacco Smoke as a Cause of Lung Cancer,” Bates 501902445–2559.
13. Lawrence K. Altman, “Experts Re-Examine Dr. Reiter, His Syndrome and His Nazi Past,” New York Times, March 7, 2000.
14. The epidemiology referenced is Schairer and Schöniger’s “Lungenkrebs”; see my Nazi War on Cancer, pp. 206–17. Karl Astel’s remarks are in “Der Rektor der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Staatsrat Prof. Dr. K. Astel,” ReineLuft 23 (1941): 93–96.
15. Hitler’s telegram of April 5, 1941, to Reichsgesundheitsführer Leonardo Conti and Gauleiter Sauckel is reproduced in Reine Luft 23 (1941): 81.
16. G. Becher, “Sind Wir wirklich Muradisten?” Reine Luft 21 (1939): 119–22; “Forschung oder Behauptung?” Deutsche Tabakzeitung, reprinted in Chronica Nicotiana 2, no. 1 (1941): 22–24.
17. “Die Entwicklung der Internationalen Tabakwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft,” Chronica Nicotiana 1, nos. 3–4 (1940): 25 ff. Helmuth Aschenbrenner was general secretary of the International Association, and it would be useful to have a biography of this man. On Forchheim, see 50 Jahre: Landesanstalt für Tabakbau und Tabakforschung, Forchheim (Baden-Württemberg, 1977).
18. “Ergebnisse der Tabakforschung,” Deutsche Tabakzeitung, Dec. 4, 1940, cited in Reine Luft 23 (1941): 40.
19. For a photo of the Führer’s bust in the nerve center of German tobacco apologetics, see Chronica Nicotiana 2, no. 1 (1941): 8.
20. Friedrich Richter, Raubstaat England (Hamburg-Bahrenfeld: Cigaretten-Bilderdienst, 1941), 129; compare Adolf Hitler: Bilder aus dem Leben des Führers (Altona-Bahrenfeld: Cigaretten-Bilderdienst, 1935), 300,000 copies of which were printed.
21. For “tar” denial, see the comment on Br. Steinwallner’s “Tabak und Zähne,” Chronica Nicotiana 1, no. 2 (1940): 118–19. Regarding moderation: “If someone drinks 15–20 cups of coffee a day, that is just as bad from a health point of view as smoking 30–40 cigarettes a day, or drinking 15 or more liters of beer”; see “Einiges über die Schädlichkeit oder Unschädlichkeit von Genussmittlen,” Chronica Nicotiana 1, no. 2 (1940): 97–100; compare Fritz Lickint, “Gegen den Missbrauch des Tabakmissbrauches: Eine Erwiderung und Richtigstellung,” Reine Luft 21 (1939): 118–19. And for “crazy” to inhale: Adolf Wenusch commenting on Otto Schmidt, “Der Kohlenoxydgehalt des Blutes bei Raucher,” Chronica Nicotiana 1, no. 2 (1940): 121–24.
22. Peter Schesslitz, “Tabak und Krebs,” Deutsche Tabakzeitung, 1941, reprinted in Reine Luft 22 (1941): 39.
23. “Verkort de Tabak het menselijk Leven?” from Le Cigare via De Tabakskoerier, Holland’s leading tobacco industry journal, reproduced in Chronica Nicotiana 1, nos. 3–4 (1940): 49.
24. R. G. J. P. Huismann, “Tabak und Lungenkrebs,” Chronica Nicotiana 4 (May–June 1943): 7–19; 4 (July–Aug. 1943): 5–15. The referenced Ph.D. dissertation is by Frits Vaandrager in Utrecht. Pieter de Coninck informs me that Huismann died in January 1972 in Appeltern (Walstraat 2). We need to know more about his life and work—whether he continued to work for Big Tobacco after 1945, for example, and whether he ever accepted cigarette causation.
25. For “many questions remain open”: Huismann, “Tabak und Lungenkrebs.” For Helmuth Aschenbrenner’s “Autoreferat”: “Psyche und Krebs,” Chronica Nicotiana 4 (April 1943): 42. For Aschenbrenner on “big fire,” see my Nazi War on Cancer, p. 242.
26. On Raynaud’s disease: L. Brigatti, “Versuche einer Therapie,” Chronica Nicotiana 4 (May–June 1943): 29. For “prohibitionist afterlife”: Vereinigte Tabakzeitungen, Oct. 28, 1938, cited in Fritz Lickint, “Gegen den Missbrauch des Tabakmissbrauches,” Reine Luft 21 (1939): 119. Dr. med. H. Brückner of Berlin offered the following summary in his review of H. Lungwitz’s “Tabak und Neurose,” Chronica Nicotiana 4 (July–Aug. 1943): 30–32:
In der Lungwitzschen metaphysikfreien Weltanschauung gibt es keine Kausalität, die irgend etwas verursacht, etwa eine Krankheit bedingen könnte; das kausale Denken ist als ein Überbleibsel der dämonischen Weltanschauung erkannt und entfällt somit als Irrtum und Fiktion. Die Meinung, dass der gesunde Mensch durch Tabakrauchen als ein wirkendes Agens krank werden könne, wird eindeutig widerlegt.
27. “Die Gefahr im Schatten: Chronica et acta phantastica,” Reine Luft 23 (1941): 34–43.
1. Alan Finder, “At One University, Tobacco Money Is Not Taboo; It’s a Secret,” New York Times, May 22, 2008, p. A1.
2. Asked about Trani’s tobacco board membership, the university spokeswoman Pam Lepley responded: “I don’t see any connection between these two. . . . And his being on the board doesn’t really pertain to the university.” The journalist Chris Dovi had a different interpretation, commenting, “Trani is the tobacco industry”; see his “VCU President Gets Paycheck from Tobacco Company,” Style Weekly, May 28, 2008.
3. Upton Sinclair, I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked (Los Angeles: End Poverty League, 1935).
4. Charles L. Van Noppen, Death in Cellophane (Greensboro, NC: Charles L. Van Noppen, 1937), pp. 10–20. For “quick and virulent”: E. E. Free, “Color of Tobacco Tells Who Will Get Cancer,” The Week’s Science, May 1, 1939, Bates 60359253. For Ochsner: “Sharp Rise in Lung Cancer May Be Due to Cigarettes,” Richmond News Leader, Nov. 1940, Bates 950229634.
5. American Tobacco’s clippings and abstracts from the British Medical Journal on Hitler’s antitobacco campaign can be found in “Physiological Action of Tobacco Smoke,” Bates 01055000–5005; the company’s familiarity with German-language research is also evident in its “Memorandum on A. Alleged Effects of Smoking B. Improvement of Cigarette Tobaccos with Special Reference to Irritation,” Jan. 4, 1943, Bates 950291224–1339. For filter designs, see “German Patent No. 612,737,” trans. Carl Demrick, May 3, 1935, Bates 950293926–3927. Demrick did contract work for American Tobacco and the TIRC from the 1930s through the 1980s, translating Otto Mühlbock from the Dutch, Fritz Lickint from the German, tobacco patents from France, Austria, and the Soviet Union, and articles from Spanish and other languages.
6. Franz H. Müller, “Abuse of Tobacco and Carcinoma of Lungs,” JAMA 113 (1939): 1372; Raymond Pearl, “Tobacco Smoking and Longevity,” Science 87 (1938): 216–17; Alton Ochsner and Michael DeBakey, “Primary Pulmonary Malignancy,” Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics 68 (1939): 435–51. For the smoke machine: J. A. Bradford, W. R. Harlan, and H. R. Hanmer, “Nature of Cigaret Smoke: Technic of Experimental Smoking,” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 28 (1936): 836–39, Bates 962007682–7686; also “Evolution of the Smoking Machine,” 1945, Bates 950110818–0824. B. Pfyl in Germany had earlier developed smoking machines; see his article with Ottilie Schmitt: “Zur Bestimmung von Nicotin in Tabak und Tabakrauch,” Zeitschrift für Untersuchung der Lebensmittel 54 (1927): 60–77. Automatic smoking machines were developed principally to identify (and quantify) poisons in tobacco smoke; Hanmer as early as 1934 had reported to a confidant his plans “to attack the problem [of tobacco and health] soon from a biological angle”; see his letter to Clarence W. Lieb, Dec. 3, 1934, Bates 950160643. This letter also contains the earliest known reference to—and disparagement of—the work of Fritz Lickint by an American tobacco manufacturer. Manufacturers were already familiar with the cancer threat, however. Charles J. Kensler in 1955 reported the following conversation with Peyton Rous (1879–1970), who would later win the Nobel Prize for discovering the world’s first cancer virus:
At a cocktail party, I met Dr. Peyton Rous of the Rockfeller Institute, who is examining Dr. Wynder’s histological sections of the skins of rabbits. Dr. Rous has spent about thirty years working on carcinogenesis in rabbit skin and is particularly well qualified to do this. Dr. Rous, in passing, informed me that when he was a young man one of the tobacco companies approached the National [Research] Council and offered to give them $20,000 to study the tobacco cancer problem. This was somewhere between 1910 and 1920. Dr. Rous would have liked to undertake this work but the National Research Council refused the offer.
See C. J. Kensler to R. Stevens et al., “Visit with Dr. Ernest Wynder,” Oct. 25, 1955, Bates LG 0265184.
7. E. S. Harlow to H. R. Hanmer, “The Importance of Biological Research,” Feb. 3, 1941, Bates 0060250848–0852, p. 1. American Tobacco’s research department was founded in 1911 and by 1936 had twenty-two chemists and technicians; see “Memorandum on the Research Department of the American Tobacco Company,” Aug. 3, 1936, Bates MNAT00818698–8721. The research department in 1949 had “60 trained specialists,” and by the mid-1950s Hanmer had 115 people working under him. See his testimony in Schweizer v. Internal Revenue, June 14, 1956, Bates 950388530–8628.
8. Harlow to Hanmer, “Importance of Biological Research,” p. 1.
9. Ibid., p. 2.
10. “MCV History Tidbits,” http://www.medschool.vcu.edu/alumni/history.htm. The college was put on “confidential probation” by the American Medical Association Council on Medical Education in 1919, a stigma not erased until 1953; see Ricki D. Carruth, A Medical College of Virginia Story (Richmond: Medical College of Virginia, 1988), p. 23.
11. Carol Ballentine, “Taste of Raspberries, Taste of Death: The 1937 Elixir Sulfanilamide Incident,” http://www.fda.gov/oc/history/elixir.html; James Harvey Young: “Sulfanilamide and Diethylene Glycol,” in Chemistry and Modern Society: Historical Essays in Honor of Aaron J. Ihde, ed. John Parascandola and James C. Whorton (Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1983), pp. 105–25; also the 2003 film Elixir of Death.
12. For “unwarranted” and “not at all similar”: Morris Fishbein to Willard F. Greenwald, Nov. 9, 1937, Bates 1003080094; Greenwald to Fishbein, Nov. 4, 1937, Bates 1003080095–0096. For “no evidence”: “Deaths Following Elixir of Sulfanilamide-Massengill,” JAMA 109 (1937): 1367, Bates 1003080066.
13. “Progress Report on Detection and Estimation of Acrolein in Cigarette Smoke,” June 3, 1935, Bates 950109466–9470; C. F. Bailey (Mellon Institute), “Progress Report,” Jan. 11, 1936, Bates 1003081919–1931.
14. See the USDA’s “Report of Conference on Problems of the Tobacco Manufacturing Industry,” May 14, 1942, Bates 950064215–4218.
15. See, for example, Adolf Wenusch’s review of F. Hoff’s book, Über “Raucherkachexie,” in Chronica Nicotiana 4, no. 2 (1943): 31.
16. Hiram Hanmer to W.E. Witzleben, Nov. 1, 1935, Bates 950202427.
17. J. H. Weatherby, H. B. Haag and R. C. Neale, “A Preliminary Report on Toxicity of Propylene Glycol,” Aug. 19, 1936, Bates 950162821–2830; G.Z. Williams and H. B. Haag, “Effect on Guinea Pigs of Inhalation of Atomized Glycols,” 1941, Bates 962000091–0094; “Research Work of Dr. Howard B. Hucker at the Medical College of Virginia,” 1953, Bates 0060250847. For “splendid connection”: H. R. Hanmer to C. F. Neiley, Jan. 14, 1937, Bates 950248520. For Sanger’s gratitude: W. T. Sanger to H. R. Hanmer, May 27, 1941, Bates 9502 48459. And for Miller’s work: H. R. Hanmer to C. F. Neiley, May 21, 1936, Bates 950248535. Miller may have been the author of the MCV’s 1942 “Survey of Medical Schools of North America” (Bates 962007373–7374), which turned up “no investigative work having to do with tobacco” in more than sixty schools surveyed. The dean of the University of Vermont’s Medical School did, however, volunteer that his faculty “smoke Luckies.”
18. E. S. Harlow and P. S. Larson, “Testimony: Determination of the Effect of Nicotine on the Irritation of Cigarette Smoke,” Jan. 22, 1948, Bates MNAT00399035–9040.
19. For Larson and Haag’s remuneration: “American Tobacco Company Payments for Various Research and Consulting Services,” May 26, 1967, Bates BBAT023713. For “sold American”: Harlow to Hanmer, “Importance of Biological Research,” p. 2 (the double entendre references the tobacco auctioneer’s well-known slogan). Hanmer repeated Haag’s being “sold American” in a letter to the company’s advertising manager, S. L. Weaver, on March 20, 1946, Bates 950204841. In correspondence with the public, however, Haag was characterized as “an impartial authority”; see Hanmer to C. C. Langdon, March 30, 1946, Bates 950205030–5032.
20. For “sterilizing”: American Tobacco Co., Effect of Subjecting Tobaccos to High Temperatures: An Explanation of the Phrase “It’s Toasted” (New York: American Tobacco, 1928). For “proceed with all haste”: H. R. Hanmer to P.M. Hahn, Dec. 16, 1935, Bates MNAT00484003.
21. John Daffron, “Something in Human Body Takes Nick out of Nicotine,” N. L. (Roanoke), Oct. 27, 1943, Bates 950229582; compare Bates 950229583.
22. Paul S. Larson, “Obituary for Harvey Haag,” ca. Oct. 14, 1961, Archives, Thompkins-McCaw Library, Virginia Commonwealth University.
23. John J. Trotter to AT, July 23, 1946, Bates 950204297. Engel later became an industry ally, as Hill & Knowlton provided him with “help” with a pro-industry assignment for Harpers in 1954; see Hill & Knowlton, “Report of Activities through July 31, 1954,” Bates 95527373–7395; also their “Tobacco Industry Research Committee Information Activities,” Oct. 7, 1954, Bates TINY0001828–1833, where we find the assessment that Engel’s article will be “a defense against the cigarette attacks,” lending weight to the industry’s “no proof” contention.
24. Haag, “Comments on ‘Cigarettes Cause Cancer’ by Leonard Engel” (for Hanmer), Aug. 1946, Bates 950278708–8713; H. R. Hanmer to John J. Trotter, Aug. 5, 1946, Bates MNAT0076499–6500.
25. Alfred F. Bowden to C. Estelle Smith, Feb. 27, 1948, Bates MNAT00800321.
26. For “dangerous implications”: Hanmer to Herstein, Dec. 25, 1946, Bates MNAT00756039. For “more satisfaction”: Hiram R. Hanmer to John Holley Clark Jr., Jan. 23, 1950, Bates MNAT00648779–8780. In 1948 Harlow boasted that American Tobacco was building “undoubtedly the best library on tobacco and related subjects in the world”; see Harlow to Hanmer, July 21, 1948, p. 4, Bates MNAT00380519–0526.
27. For “highly significant”: Lombard and Doering, “Cancer Studies in Massachusetts,” p. 486. For “just enough evidence”: H. B. Parmele to Adam Riefner, July 29, 1946, Bates 04365255–5256.
28. For “destructive distillation”: Hiram R. Hanmer, “Memorandum on the Research Department of the American Tobacco Company,” Aug. 3, 1936, Bates MNAT00818698–8721, p. 9. For “did not smoke tobacco”: Hanmer to Karl M. Herstein, Dec. 25, 1946, Bates MNAT00756039–6040. Hanmer was also not entirely correct to say that “the life insurance companies and the National Cancer Institute disagree with Roffo.” Frederick L. Hoffman, chief statistician for Prudential Insurance, was one of the first Americans to take Germany’s tobacco–cancer research seriously; see his “Cancer and Smoking Habits,” in Cancer . . . Comprising International Contributions, ed. Frank E. Adair (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1931), pp. 62–66. Hoffman here speculated that female cancer of the lung might well stem from exposure to “air pollution” caused by “almost universal smoking habits” (p. 67; compare his Cancer and Diet [Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1937], p. 489). For American’s defense of “toasting,” with explicit mention of “destructive distillation,” see the “Memorandum Submitted by the American Tobacco Company” (to the Federal Trade Commission), Dec. 9, 1930, Bates 968312154–2362.
29. Harvey B. Haag, J. B. Weatherby, Doris Fordham, and P. S. Larson, “The Effect on Rats of Daily-Life Span Exposure to Cigaret Smoke,” Federation Proceedings 5 (1946): 181.
30. Negus had handled press relations for the AAAS at its 1938 convention in Richmond, for which the science writers covering the event gave him an award for presenting “the first indisputable proof ever offered of the theory of evolution,” meaning his “mutation” from “a scientist “into a higher type of human being—a newspaper reporter.” See “Accolade for Dr. Negus,” Richmond Times-Dispatch, Jan. 1, 1963. For “approved by you”: Sidney S. Negus to H. R. Hanmer, Feb. 17, 1941, Bates 950210624–0625. The industry maintained massive lists of names and addresses of science writers in many different countries; see, for example, the fifty-page “National Association of Science Writers, Inc., Membership List,” July 1978, Bates 10399837–9887. For “friendly atmosphere”: H.R. Hanmer to Sidney S. Negus, Jan. 27, 1942, Bates 962000277. Negus worked for American Tobacco into the 1960s, earning $ 17,000 from 1955 through 1963; see “American Tobacco Company Payments,” May 26, 1967, Bates BBAT023 713. MCV scholars published dozens of articles on nicotine metabolism and toxicity in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s; for abstracts see Bates 950612959–2998, and for reprints, Bates CTRMN030078Y-0097. For Hanmer et al.’s flawed epidemiology, see E. S. Harlow, “Heavy Smokers with Low Mortality: A 14 1/4-Year Test of the Anti-Cigarette Hypothesis,” discussed with Larson and Haag, May 8, 1961, Bates 950277196–7197.
31. For MCV publications produced under contract with American Tobacco as of 1949, see “List of Reprints of Articles by Members of MCV Staff,” 1949, Bates 950210691–0692. Herbert McKennis was supported by TIRC/CTR funds continuously beginning in 1956, primarily to research nicotine metabolism. He received substantial funding for this work—$60,000 in 1972 alone, for example, plus funds from the AMA’s ERF; see R. C. M. to Bing, Jacobson, and Sommers, “Herbert McKennis,” Sept. 14, 1976, Bates HK2255032-5033. American Tobacco considered McKennis “the leading authority” on nicotine metabolism at this time. For witness tampering: Harlow to Harlan and Hanmer, April 2, 1958, Bates 950165636.
32. Paul S. Larson, “Comments at Formal Opening of Nutriculture Laboratory,” May 10, 1956, Bates 950247795–7797. American Tobacco had earlier forced C 14–labeled smoke into the lungs of dogs to see how fast it would be cleared from the body; see “Determination of the Rate of Elimination of Tobacco Smoke from the Body,” 1954, Bates 962006829–6830. For Harlow’s travel: E. S. Harlow to H. R. Hanmer et al., “Visit to Argonne National Laboratory,” Aug. 5, 1955, Bates 950247872–7873. For publicity spin: E. S. Harlow to W. R. Harlan, “Dr. DuPuis’ Letter,” Jan. 5, 1956, Bates 950139972.
33. “Conference of Tobacco Research Chemists,” Oct. 1953, Bates 950264444–4445; E. S. Harlow to H. R. Hanmer and W. R. Harlan, “Preliminary Draft of Proposed Statement for Mr. Hahn,” March 19, 1956, Bates 950281178–1180; R. W. Davis to E. S. Harlow, R. H. Irby, and E. C. Cogbill, “Visit to Industrial Reactor Laboratory (Highstown, N.J.) and Radiation Science Center—Rutgers University,” Aug. 14, 1967, Bates 950113464–3465; R. W. Davis to E. C. Cogbill, “Progress Report,” March 6, 1969, Bates 950282988–2989.
34. H. R. Hanmer to R. K. Heimann, Sept. 15, 1964, Bates 950133747–3750.
35. E. P. Richardson, “The American Tobacco Company Research Laboratory,” July 1941, Bates 950133122–3178.
36. For large “NO”: Hiram R. Hanmer to Preston L. Fowler, Feb. 14, 1949, Bates 950133824. American Tobacco researchers published only sixty-four scientific papers from 1929 through 1971; see “Papers Published by Staff Members of the Research Laboratory, The American Tobacco Company—1929–Current,” n.d., Bates 966103488–3494. For “more liberal policy”: J. M. Moseley to H. R. Hanmer, July 28, 1948, Bates MNAT00380513–0518, p. 6. For nicotine as “tranquilizer”: Mary Grant, “Tobacco (in report) Poses as Tranquilizer,” Palo Alto Times, Dec. 9, 1958, Bates 0000715.
37. For Philip Morris, see “Summary of the Research Program,” Nov. 21, 1950, Bates 507141834–1834. Arthur D. Little, Inc., in the early 1950s had a staff of 850, about half of whom were scientists. The company conducted extensive biological tests for Liggett & Myers, including tests of the carcinogenicity of cigarette tars; see “The Biological Test Program at Arthur D. Little,” n.d. (pre-1960), Bates LG0385256–5272. Charles J. Kensler directed biological research at Arthur D. Little from July 1954 to January 1957, supervising experiments in which tobacco smoke condensates were painted on the skins of mice. Kensler was called to testify in Otto Pritchard v. Liggett & Myers (on April 29, 1960), where he claimed that the only carcinogen isolated from tobacco smoke was benzpyrene and that even this had been found only in trace amounts. Internal company reports, however, had referenced “not one or two but probably many compounds” in cigarette smoke capable of causing cancer; see “Biological Test Program at Arthur D. Little,” p. 102. For Kensler’s autobiography, see his Nov. 21, 1985, deposition for Cipollone v. Liggett, Bates kenslerc112185.
38. H. B. Parmele to W. J. Halley, Feb. 12, 1954, Bates 89751850–1852; Fishbein to Alden James, Nov. 17, 1953, Bates 01150396. Fishbein was already working for Lorillard by 1952; see Parmele to R. M. Ganger (president of Lorillard), Nov. 21, 1952, Bates 00620708. Fishbein arranged to have an article by Morris T. Friedell placed in JAMA; the resulting paper, claiming that Kent cigarettes produced less vasoconstriction than other brands, failed to disclose that the author had received many thousands of dollars from Lorillard; see M. T. Friedell, “Effect of Cigarette Smoke on the Peripheral Vascular System,” JAMA 152 (1953): 897–900. Subsequent papers by Friedell were rewritten by Lorillard prior to publication; see Parmele to Friedell, Sept. 10, 1954, Bates 01151457. Fishbein praised Friedell to Lorillard: “he has an excellent case for Kent” (Fishbein to Parmele, Feb. 2, 1953, Bates 01150446). Fishbein loved plugging Kents: “There is to be a small meeting of the board of the International Poliomyelitis Congress in New York on May 27 and I will see to it that they hear all about Kents at that time” (Fishbein to Parmele, April 28, 1953, Bates 89752346). The “only drawback” to Friedell’s study, according to Parmele, writing to Lorillard’s director of advertising, was that Friedell had also found that other filters filtered about as effectively—or poorly—as Kent. This inconvenient fact was fortunately “not mentioned in the report and there is no reason why it should ever be known” (Parmele to Alden James, May 7, 1953, Bates 89752349–2350). A 190-page draft of Fishbein’s book, titled “Effects of Tobacco and of Cigarette Smoking on the Body,” April 1954, scheduled for publication by Blakiston, can be found at Bates 01150580–0768. And for Fishbein’s placement of cigarette-friendly pieces, see his letter to R. M. Ganger, March 9, 1953, Bates 00620694–0695.
39. See, for example, “Are They Harmful?” Consumer Reports, Feb. 1953, p. 71, where Haag’s defense of diethylene glycol is cited without any mention of his work for the tobacco giant.
40. Parmele to Halley, Feb. 12, 1954.
41. Paul M. Gross (Duke) to Preston L. Fowler (AT), June 13, 1951, Bates 950153142–3143.
42. William Stepka, “Isotope Farming at Medical College of Virginia,” Commonwealth (July 1956): 49–51, Bates 962007772–7774. Stepka directed the MCV’s Nutriculture Laboratory and served as an American Tobacco Company consultant throughout the 1960s and 1970s.
43. See, for example, E. S. Harlow to C. F. Hetsko, June 21, 1966, Bates 970318304.
44. Arthur W. Burke Jr., “Oscar Auerbach: Report of a Lecture Delivered at the Medical College of Virginia,” June 4, 1970, Bates 962007474–7478. Burke prepared reports for AT on other MCV visitors—Seymour Ochsner, for example, who lectured at the college on April 20, 1970 (Bates 962000214–0216).
45. For Smith’s gratitude: R. Blackwell Smith, Sept. 4, 1957, Bates 950248258–8259. For MCV appointments of American Tobacco personnel: “Planned Site Visits of Candidates for Positions in the M.C.V. Biological Program,” May 4, 1966, Bates 950161648. Egle obtained $52,500 in research support from American Tobacco from 1966 through 1969 (Bates 50201119–1158). For “salubrious situation”: “Conference March 23, 1966 at New Products Division,” April 25, 1966, Bates 962000312–0315. For legal consultations: Arthur W. Burke Jr. to Janet Brown, July 28, 1966, Bates 950219413. For other consulting: William T. Ham to E. S. Harlow, May 25, 1965, Bates 950163600; and Rodney C. Berry to Kenneth S. Rogers, May 12, 1967, Bates 950163587. For Gallaher’s visit: A. W. Burke, “Report of Information Conveyed by Dr. Paul B. Larson,” March 14, 1967, Bates 950163591.
46. For “safest mild stimulant”: D. T. Watts to E. S. Harlow, Oct. 16, 1968, Bates 955004249–4251. For $200,000: “Current Research Grants to the Department of Pharmacology,” Sept. 25, 1968, Bates 955004252. For “will protect people”: Marvin A. Friedman, “Application for Research Grant,” Jan. 31, 1974, Bates 50201119–1158. Other MCV scholars receiving TIRC/CTR funding included Ebbe C. Hoff, psychiatry; William Regelson, oncology; and Jan F. Chlobowski, biochemistry. And from pharmacology, apart from Haag, Larson, and McKennis: Mario D. Aceto, Jack Freund, John A. Rosecrans, and Ronald P. Rubin.
47. Jesse Steinfeld’s remarks from Feb. 1, 1977, are cited in Bates 500270479–0866.
48. On titration: William L. Dunn, “Smoker Psychology,” Nov. 11, 1977, Bates 1003287995–7996. On Suter: William L. Dunn, “Smoker Psychology,” Aug. 8, 1977, Bates 1003287997–7998. On DeSimone: M. L. Reynolds to Thomas A. Pyle, Jan. 3, 1983, Bates 682320785. For Kilpatrick: S. James Kilpatrick, “To Show that the Association in the Hirayama Study between ETS and Lung Cancer Is Not Significant,” Oct. 17, 1988, Bates TIBU0034471–4475. Kilpatrick was a member of the industry’s ETS Advisory Group; see “Research Projects on Environmental Tobacco Smoke,” July 1985, Bates TI05201794–1796.
49. On Accord: D. Ress, “Accord Device Cuts Nicotine, Eliminates Poison, Study Hints,” Times Dispatch, March 23, 1999. “ETS and IAQ Consultants,” Oct. 8, 1990, Bates 507778674–8690.
50. “Cast of Characters,” Sept. 1992, Bates 2025884159–4213; also “People’s Court,” 1992, Bates 2025884135–4142.
51. See, for example, Joseph L. McClay to Barbara Zedler, “Metabolomics ms,” Feb. 19, 2001, Bates 5024446083. The Legacy Library contains hundreds of emails exchanged between VCU faculty and Philip Morris; most of these can be accessed by searching “vcu.edu.” This is a useful way to explore the involvement of particular universities in tobacco industry collaborations; “vcu.edu,” for example, returns 1,835 separate documents; “Stanford.edu” returns 295; and “Harvard.edu” returns 1,164. VCU scholars identified by this means for 2006–10 include Daniel E. Adkins, Kellie Archer, William H. Barr, Russell M. Boyle, Eleanor D. Campbell, W. Hans Carter, John A. DeSimone, Carleton Garrett, Chris Gennings, Sunil S. Iyer, Vijay Lyall, Joseph L. McClay, Edward Lenn Murrelle, Edwin van den Oord, Misook Park, Ramesh Ramakrishnan, Domenic A. Sica, Bradley Todd Webb, and Timothy P. York.
1. Mark Parascandola stresses the role of the germ theory in elevating the status of laboratory experimentation; Koch’s postulates required laboratory experiments to isolate causative agents, and population inferences suffered in the evidentiary status hierarchy. See his “Epidemiology: Second-Rate Science?” Public Health Reports 113 (1998): 312–20. Epidemiology was not so much weak science as novel science, and a form of science that, by virtue of its strength, came under attack as “weak” (from the tobacco industry). For a critique of “gold standard” evidentiary exceptionalism, see Brandt, Cigarette Century, pp. 120–48. For “put in context”: Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep.,” pp. 16–21. On exculpation via contextualization, see again my “Should Medical Historians Be Working for the Tobacco Industry?”
2. Wynder, Graham, and Croninger, “Experimental Production of Carcinoma.”
3. “Experimental Cancer in Mice Produced by Cigarette Smoke” (Press release, Memorial Center for Cancer and Allied Diseases), April 11, 1953, Bates 950167557–7559.
4. Hanmer, “Memorandum on Alleged Causative Relation,” Supplement, p. 5. Wynder’s November 19, 1952, letter to Rhoads was supplied clandestinely to American Tobacco by J. H. Teeter of the Damon Runyon Memorial Fund and can be found at Bates MNAT00587276.
5. For “flavoring laboratory”: Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep.,” p. 8. For “frightening”: Roy Norr, “Cancer by the Carton,” Reader’s Digest, Dec. 1952, pp. 7–8; Alton Ochsner, “Lung Cancer: The Case against Smoking,” The Nation, May 23, 1953. Norr’s article was an abbreviated version of his “Smokers Are Getting Scared!” from the October 1952 Christian Herald.
6. Teague, “Survey,” p. 5. For “Because of the possible connection”: Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep.,” p. 6. We don’t know precisely when Teague was asked to prepare his review, but it was probably not long after the publication of Norr’s “Cancer by the Carton” in Reader’s Digest in December 1952. Wynder et al.’s mouse experiments—unpublished but circulating—must have provided an additional prompt. Reynolds scientists have testified that Teague’s review was produced at the request of Kenneth H. Hoover (head of Reynolds’s research department) and “widely disseminated” at Reynolds but also sent to the “B.G.M.C.” (Bowman Gray Medical Center); see Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep.,” p. 7.
7. Teague, “Survey,” p. 8; G. M. Badger, “The Carcinogenic Hydrocarbons: Chemical Constitution and Carcinogenic Activity,” British Journal of Cancer 2 (1948): 309–48.
8. For “firmly establish”: Teague, “Survey,” 10–11. For “beyond a reasonable doubt”: Earl Ubell, “Cigarette-Lung Cancer Link Proved, Dr. Hammond Says,” Herald Tribune, Oct. 20, 1954, Bates 966039727. Hiram R. Hanmer at American Tobacco also regarded Hammond’s survey as “the most portentous thing in the offing . . . the crux of the whole situation. If unfavorable to cigarette smoking, it will practically clinch everything Wynder and Graham have said” (“The Situation with Respect to Cancer Research,” Nov. 13, 1953, Bates 950164216–4217).
9. Teague, “Survey,” p. 6.
10. Ibid., pp. 14–15.
11. Tommy Ross, counsel for American Tobacco, drafted this first “white paper”; see Bates JH000502EXHIBIT18905. For 176,800 copies: Hill & Knowlton, “Report on TIRC Booklet, ‘A Scientific Perspective on the Cigarette Controversy,’ ” May 3, 1954, Bates 01138747–8782. For “authorities from the Damon Runyon Fund”: “Cigaret Controversy: Tobacco Industry’s ‘White Paper’ Counters Smoking-Cancer Tie-in,” Wall Street Journal, April 14, 1954, Bates CORTI0014324. For “relatively unimportant”: TIRC, A Scientific Perspective on the Cigarette Controversy, April 14, 1954, Bates 961008056–8076. The McNally reference is William D. McNally, “The Tar in Cigarette Smoke and Its Possible Effects,” American Journal of Cancer 16 (1932): 1502–14. McNally’s paper was used to pitch a filter device to American Tobacco; see Otto Muller to American Tobacco, Dec. 9, 1932, Bates 950190634.
12. For Senkus: Claude E. Teague Jr., Deposition for Minnesota v. Philip Morris, July 8, 1997, vol. 1, Bates TEAGUEC070897, p. 51. Teague’s survey was “updated” by Alan Rodgman shortly after he arrived at the company in June 1954; this update—never released by Reynolds—impressed the company’s top lawyer, Henry H. Ramm, enough to earn Rodgman an assignment “preparing for and defending litigation”; see Rodgman’s deposition testimony for Arch, Aug. 4, 1997, Bates RODGMANF080497, pp. 608–9. In the 1990 document prepared to coach Teague prior to his deposition, lawyers working for Reynolds suggested that Teague’s survey was merely “a review” and not an attempt to evaluate this literature critically. They also asked him not to “speculate” about the extent to which management had knowledge of hazards prior to 1953 (Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep.,” p. 7). For Teague’s interview: Jones, Day, Reavis and Pogue, “Report Containing Analyses Concerning Research Development Activities Prepared by RJR outside Legal Counsel,” Dec. 31, 1985, Bates 515871651–2176, p. 14. I accessed this document prior to its removal from the archives as “Privileged Content.” For “caused concern” and “recall all copies”: Jones, Day, Reavis and Pogue, “RJR Research and Development Activities: Fact Team Memorandum,” Dec. 31, 1985, Bates 515871651–1912, p. 8.
British tobacco researchers in the mid-1960s characterized the Policy Committee as “the main power in the smoking and health situation . . . extremely powerful; it determines the high policy of the industry on all smoking and health matters . . . and it reports directly to the Presidents.” See Phillip J. Rogers and Geoffrey F. Todd, “Report on Policy Aspects of the Smoking and Health Situation in U.S.A.,” Oct. 15, 1964, Bates 1003119099–9135, pp. 6–7.
13. Teague wrote “annual” and “long-range assumption and forecast” papers beginning in 1969; these later turned into the firm’s Strategic Plans; see Jones, Day, Reavis and Pogue, “Management and Legal Supervision and Control of R&D Activities,” Dec. 31, 1985, Bates 519198732–8819, p. 14. For “specialized,” see Teague’s “On the Nature of the Tobacco Business and the Crucial Role of Nicotine Therein,” April 14, 1972, Bates 83570661–0670, p. 2; and for “pre-smokers,” see his “Some Thoughts about New Brands of Cigarettes for the Youth Market,” p. 1. For “most of our customers,” see Teague’s memo to G. R. Di Marco, “Nordine Study,” Dec. 1, 1982, Bates 500898255–8257. For his job titles, see Bates TEAGUECo 70897.
14. For pride in having found benzpyrene: Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep,” p. 59; Alan Rodgman, “Analysis of Cigarette Smoke Condensate,” Feb. 12, 1964, Bates 501008855–8928. Reynolds was the first to find cholanthrene and several other carcinogenic hydrocarbons in tobacco tars; see Rodgman to Hoover, Nov. 2, 1959, p. 1. For “strong indications”: Claude Teague, “Disclosure of Invention,” Nov. 18, 1955, Bates 504912040–2042. For publication bans: Ralph L. Rowland to Managers, “Management Meeting, March 22, 1971: Rewards and Recognition,” April 20, 1971, Bates 515873927–3929; Alan Rodgman, “A Critical and Objective Appraisal of the Smoking and Health Problem,” Sept. 12, 1962, Bates 504822823–2846.
15. For “little or no effect”: Claude Teague to Kenneth Hoover, “Disclosure of Invention: Filter Tip Materials Undergoing Color Change on Contact with Tobacco Smoke,” Dec. 17, 1953, Bates 511235573. Murray Senkus, Carroll S. Tompson, and Walter M. Henley also signed off on Teague’s disclosure. Liggett & Myers researchers explored similar gimmicks; see Jean P. Eaves, “Stenographic Minutes of a Conference Held at the Research Laboratory,” Jan. 23, 1952, Bates LG0205897–5926. For “illusion of filtration”: M. E. Johnston, “Market Potential of a Health Cigarette,” June 1966, Bates 1001913853–3878.
16. Claude E. Teague Jr., Deposition for Minnesota v. Philip Morris, vol. 1, July 8, 1997, Bates TEAGUEC070897, pp. 72–73, 77–78; compare Bates TEAGUEC070897, TEAGUEC07 0997, TEAGUEC071097, and TEAGUEC071197; and Jones Day, “Teague Depo. Prep.”
1. On Runyon’s cancer, see Jimmy Breslin, Damon Runyon (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1991). PP. 382–83. Walter Winchell in the 1950s supported Joe McCarthy’s anticommunist witch-hunt; he also served as the announcer for The Untouchables for several years beginning in 1953. In the 1930s he had allowed his name to be used in advertisements for Lucky Strike cigarettes.
2. Separate letters from John H. Teeter to Paul M. Hahn, O.P. McComas, and J. C. Whitaker are all dated Sept. 28, 1950, Bates MNAT00730768, 2022238737, and 502407922.
3. Hiram R. Hanmer to John H. Teeter, Oct. 18, 1950, Bates MNAAT00901168. The reference is to “Smoking in Lung Cancer,” Science News Letter, Oct. 7, 1950.
4. John H. Teeter to Hiram R. Hanmer, Dec. 27, 1950, Bates MNAT00730758.
5. George Weissman to R. N. DuPuis, Oct. 7, 1953, Bates 2022239142–9147.
6. Hiram R. Hanmer to Preston L. Fowler, May 16, 1951, Bates MNAT00730744–0746, copied to American Tobacco President Paul M. Hahn.
7. Hanmer to Fowler, May 16, 1951, p. 2. For “airborne infection”: Lanza to Hanmer, Nov. 11, 1952, Bates 950164267–4268; John H. Teeter to W. F. Greenwald, March 25, 1952, Bates 2022238892.
8. For “petroleum industry problem”: Hiram R. Hanmer, “Meeting, 9 A.M., November 5, 1953, Sloan-Kettering Institute,” Nov. 17, 1953, Bates 950167411–7415, p. 2. From 1926 to 1948 Lanza was associate director of medicine for Metropolitan Life Insurance, during which time he also worked for Johns Manville, exonerating asbestos from charges of causing lung cancer. Lanza claimed that people working with the fiber died not because the mineral was scarring their lungs but rather because their lungs did a bad job of clearing out the fibers. Lanza had also vigorously defended mining companies in the Tri-State area around southwestern Missouri; see his deposition for William Burns v. St. Joseph Lead Co., June 8, 1934, where he denied any hazard from breathing lead sulfide and denied any silicosis hazard from dust in mines where the rock had a free silica content less than about 30 percent. See also Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 5th ed. (New York: Aspen, 2005).
9. Hiram R. Hanmer, “Observations Concerning Individuals Participating in the Meetings” (of Nov. 5, 1953, at NYU), n.d., Bates MNAT00688881–8886, p. 2.
10. For Wynder’s later funding: Nicole Fields and Simon Chapman, “Chasing Ernst L. Wynder: 40 Years of Philip Morris’s Efforts to Influence a Leading Scientist,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 57 (2003): 571–78. For Wynder “collaborating on the N.Y.U. investigations”: Marcus E. Hobbs, “Notes on Trip to New York University,” Jan. 27, 1953, Bates 950164340–4343, p. 1. It is not clear how much of Wynder’s 1953 work with Graham and Croninger can be traced to tobacco industry funding. His 1953 paper, “Experimental Production of Carcinoma with Cigarette Tar,” credits only “a research grant from the National Cancer Institute,” but we also know that at least part of his salary was being paid by American Tobacco via the Runyon Fund.
11. Hanmer to Fowler, Feb. 26, 1953, p. 5, Bates MNAT00615509–5514.
12. For Parmele’s suspicions, see H. P. Parmele to John H. Teeter, May 22, 1953, Bates 01183002. For Hanmer’s keeping tabs, see Hobbs, “Notes on Trip to New York University.”
13. Hanmer, “Observations Concerning Individuals,” p. 3; original emphasis. For “more of a fanatic,” see Hanmer’s Sept. 22, 1950, memo to American Tobacco’s Hahn, where Wynder’s father is described as “a missionary preacher who once stumped the country inveighing against the evils of tobacco.” Wynder at this time (1950) was still only a fourth-year medical student at Washington University, and Hanmer suspected him of “inheriting some of his father’s zeal”—all of which made Wynder’s offer to direct research sponsored by the industry “inexplicable” (Bates MNAT00509599).
14. Hanmer, “Meeting, 9 A.M., November 5, 1953,” p. 2.
15. Hanmer, “Observations Concerning Individuals,” p. 6. Minutes from this meeting reveal a desire “to get rid of Wynder,” meaning to exclude him from future industry funding; see Bates 950164205–4206. Hanmer by this time had an annual salary of $40,000, raised to $45,000 effective Jan. 1, 1954; see Bates 945324522–4823, p. 24.
16. “Cigaret Controversy: Tobacco Industry’s ‘White Paper’ Counters Smoking-Cancer Tie-in,” Wall Street Journal, April 14, 1954.
17. For “goldfish bowl”: H.R. Hanmer to Paul M. Hahn, Nov. 17, 1953, Bates 950153110. For “not controlling”: H. R. Hanmer to P. L. Fowler, Dec. 1, 1952, Bates 950152768.
18. Hanmer, “Meeting, 9 A.M., November 5, 1953,” 3. Hanmer by this time was resigned to having “mouse carcinogens” found in tobacco smoke. A November 13, 1953, document titled “The Situation with Respect to Cancer Research” predicted that Wynder, Graham and Ochsner “will convert more and more doctors, directly or indirectly, to their way of thinking” (Bates 950164216–4217). Hanmer outlined a series of recommendations for the company, including an end to the use of arsenic insecticides, continued support for scientific skeptics, cooperation with Reynolds’s new Bureau of Scientific Information, and the establishment of “a tobacco industrial research institute” (“Recommendations,” Bates 950164218).
19. Hanmer, “Meeting, 9 A.M., November 5, 1953,” pp. 3–4.
20. Ibid., p. 5.
21. Frederick R. Darkis to W. A. Blount, Feb. 4, 1954, Bates LG0090704–0708.
22. Hobbs, “Notes on Trip to New York University.”
1. Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, the notorious Nazi racial hygienist and Mengele Doktorvater, was hired by British tobacco makers to verify Fisher’s genotype hypothesis, using his extensive archive of identical and nonidentical twins. See “T.M.S.C. Scientific Research,” Feb. 9, 1959, Bates 105386966–6973. Fisher had recommended Verschuer to Geoffrey Todd as an “old scientific acquaintance”; see R. A. Fisher to Todd, Oct. 19, 1956, Bates 105409457.
2. Milton B. Rosenblatt, “Lung Cancer in the 19th Century,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 38 (1964): 395–425.
3. Concerns about paper continue even after the formation of the TIRC; see Tobacco Industry Research Committee, “Confidential Report, Industry Technical Committee Meeting,” July 30, 1954, Bates CTR0021997–1999.
4. Edison’s letter of April 26, 1914, is reproduced in Henry Ford, The Case against the Little White Slaver (Detroit: Henry Ford, 1916), p. 2.
5. “Sloan-Kettering Institute—Cigarette Paper Tars,” n.d. (March 1952), Bates MNAT0058 7275.
6. Bruce Barton to Preston L. Fowler, Oct. 9, 1951, Bates 950166649.
7. William W. Carroll and H. J. Rand, “A Fluorospectrographic Indication of Carcinogens in Cigarette Papers,” March 17, 1952, Bates 950166333–6336.
8. Carroll and Rand, “Fluorospectrographic Indication of Carcinogens,” p. 4; and for the spectroscopy: E. L. Kennaway and I. Hieger, “Carcinogenic Substances and Their Fluorescence Spectra,” British Medical Journal 1 (1930): 1044–46.
9. “Sloan-Kettering Institute—Cigarette Paper Tars.” On cellophane: Richardson, “American Tobacco Company Research Laboratory,” July 1941.
10. C. M. Flory, “The Production of Tumors by Tobacco Tars,” Cancer Research 1 (1941): 262–76.
11. For “disagreeable odor”: W. F. Greenwald to R. E. Matthews, March 28, 1951, Bates 1003079865. For chlorophyll-impregnated paper: Louis L. Long (Philip Morris) to L. H. Davis, Aug. 15, 1952, Bates 2000755428; W. F. Taylor Jr. (Ecusta) to W. F. Greenwald, Aug. 27, 1951, Bates 1003079871. For “closer together”: Milton O. Schur to Robert N. DuPuis, Oct. 30, 1952, Bates 1001912005. On aldehydes, see H. W. Sigmon to J. C. Rickards, “Analysis of Aldehydes in Smoke,” Sept. 8, 1953, Bates 1001904272–4273.
12. M. O. Schur to H. R. Hanmer, Sept. 26, 1952, Bates 969006729.
13. M. O. Schur and J. C. Rickards, “Ecusta Method for the Preparation of Cigarette Smoke Condensate,” Jan. 26, 1953, Bates HK2387865–7873.
14. Minutes of meeting on Jan. 14, 1953, between Milton O. Schur (Ecusta), Lanza (NYU) and Nelson (NYU), Bates MNAT00587091–7092.
15. M. O. Schur to H. R. Hanmer, April 7, 1953, Bates 950167556.
16. American Tobacco, “ ‘AC’ Content of Cigarette Smoke,” May 29, 1953, Bates 950109311; H. R. Hanmer to M. O. Schur, July 1, 1953, Bates 950154413–4414.
17. Joseph J. Blacknall to H. B. Parmele, July 1, 1953, Bates 00065829; “Results of Accelerated Animal Tests” (from Ecusta), June 9, 1953, Bates 00065830.
18. J. C. Rickards to H. R. Hanmer, June 24, 1953, Bates 969006724–6725. Also present at these meetings were O. L. (Chick) Hillsman, Ed Harlow, Richard C. Irby, and W. B. Wartman.
19. M.O. Schur to H. R. Hanmer, July 7, 1953, Bates 950154411–4412.
20. J. C. Rickards to P. S. Larson, July 8, 1953, Bates 950154408–4410. The methods followed were close to those of Kanematsu Sugiura, “Observations on Animals Painted with Tobacco Tar,” American Journal of Cancer 38 (1940): 41–49.
21. M. O. Schur to H. R. Hanmer, Aug. 24, 1953, Bates 969006717.
22. J. C. Rickards to H. B. Haag, Sept. 9, 1953, Bates 969006705–6710.
23. For “rabbit will scream”: Janet C. Brown, “Confidential Memorandum to Mr. Hetsko RE Conference with Messrs. Harlan and Harlow,” Aug. 25, 1965, Bates 0026861–6916, p. 15. For edema “definitely greater”: H. R. Hanmer to C. W. Lieb, Aug. 14, 1935, Bates 95016 0620–0621. For Philip Morris grumbling: W. F. Greenwald to Morris Fishbein, Feb. 15, 1937, Bates 1003080097–0102.
24. Schur to Larson, Sept. 24, 1953, Bates MNAT00586741.
25. See Norton Nelson to A. Grant Clarke et al., Oct. 13, 1953, Bates 950164292–4293; William E. Smith, Alvin I. Kosak, Ernest L. Wynder, and Norton Nelson, “Investigation of the Chemical Nature of Environmental Carcinogens,” Sept. 15, 1953, Bates 950164294 and 950164295–4316.
26. M. O. Schur to P. S. Larson, Nov. 6, 1953, Bates 969006694 (copied to Dixon, Rickards, and Hanmer); M. O. Schur to P. S. Larson, Nov. 10, 1953, Bates 950154386; “Histological Examination of Skin Sections of Eight Mice,” Nov. 6, 1953, Bates 950154387–4389.
27. P. S. Larson to M. O. Schur, Nov. 17, 1953, Bates 950154384–4385; M. O. Schur to P. S. Larson, Nov. 20, 1953, Bates MNAT00586733, original emphasis. Schur’s letter, like most having to do with Ecusta’s experiments, was copied to Hanmer at American Tobacco. William E. Smith was already dissatisfied with the New York group in January 1954, by which time he was discussing “the possibility of Ecusta opening a laboratory near Asheville with him to head it up” (Darkis to Blount, Feb. 4, 1954). Smith was living in Maine as recently as the 1990s and once remarked that naming a university laboratory after Lanza was like naming a synagogue after Hitler (Barry Castleman, personal communication, referring to NYU’s Lanza Lab).
28. Darkis to Blount, Feb. 4, 1954.
29. Hiram R. Hanmer, “Meeting, 10:30 A.M., November 5, 1953, New York University—School of Industrial Medicine,” n.d., Bates MNAT00688875–8878.
30. Ibid., p. 3.
31. “Beyond Any Doubt,” Time, Nov. 30, 1953, pp. 60–63.
32. “A Vote for Acquittal,” Time, Dec. 7, 1953, p. 54.
33. “Lung Cancer Rise Is Laid to Smoking,” New York Times, Dec. 9, 1953.
34. “Tobacco Stocks Hit by Cancer Reports,” New York Times, Dec. 10, 1953.
35. Darkis to Blount, Feb. 4, 1954.
36. Stuart D. Cowan to Ecusta, June 1, 1954, Bates 500718917. Cowan sent this invitation to Ecusta “at the suggestion of Mr. E. A. Darr, president, R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company.”
37. Gauvin to Meyer, “Monthly Development Summary,” Feb. 2, 1984, Bates 2022217620–7621. Häusermann talked about a “Dial-A-Tar Cigarette with Adjustable Filter Sleeve or Holder for Varying Dilution and Tar in Cigarettes”; see Nov. 16, 1981, Bates 570312400. For “reduced visibility sidestream”: N. Egilmez to J. G. Esterle, June 27, 1986, Bates 620502449–2455.
38. Jones, Day, Reavis and Pogue (for Reynolds), “Corporate Activity Project,” Nov. 17, 1986, Bates 681879254–9715, p. 171.
1. George Davey Smith, Sabine A. Ströbele, and Matthias Egger, “Smoking and Death,” BMJ 310 (1995): 396; also their “Smoking and Health Promotion in Nazi Germany,” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48 (1994): 220–23.
2. For a collection of consensus statements in the 1950s and early 1960s, see the FTC’s “Statements on Cigarette Smoking and Health by United States and Foreign Health Associations,” 1964, Bates 503808686–8768.
3. Wynder and Graham, “Tobacco Smoking”; Clarence A. Mills and Marjorie M. Porter, “Tobacco Smoking Habits and Cancer of the Mouth and Respiratory System,” Cancer Research 10 (1950): 539–42; Morton L. Levin et al., “Cancer and Tobacco Smoking: A Preliminary Report,” JAMA 143 (1950): 336–38; Robert Schrek et al., “Tobacco Smoking as an Etiologic Factor in Disease: I. Cancer,” Cancer Research 10 (1950): 49–58; Doll and Hill, “Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung.”
4. Doll and Hill, “Mortality of Doctors.”
5. E. C. Hammond and D. Horn, “The Relationship between Human Smoking Habits and Death Rates: A Follow-up Study of 187,766 Men” JAMA 155 (1954): 1316–28.
6. L. C. Lewton, “Substances Present in Tobacco Smoke Which Are Irritating to the Nose and Their Removal by a New Process,” Oct. 23, 1932, Bates 950192832–2838. Compare T. Umeda, “The Influence of Structural Change of Some Chemical Substances on the Movement of the Ciliated Epithelium,” Acta Dermatologica 11 (1928): 501–4; and W. L. Mendenhall and K. Shreeve, “Effect of Tobacco Smoke on Ciliary Action,” Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 69 (1940): 295.
7. H. R. Hanmer, “Proposed Reply to Letters Suggesting Methods of Eliminating Carbon Monoxide From the Smoke of Lucky Strike Cigarettes,” Feb. 16, 1933, Bates 950192864; “Suggested Reply to Inquiries Concerning Lead and Arsenic in Cigarettes,” Feb. 24, 1936, Bates 950202433.
8. A. C. Hilding, “On Cigarette Smoking, Bronchial Carcinoma and Ciliary Action,” New England Journal of Medicine 254 (1956): 1155–60.
9. Oscar Auerbach et al., “The Anatomical Approach to the Study of Smoking and Bronchogenic Carcinoma,” Cancer 9 (1956): 76–83; also his “Changes in Bronchial Epithelium in Relation to Cigarette Smoking and in Relation to Lung Cancer,” New England Journal of Medicine 265 (1961): 254–67. For “missing link”: “Report Links Smoking to Lung Tissue Change, Possible Cancer Tie,” Wall Street Journal, June 2, 1955. For “fully consistent”: “Lung Cancer, Cigaret Link Found in Study,” New York Post, Nov. 11, 1956; Oscar Auerbach et al., “Changes in the Bronchial Epithelium in Relation to Smoking and Cancer of the Lung,” New England Journal of Medicine 256 (1957): 97–104.
10. See Wynder’s testimony (p. 67) in False and Misleading Advertising (Filter-Tip Cigarettes), Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, 85th Cong., July 18–26, 1957 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1957), referenced hereafter as Blatnik Report.
11. “Report of Progress—Technical Research Department” (B&W), Dec. 24, 1952, Bates 6502000084–0095, p. 8.
12. R. Guillerm, R. Badré, and B. Vignon, “Effets inhibiteurs de la fumée de tabac sur l’activité ciliare de l’épithélium respiratoire et nature des composants responsables,” Bulletin de l’Académie Nationale de Médecine 145 (1961): 416–23.
13. Rodgman, “A Critical and Objective Appraisal,” p. 7. For “cancer causing”: Arthur D. Little, Inc., “L&M—A Perspective Review,” March 15, 1961, Bates 2021382496–2498.
14. A. H. Roffo, “Tabak und Krebs,” Reine Luft 21 (1939): 123–24. For the parallel between tobacco and coal tar: Johann von Leers, “Gespräche mit Rauchern,” Reine Luft 22 (1940): 97.
15. For the argument for confluence, see Emerson Day et al., Investigative Approaches to the Lung Cancer Problem (New York: Sloan-Kettering Institute, 1955), Bates 502853000–3014.
16. Jerome Cornfield et al., “Smoking and Lung Cancer: Recent Evidence and a Discussion of Some Questions,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 22 (1959): 173–203.
17. “Seventh International Cancer Congress, 1958,” Bates 966015130–5134.
18. Joseph Garland, “Cancer of the Lung,” New England Journal of Medicine 249 (1953): 465–66; also his “Tobacco and Carcinoma of the Lungs,” New England Journal of Medicine, 250 (1954): 125.
19. Geoffrey F. Todd, “Smoking and Health: The Present Position in the U.K. and How It Came About,” 1963, Bates 1000215063–5085.
20. Iain Macleod’s speech is reported in “Heavy Smoking and Cancer: Some Relationship Established,” The Times (London), Feb. 13, 1954, Bates 01138497; Johannes Clemmesen’s prediction is in his “Bronchial Carcinoma—A Pandemic,” Danish Medical Bulletin 1 (1954): 37–46.
21. For “no question of the facts”: American Cancer Society, “Lung Cancer and the Smoking Question,” Annual Report (Atlanta: ACS, 1954), pp. 16–19, Bates TIMN0209916–9919. Dr. George V. Brindley of the University of Texas School of Medicine drafted the text of the ACS resolution, which was unanimously approved by the ACS Board of Directors at its annual meeting in October 1954. For Rhoads: “Your Chances of Lung Cancer from Cigarets,” PIC, April 1954, pp. 20–23, Bates 502817806–7809. For “can no longer be ignored”: Sloan-Kettering Institute, “Progress Report,” Nov. 1954, Bates 503270356–0380, pp. 9–10. For Public Health Cancer Association: “Cancer Unit Calls Cigarettes Harmful,” New York Journal American, Oct. 12, 1954, Bates 950299092. The PHCA resolution was adopted by a 13 to 3 vote. For patents, see Bates 108095559–6023 (filed Oct. 8, 1954) and Bates 108183492–3944 (filed 1957), the second of which states that scientists “have proved that there is a connection between smoking and lung cancer.”
22. Horace Joules is cited in American Tobacco’s “Report on Special Research No. 11, November, 1954, Part I—U.K.,” Nov. 1954, Bates 966001993–2003.
23. Carl V. Weller, Causal Factors in Cancer of the Lung (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1955), PP. 99–100, cited in Brandt, Cigarette Century, pp. 154–55.
24. Charles S. Cameron, “Lung Cancer and Smoking: What We Really Know,” Atlantic Monthly, Jan. 1956, p. 75.
25. “Smoking and Cancer,” The Times (London), May 8, 1956, Bates HT0038363.
26. For “direct cause and effect”: “Tobacco Smoking and Cancer of Lung: Statement by the Medical Research Council,” British Medical Journal 1 (1957): 1523–24. For “most reasonable interpretation”: Ministry of Health, Statement in the House of Commons, “Smoking and Lung Cancer,” June 27, 1957, Bates 503273370.
27. For “sum total of scientific evidence”: Frank M. Strong et al., “Smoking and Health: Joint Report of Study Group on Smoking and Health,” Science 125 (1957): 1129–33. American Tobacco had agents operating inside the closed meetings of the Study Group; see H. B. Haag to E. S. Harlow, Oct. 31, 1956, Bates 950168097 and 950168095–8096. For “beyond reasonable doubt”: “Statement by Surgeon General Leroy E. Burney of the Public Health Service . . . on Excessive Cigarette Smoking and Health,” July 12, 1957, Bates 966016828–6833.
28. Netherlands Ministry of Social Affairs and Public Health, Press Notice No. 1233 (The Hague: NMSAPH, 1957).
29. “Transcript of Investigation Made by the Swedish State Medical Research Council into the Biological and Medical Effects of Smoking,” Aug. 13, 1958, Bates 11329502–9505.
30. Warren H. Cole, “Statement of American Cancer Society on Cigarette Smoking and Lung Cancer,” JAMA 172 (1960): 1425.
31. P. Dorolle et al., “Epidemiology of Cancer of the Lung: Report of a Study Group,” WHO Technical Report Series 192 (1960): 3–13.
32. For “principal causative factor”: Fred Poland, “Cigarets Linked to Lung Cancer by CMA Council,” Montreal Star, June 21, 1961, Bates 1003044717. For “beyond any reasonable doubt”: Norman C. Delarue, “A Review of Some Important Problems Concerning Lung Cancer,” Journal of the Canadian Medical Association 84 (1961): 1374–85.
33. Royal College of Physicians of London, Smoking and Health (London: Pitman, 1962).
34. Janet C. Brown to Cyril F. Hetsko, “AT—Lung Cancer Litigation General,” Nov. 21, 1961, Bates MNATPRIV00037878–7880.
35. Janet C. Brown, “Theories for Defending Smoking and Health Litigation,” Aug. 20, 1985, Bates 680712251–2260.
36. Brandt, Cigarette Century, pp. 211–39. Peter V. Hamill, medical coordinator for the Committee Staff of the Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee, was the key player in selecting members of the Advisory Committee in 1962–63; see his deposition for Cipollone v. Liggett, Nov. 25, 1985, Bates 515857777–7826, beginning at 7783.
37. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Nicotine Addiction: A Report of the Surgeon General (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988), p. vi, where nicotine is identified as “addicting in the same sense as are drugs such as heroin and cocaine.” For Fieser: Charles J. Kensler to L. W. Bass, “Report of Meeting between Dr. Louis Fieser and Dr. Kensler,” Aug. 18, 1954, Bates LG0044505–4506.
38. P. K. Knopick to W. Kloepfer (Tobacco-Institute), Sept. 9, 1980, Bates TIMN0097164–7165.
39. Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, p. 257.
40. Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, pp. 360–62, 447–48; Nicolas Rasmussen, On Speed: The Many Lives of Amphetamine (New York: New York University Press, 2008), and personal communication. For a massive 363-page compilation of scholarly statements on addiction, see “Tobacco, Nicotine and Dependence-Producing Drugs,” May 1, 1976, Bates 681869726–0114, and supplementary updates at 681870116–0126, 681870127–0189, and 681869699–9725.
41. Rhetorical overcaution is a problem in all the Surgeon General’s reports. The 1988 report on Nicotine Addiction, for example, is tedious nearly to the point of torture. The long preface by C. Everett Koop doesn’t even mention the tobacco industry, apart from its (purported) work to provide nicotine replacement therapies (p. vi). Smokers were supposed to shoulder all responsibility for quitting. For more on the 1964 report, including its characterization as “unimpeachable,” see Brandt’s Cigarette Century, pp. 211–39.
42. Charles Ellis, “Meeting in London with Dr. Haselbach,” Nov. 15, 1961, Bates 301083 862–3865; Yeaman, “Implications of Battelle Hippo”; Charles Ellis, “The Effects of Smoking,” Feb. 13, 1962, Bates 301083820–3835.
43. For “life or death”: George Weissman to Joseph F. Cullman, Jan. 29, 1964, Bates 1005038559–8561. For “grave crisis”: Stanton A. Glantz, John Slade, Lisa A. Bero, Peter Hanauer, and Deborah E. Barnes, The Cigarette Papers (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), pp. 50–52.
44. Joseph Califano, personal communication, Nov. 2004.
45. Johnson is cited in Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010), pp. 170–71.
46. R. L. Swaine, “Liggett & Myers Conference on March 25, 1954” (Minutes), March 29, 1954, Bates 2022969452–9459, p. 8.
47. H. R. Hanmer to Albert R. Stevens, May 13, 1952, Bates 950164500–4501. The ad can be found at Bates 950164504–4507.
48. H. R. Hanmer to Hahn, Nov. 19, 1953, Bates 950156733–6734.
49. J. M. Moseley (American Tobacco), “Second International Tobacco Congress, Brussels, Belgium and Visit to Research Institutes and Cigarette Factories in Central Europe,” July 1958, Bates 950158605–8664.
50. For Moseley: Robert Heimann to Alfred F. Bowden, “Verbal Report of J. M. Moseley,” July 2, 1958, Bates 966015128. For Cuzin: J. M. Moseley to Hanmer and Harlan, “15th Tobacco Chemists Research Conference,” Oct. 13, 1961, Bates 950264148–4153.
51. France stopped producing its black tobacco Gauloises in 2005, by which time only about 12 percent of all cigarettes sold in France—6 billion of 55 billion—were dark tobacco.
52. British lung cancer mortality fell from 52/100,000 to 16/100,000, whereas French mortality for this same 35–54 age group (males) rose from 13/100,000 to 42/100,000; see “UK Lung Cancer Deaths Halved by Smoking Cessation,” CTSU Press Release, Aug. 2, 2000, http://www.ctsu.ox.ac.uk/pressreleases/2000–08–02.
53. Data are from the WHO Mortality Database, http://www.who.int/healthinfo/morttables/en/, plus Tomomi Marugame and Itsuro Yoshimi, “Comparison of Cancer Mortality (Lung Cancer) in Five Countries: France, Italy, Japan, UK and USA,” Japanese Journal of Clinical Oncology 35 (2005): 168–70. Thanks also to my British colleague Richard Peto for drawing this interesting French-British contrast to my attention.
54. Moseley, “Second International,” p. 24. For the life of Herbert Bentley, see Martin Sherwood, “Smokers’ Friend,” New Scientist 75 (1977): 105–7. Bentley established Britain’s Tobacco Research Council laboratories at Harrogate in 1963; he also played a crucial role in developing the “New Smoking Material” (NSM) British companies hoped would prove less carcinogenic.
55. For “good technique”: Moseley, “Second International,” p. 25. For Kennaway “greatly impressed”: McKeen Cattell, “Report on Visit to Laboratories Concerned with Tobacco in Relation to Health,” Aug. 24, 1956, Bates 501941142–1150. Cattell here noted that the PR firm of Campbell-Johnson was doing for British tobacco what Hill & Knowlton were doing for the Americans. For T. D. Day’s reproduction of Wynder’s experiments, see “Report by Dr. T. D. Day,”March 11, 1959, Bates 105386919–6932, where we learn that “liberal applications to the backs of mice of fresh condensate provided by T.M.S.C. gave rise to papillomata and presumptive carcinomata in a yield similar to that described by Wynder and his associates.”
56. For “everyone should work together”: Moseley, “Second International,” pp. 10–12. For “true causes of this disease”: “Extract from the First Report of the Scientific Research Station of the German Cigarette Industry,” Oct. 1959, Bates 105615112–5114. For “hardly be subject to further doubt”: H. Druckrey et al., “Vergleichende Prüfung von Tabakrauch-Kondensaten, Benzpyren und Tabak-Extrakt auf carcinogene Wirkung an Ratten,” Die Naturwissenschaften 47 (1960): 605–6, Bates 504112821–2823, with an English translation at 504112824–2829.
57. For “tacit agreement”: Robert K. Heimann to Alfred F. Bowden, “Verbal Report of J. M. Moseley,” July 2, 1958, Bates 966015128. For “legal considerations”: S. J. Green, “Cigarette Smoking and Causal Relationships,” Oct. 27, 1976, Bates 109938433–8436. For “first reaction of the guilty”: S. J. Green, “Smoking, Associated Diseases and Causality,” 1980, Bates 322043191–3196.
58. Richard Doll, “Etiology of Lung Cancer,” Advances in Cancer Research 3 (1955): 1–50. Doll’s chart is also reproduced in the 1964 Surgeon General’s report, p. 176.
59. See my “Tobacco and the Global Lung Cancer Epidemic.” I did not know about Doll’s chart when I produced my calculations in the 1990s (one death for every million cigarettes), which are nicely consistent with his work and the elegant epidemiology of Richard Peto.
60. HEW Secretary Joseph A. Califano reported in January 1978—and often throughout that year—that more than 300,000 Americans died in 1977 from cancer and heart disease for which smoking was “a major factor”; for a Tobacco Institute history and critique of the 320,000 figure from 1979, see Bates 03736412–6427.
61. Harry Dingman, Risk Appraisal (Cincinnati: National Underwriter Co., 1946); Frederick L. Hoffman, “Cancer and Smoking Habits,” Annals of Surgery 93 (1931): 50–67. The earliest known actuarial report of smokers dying, on average, earlier than nonsmokers appears in the Proceedings of the Association of Life Insurance Medical Directors (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1912), pp. 473–75, where Edwin Wells Dwight, chairman of the Medical Directors’ Association, presented data from 180,000 New England Mutual policyholders showing that “tobacco abstainers” had a 43 percent lower mortality than expected from American Experience Tables. Ten years later, a Life Extension Institute study of Dartmouth College graduates (class of 1868) showed smokers dying about seven years earlier than non-smokers; see Cassandra Tate, Cigarette Wars: The Triumph of the Little White Slaver (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 143.
62. Maurine B. Neuberger, Smoke Screen: Tobacco and the Public Welfare (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963), p. 6. Earl T. Opstad, assistant medical director at Northwestern National Life Insurance Co., in 1963 published a calculation of how many people must be dying prematurely as a result of smoking. Using “extremely conservative” figures so as not to be accused of “blowing up something way out of proportion,” he came up with a per annum minimum of 101,646 excess deaths for American males aged thirty to sixty-four. About half of these were from coronary heart disease, with lung cancer adding another 32,000 to 34,000 and emphysema another 12,000 to 14,000. See his “Smoking and Heart Disease,” New England Journal of Medicine 268 (1963): 903, Bates TI04703357.
63. John Ingram (Commissioner of Insurance, State of North Carolina) to Horace Kornegay, May 25, 1979, Bates TI07710818.
64. For Farmers: “NARB Okays Non-Smokers’ Auto Policies Insurance Ad,” Advertising Age, Dec. 15, 1975, Bates TI07710819. For “never been scientifically proven”: Horace R. Kornegay to Robert W. Graf, March 6, 1980, Bates TIFL0537465–7466. Kornegay characterized the Allstate plan as the first example of a major advertiser using television “to carry an anti-smoking message for commercial purposes”; see his speech of Sept. 13, 1979, Bates TIMN0067878–7882. When J. C. Penny offered a similar discount, Fred Panzer wrote to Kornegay, his boss at the TI: “you might want to organize an effort similar to that used with Sears” (Dec. 1, 1980, Bates TIMN0067468).
65. James Bowling to William Kloepter, July 12, 1979, Bates TIFL0537447; Robert S. Seiler (Allstate) to Harold B. McGuffey (Kentucky Commissioner of Insurance), Sept. 11, 1979, Bates TIMN0333248–3249; and for the science relied on by Allstate, Bates TIMN0333250–3251; Bates TI07710807; TI07710800. Bowling didn’t want it to be known that Burnett had been funneling Allstate ad campaign plans to Philip Morris, which is why he insisted to Kloepfer at the TI that “Burnett’s identity as a source must be protected” (July 23, 1979, Bates TIFL05 37444).
66. Robert S. Seiler (Allstate) to Kirk Wayne (Tobacco Associates), Sept. 20, 1979, Bates TIMN0333241–3244.
67. For “identify and support”: John Lyons to Susan M. Stuntz and Martin J. Gleason, “Anti-Smoking Practices of the Insurance Industry,” Nov. 22, 1989, Bates TIMN0034730–4731; Anne Landman, “Push or Be Punished: Tobacco Industry Documents Reveal Aggression against Businesses That Discourage Tobacco Use,” Tobacco Control 9 (2000): 339–46. For “Gays”: Sparber and Associates, Inc., “Recommendations: The Anti-Smoker Practices of the Insurance Industry,” Oct. 1989, Bates TIMN0034733–4742. Earle Clements in the early 1970s had assigned Marvin Kastenbaum at the TI “to the insurance watch”; see Bates TI07710805. We need to search insurance industry archives for more examples of such pressures.
68. Bertram Harnett to Frank T. Crohn, Jan. 30, 1981, Bates 03736224–6256.
69. Michael J. Cowell and Brian L. Hirst (State Mutual), Mortality Differences between Smokers and Non-Smokers, Oct. 22, 1979, Bates TI47381555–1562; “Surgeon General’s Statement,” Oct. 22, 1979, Bates TIFL0537439. State Mutual’s paper appeared in the Transactions of the Society of Actuaries; see Michael J. Cowell and Brian L. Hirst, “Mortality Differences between Smokers and Non-Smokers: Authors’ Review of Discussion,” Sept. 1980, Bates 03736293–6320. The Tobacco Institute had its chief statistician write a critique; Shook, Hardy and Bacon helped Kastenbaum with this project, a fact not disclosed in the final manuscript; see Marvin A. Kastenbaum to Horace Kornegay, June 12, 1980, Bates 03736333, and for Kastenbaum’s critique: Bates 03736336–6343. State Mutual responded to this and other critiques, discovering in the process that a number of other insurance companies had confirmed their general conclusions but also that Phoenix Mutual had investigated the impact of smoking on life span as early as 1910.
70. “Insurance Companies Offering Non-Smokers Plans and Discounts,” 1979, Bates TIFL0537186–7189.
71. This, according to the American Council on Life Insurance Co., Bates TI46500915.
72. Robert Rosner, “Subsidizing Smokers—Something to Burn Over,” Los Angeles Times, Nov. 17, 1988, Bates TI00261137; Gordon B. Lindsay, Make a Killing: A Smoking Satire on Selling Cigarettes (Bountiful, Utah: Horizon, 1997), p. 25.
73. G. E. Moore, “Smoking and Life Insurance,” British Medical Journal 1 (1962): 1345.
74. Current Digest 8 (July 1963): 27, Bates TIMN0230726–0765.
75. G. E. Moore, “How to Save 40,000 Lives a Year” (Editorial), Medical Tribune, May 24, 1963, p. 11; compare “Challenge to Dr. Moore” and “Dr. Moore’s Reply, Medical Tribune, June 14, 1963, p. 11, reported in Bates TIMN0230726–0765.
76. Stanley Truman Brooks, “Preliminary Report on a Critical Survey of Current Research,” Nov. 20, 1953, Bates 950297104–7108.
77. Brooks to Hanmer, Dec. 24, 1953, Bates MNAT00709471–9478, pp. 2–3.
78. “Luncheon Meeting—November 5, 1953: Representatives of Industry—Yale Club,” Bates 950164205–4206. Most of this meeting was devoted to Reynolds’s plans for setting up “machinery for combating the propaganda which is being directed against the cigarette industry,” for which Reynolds had allocated $200,000.
79. Paul M. Hahn, “Press Release” (for the American Tobacco Company), Nov. 26, 1953, MNAT00609882–9886.
80. Dwight Macdonald to Hiram Hanmer, Dec. 17, 1953, Bates 950278537–8538; Hiram Hanmer, “Memorandum on Telephone Conversation between Mr. Hanmer and Mr. Dwight Macdonald,” Jan. 4, 1954, Bates 950278535.
81. Edwin F. Dakin, “Forwarding Memorandum: To Members of the Planning Committee,” late Dec. 1953, Bates JH000493–0501, p. 2.
82. Engel, “Cigarettes Cause Cancer?” p. 7; H. R. Parmele to A. Riefner, July 29, 1946, Bates 92520611–0612. Milton Schur of Ecusta also attended the Nov. 5, 1953, meeting.
83. “At one time or another during those years critics have held it responsible for practically every disease of the human body. One by one these charges have been abandoned for lack of evidence”; see “A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers,” Jan. 4, 1954, Bates HT012 7042. A Dec. 26, 1953, draft of the “Frank Statement,” with corrections from another Plaza Hotel meeting of December 28, can be found at Bates 4720; and for passages proposed (but not used) by American Tobacco Chief Counsel T. J. Ross, see Bates 4711.
84. Hanmer to Miller, Oct. 8, 1953, p. 3.
85. Two of the most intelligent celebrations of smoke along these lines are Klein, Cigarettes Are Sublime; and Luc Sante, No Smoking (New York: Assouline, 2004). Ross Millhiser is cited in Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, p. 488. Philip Morris in its Archetype Project from 1990–91 explored the notion that new smokers could be attracted by identifying smoking as “for adults only”; Gilbert Clotaire Rapaille, a French marketing consultant with expertise in adolescent psychology, developed a series of recommendations for the company that included the following: “Make it difficult for minors to obtain cigarettes” and “Stress that smoking is dangerous [and] for people who like to take risks, who are not afraid of taboos, who take life as an adventure to prove themselves.” See Carolyn Levy, “Archetype Project Summary,” Aug. 20, 1991, Bates 2062145482–5496.
86. Marketing and Research Counselors, “What Have We Learned?”
87. Jonathan Kwitny, “Defending the Weed: How Embattled Group Uses Tact, Calculation to Blunt Its Opposition,” Wall Street Journal, Jan. 24, 1972, Bates 500324162–4164.
1. Eric LeGresley, “A ‘Vector Analysis’ of the Tobacco Epidemic,” Bulletin of Medicus Mundi Switzerland, no. 72 (April 1999).
1. For “stop business tomorrow,” see George Weissman’s March 26, 1954, speech titled “Public Relations and Cigarette Marketing,” Bates 3039590020–0025, reported in the St. Paul Press, March 30, 1954, Bates 1002366403–6408. For Bowling, see Kwitny, “Defending the Weed.” For Bible, see his testimony in Florida v. American Tobacco, Aug. 21, 1997, Bates 2083493341–3364, p. 27. Bible was asked about his promise in Minnesota v. Philip Morris on March 2, 1998, and responded that if even one person were found to have died from smoking he would “reassess” his duties as Philip Morris CEO; see Bates BIBLEG030298, pp. 5707–9. For Gerald H. Long, see Roy McKenzie, “A Loyalist Views Tobacco’s Fate,” Insight, May 19, 1986, p. 15, Bates 515836770.
2. Paul M. Hahn’s telegram of December 10, 1953, inviting the CEOs to meet at the Plaza Hotel, is at Bates 508775416. For “weighty scientific views” and “no proof”: Hill & Knowlton, “Preliminary Recommendations for Cigarette Manufacturers,” Dec. 24, 1953, Bates 508775406–5415.
3. “A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers,” Jan. 4, 1954, Bates HT0127042–7042; and for an early draft, Bates 508775403–5405.
4. Fuller, Smith and Ross, “The Tobacco Industry Research Committee: A Report on Expenditures to Date and Discussion of Possible Additional Media,” Jan. 15, 1954, Bates 11309839–9854. For “negro newspapers,” see R. E. Allen, “Tobacco Industry Research Committee,” Dec. 29, 1953, Bates 4715.
5. For “extremist attacks”: Hill & Knowlton, “Statement by Timothy V. Hartnett, Chairman, Tobacco Industry Research Committee,” For release not before Dec. 27, 1954, Bates 11311167–1169. For “prairie fire”: “The Facts Always Win,” Cincinnati Enquirer, Jan. 6, 1954. For modern India: Prabhat Jha et al., including R. Peto, “A Nationally Representative Case-Control Study of Smoking and Death in India,” New England Journal of Medicine 358 (2008): 1137–47.
6. Hill & Knowlton, “Progress Report,” Jan. 15, 1954, Bates 2023614849–4851; “Editorial Response in Key Cities” (Lorillard), Jan. 1954, Bates 01138883–8994.
7. The CTR’s final annual report appeared on May 28, 1997; see Bates 70001394–1394. Contributions to CTR from the tobacco companies totaled $473 million from 1954 through 1998.
8. “Remarks of Dr. Leon O. Jacobson,” Dec. 9, 1983, Bates 70005745–8746; emphasis added.
9. C. C. Little to T. V. Hartnett, “TIRC Research Program,” July 16, 1959, Bates CTRMN004 358–4366.
10. H. R. Bentley, D. G. I. Felton, and W. W. Reid, “Report on Visit to U.S.A. and Canada, 17th April-12th May 1958,” June 11, 1958, Bates TIOK 0034790–4799, p. 5.
11. ACS, CA—Bulletin of Cancer Progress, March-April, 1958, front inside cover and p. 71. The “sideshow” quote is from Jones Day, “Corporate Activity Project,” p. 128.
12. “$82,000 Is Granted to Study Tobacco,” New York Times, Nov. 8, 1954, Bates CORTI001 3661.
13. The Tobacco Institute was the brainchild of Edward A. Darr, president of R. J. Reynolds; see Robert K. Heimann (inferred), “Public Relations in the Field of Smoking and Health,” Jan. 1963, Bates ATX110005290–5303, p. 3. Willard Greenwald at Philip Morris as early as 1938 had proposed establishing a “tobacco institute” to forge “closer and more friendly relations between the companies”; see “Memorandum of Meeting between Dr. Haag and Dr. Greenwald,” Jan. 18, 1938, Bates 950200322–0323. The TI in the late 1970s moved to 1875 I Street, only four blocks from the White House. For Little’s keep in his “ivory tower”: Covington & Burling, “Confidential Report Prepared by TI Outside Counsel,” Jan. 1963, Bates MNATPRIV00024887–4900.
14. For Brown & Williamson: Yeaman, “Implications of Battelle Hippo.” For “little relevance”: Rogers and Todd, “Report on Policy,” p. 18. For “backwater”: BATCo, “Report on Visit to U.S.A.,” p. 28. For “T.I.R.C. research”: Covington & Burling, “Public Relations,” p. 13.
15. “Facilities of the CTR Library—June 1974,” Bates 70005745–8746.
16. J. S. Campbell to Horace R. Kornegay, June 8, 1971, Bates CORTI0004683–4684.
17. The characterization of the CTR as a “shield” and a “front” is explicit in R. B. Seligman to CTR File, “Meeting in New York,” Nov. 17, 1978, Bates 1003718428–8432, where we also hear, “It is extremely important that the industry continue to spend their dollars on research to show that we don’t agree that the case against smoking is closed.” For “Let’s face it”: Helmut Wakeham to J. F. Cullman III, “ ‘Best’ Program for C.T.R.,” Dec. 8, 1970, Bates 1005082153–2158.
18. For the 9 volumes prepared for the Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee, see Liggett & Myers Tobacco Co. and Arthur D. Little, Inc., Current Status of Studies on Smoking and Health, April 1, 1963. The preface and introduction are at Bates TIMN0446452–6479, and the volume on constituents and biological activity can be found at Bates LG0268863–9034. The introductory volume on epidemiology concluded that much of this work had been “unreliably conducted” and that even the “better-conducted studies” did not demonstrate a hazard warranting “a degree of public concern greater than that provided by many other common habits, not singled out for official inquiry” (pp. 2–8). For “withheld from the general public,” see the unsigned document from April 1, 1963, Bates 2022969690. James D. Mold later testified that the Liggett/ADL volumes were “confidential,” with access granted only on a “Need to know basis”; see his “Summary Statement” to the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Energy and Commerce, July 1987, Bates TIMN0299685–9695.
19. For Joseph E. Bumgarner, see his deposition of Nov. 11, 1996, for Texas v. American Tobacco Co., Bates Bumgarnerj111196. For “close to showing”: Paul E. Brubaker for Jones, Day, Reavis & Pogue, “The R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company’s Biology Research Division: A Program Review,” Dec. 15, 1985, Bates 507928501–8691. This document is a whitewash of Reynolds’s biological work from the late 1960s. For the Mouse House Massacre more generally: Frank V. Tursi, Susan E. White, and Steve McQuilkin, Lost Empire: The Fall of R. J. Reynolds Company (Winston-Salem, NC: Winston-Salem Journal, 1999–2000). Anthony Colucci, an RJR biochemist from 1967 to 1970 and a consultant for its legal defense in the 1980s, claims that the Mouse House was closed “because Reynolds did not at that time want to be collecting information that might be detrimental to itself. . . . Ignorance is bliss” (Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, p. 360).
20. “Philip Morris Research on Nicotine Pharmacology and Human Smoking Behavior,” April 6, 1994, 2046819241–9265; compare the Shook, Hardy and Bacon document: “Philip Morris Behavioral Research Program,” 1992, Bates 2021423403–3497.
21. William Farone, deposition for Ironworkers v. Philip Morris, March 1, 1999, Bates FARONEW030199, p. 1919; also Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, pp. 575–76.
22. Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, p. 576.
23. Leonard S. Zahn to Henry Ramm and Tom Hoyt, April 22, 1974, Bates ZN19604―9605. For a draft of Homburger’s press release from April 8, 1974: Bates ZN19613–9613; and for his 1997 deposition on this sequence of events in Broin v. Philip Morris: Bates HOM BURGERF052797.
24. This “reasonable guess” is presented in Charles R. Green and Alan Rodgman, “The Tobacco Chemists’ Research Conference: A Half Century Forum for Advances in Analytical Methodology of Tobacco and Its Products,” June 6, 1996, Bates 525445600–5785, p. 7. A list of more than two hundred participating chemists can be found in “Tobacco Chemists Research Conference, Attendance Record, Duke University,” Oct. 24, 1958, Bates 950264981–4987. The European counterpart to America’s Tobacco Science was Germany’s Beiträge zur Tabakforschung, established in 1961.
25. For Reynolds: Ralph L. Rowland, “Management Meeting, March 22, 1971, Rewards and Recognition,” April 20, 1971, Bates 515873927–3929. For Philip Morris: W. L. Dunn to T. S. Osdene, “Proposed Study by Levy,” Nov. 3, 1977, Bates 1000128680.
26. A. W. Spears to John W. Nowell, Aug. 17, 1960, Bates 01370915; Nowell to Spears, Aug. 26, 1960, Bates 01370882.
27. W. T. Hoyt to T. V. Hartnett, “Statement of F. G. Bock in Buffalo, N.Y.,” Oct. 23, 1956, Bates 680911588–1589.
28. Taylor, Smoke Ring, pp. 18–19; Thilo Grüning, Anna B. Gilmore, and Martin McKee, “Tobacco Industry Influence on Science and Scientists in Germany,” American Journal of Public Health 96 (2006): 20–32.
29. For “skeptical scientists”: Donald K. Hoel, “Industry Research Committee Meeting,” Nov. 6, 1978, Bates USX5133–5139. For “most scientists now agree”: Gary D. Friedman et al., “Mortality in Middle-Aged Smokers and Nonsmokers,” New England Journal of Medicine 300 (1979): 213–17.
30. Trial testimony of Clarence Cook Little in Lartigue v. Reynolds, Oct. 6, 1960, Bates 515382801–2968, p. 2818. For Little’s life prior to tobacco, see Karen Rader, Making Mice: Standardizing Animals for American Biomedical Research, 1900–1955 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004).
31. For Little on fear, see his trial testimony in Zagurski v. American Tobacco, June 7, 1967, Bates LITTLEC060767, p. 675. For Project Truth: “Objectives,” Bates 690010962–0963, attached to J. W. Burgard to R. A. Pittman, Aug. 21, 1969, Bates 1700.02. For “lynched”: “Remarks of Horace Kornegay,” April 20, 1970, Bates TIMN0127927–7939.
32. Others considered for the job of SAB chairman included Leon Jacobson, Clayton Loosli, R. Harrison Rigdon, and R. Lee Clark. The industry didn’t contact any of the recognized leaders of the field—neither Wynder, Graham, Doll, nor Ochsner, for example, and apparently not Hammond; see Irwin W. Tucker’s deposition of July 29, 1997, Bates tucke ri072997.
33. Hueper was offered the SAB chairmanship in the spring of 1954; see my Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don’t Know about Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995). pp. 110, 295 n. 61; also my “Wilhelm Hueper: Pioneer of Environmental Carcinogenesis,” in Medizingeschichte und Gesellschaftskritik: Festschrift für Gerhard Baader, ed. Michael Hubenstorf et al. (Husum: Matthiesen Verlag, 1997), pp. 290–305. Hueper in 1959 told a Pittsburgh seminar, “I do believe cigaret smoking plays a role, either directly or indirectly, in lung cancer. But I am personally convinced it is not one of our major causative agents.” See “Cigarets Get ‘Reprieve’ on Cancer,” Pittsburgh Press, April 30, 1959, reported in the Tobacco News Summary, May 6, 1959, Bates 1005035505–5506. Hueper’s 10 percent figure was, as he himself put it, a “wild guess” produced only when Geoffrey F. Todd pressured him to provide an estimate; see Todd’s “Visit to U.S.A. and Canada: Report to T.M.S.C.,” June 14, 1961, Bates 105367083–7098, p. 8.
34. For “safe for the industry”: Hiram R. Hanmer, “Memo,” March 15, 1954, Bates 950259121–9122, tid izy34foo. Charles B. Huggins’s assessment of Steiner is cited in “Report of Visit to University of Chicago and Michael Reese Hospital by Irwin Tucker, Grant Clarke and H.R. Hanmer: Subject, Scientific Director for TIRC,” Feb. 15, 1954, Bates 950259159–9169, p. 7.
35. Trial testimony of Clarence Cook Little in Lartigue v. Reynolds, Oct. 5, 1960, Bates LITTLEC100560, pp. 2715–16. Little’s biographers have tended to ignore his tobacco work; the sixteen-page obituary published by Jackson Laboratory Director Earl L. Green doesn’t even mention tobacco; see “Dr. Clarence Cook Little,” JAX: The Jackson Laboratory, 19 (Winter 1971–72): 1–16, Bates 1472170–2185.
36. Typical would be Suzanne Oparil’s characterization of the CTR as “a very high quality research funding organization”; see her testimony in Engel v. Reynolds, March 22, 1999, Bates 525526542–6664, pp. 28623–26; and in other trials at Bates 526014897–4977. John C. Burnham’s 1986 disclosure for Dewey v. Reynolds states that the TIRC/CTR was “a respectable/commendable scientific effort” (Bates 2024941548–1551).
37. Sheldon C. Sommers, “Curriculum Vitae,” Dec. 1991, Bates 2501070219–0245.
38. Sheldon C. Sommers, deposition testimony for Galbraith v. Reynolds, Sept. 4, 1985, Bates 505551319A-1472, p. 66.
39. Ibid., pp. 68–70.
40. See, for example, Sommers’ testimony for the defense in Helsinki City Court, Jan. 31, 1991, Bates 566406564–6652.
41. “Mailing by Fisher-Stevens of 1970–71 Annual Report,” Feb. 1972, Bates March 31, 1972, Bates 10399040–9040.
42. Kenneth R. Gundle, Molly J. Dingel and Barbara A. Koenig, “ ‘To Prove This Is the Industry’s Best Hope’: Big Tobacco’s Support of Research on the Genetics of Nicotine Addiction,” Addiction 105 (2010): 974–83.
43. For “brush fires”: J. Morrison Brady to Clarence C. Little, “TIRC Program,” April 9, 1962, Bates 92520643–0644. U.S. Tobacco R&D chief W. D. Bennett in August 1974 wrote (copied) to Bantle noting that cigarette companies had built up “quite a stable of experts in these fields related to their products”; see W. D. Bennett to R. D. Harwood, Aug. 23, 1974; and for background: Morton Mintz, “The Artful Dodgers—Did Tobacco Executives Tell the Truth about Smokeless Tobacco?” Washington Monthly, Oct. 1986, p. 6.
44. For Cohen: Alix M. Freedman and Laurie P. Cohen, “Smoke and Mirrors: How Cigarette Makers Keep Health Question ‘Open’ Year after Year,” Wall Street Journal, Feb. 11, 1993. For Glenn, who eventually apologized for his remarks about Cohen, see John Fahs, Cigarette Confidential: The Unfiltered Truth about the Ultimate Addiction (New York: Berkley Books, 1996), pp. 50–52.
45. CTR applications for these six Nobel laureates can be found at Bates 50093423–3437 (Baruj Benacerraf from 1971), Bates 50234926–4967 (Stanley Cohen 1982), Bates 50177702–7727 (Harold Varmus 1984), Bates 50132484–2492 (Ferid Murad 1977), Bates 50306400–6412 (Carol Greider 1991), and Bates 40032703–2715 (Louis Ignarro 1996). Ignarro mentioned carcinogens in cigarette smoke in his 1979 application (Bates 50219035–9071), and his rejection can be found at Bates 50219026. Murad’s 1977 application is apparently the only successful one to mention cigarette smoke, albeit as only one of several agents influencing cyclic guanosine monophosphate in tissues.
46. A list of all forty-three members of the TIRC/CTR’s Scientific Advisory Board from 1954 through 1996 can be found in Lorraine Pollice to Ernest Pepples (Brown & Williamson), “Scientific Advisory Board Members,” Oct. 18, 2000, Bates 70100464–0467.
47. Testimony of Clarence Cook Little in Lartigue v. Reynolds, Oct. 6, 1960, pp. 2782–83, Bates 515382801–2968. Asked whether every one of the members of the TIRC believed it was still an open question whether smoking had been shown to cause cancer, Little answered, “Every one of them believes it is an open question as to whether causation has or has not been proven” (p. 2783).
48. See David Michaels, Doubt Is Their Product: How Industry’s Assault on Science Threatens Your Health (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); also Oreskes and Conway, Merchants of Doubt.
49. Thomas J. Moran, testimony at U.S. congressional hearings on Cigarettes and Smoking Products, June 29, 1964, Bates 968246800–6972, p. 471.
50. Stanley Frank, “To Smoke or Not to Smoke—That Is Still the Question,” True Magazine, Jan. 1968, pp. 35–36, 69–71, where Frank concluded there was “absolutely no proof that smoking causes human cancer.” The story is well told in Wagner’s Cigarette Country, pp. 176–89.
51. Clarence Cook Little, Cancer: A Study for Laymen, 2nd ed. (New York: American Cancer Society, 1944).
52. Testimony of Clarence Cook Little in Lartigue v. Reynolds, p. 2740.
53. Clarence Cook Little, deposition testimony in Green v. American Tobacco, Nov. 3, 1959, Bates HAHNP051960, pp. 191–92.
54. Hiram Hanmer in 1954 reassured a correspondent that failure to find carcinogens in tobacco smoke was not as widely known as it should be “because negative results are rarely published” (Hanmer to Carl A. Nau, Sept. 2, 1954, Bates 950168223–8224).
55. H. Lee Sarokin, “Opinion,” Cipollone v. Liggett, April 21, 1988, Bates 2072420693–0725.
56. See, for example, the eighty-five-page listing in David R. Hardy (Shook, Hardy), to Frederick P. Haas et al., Oct. 6 and 25, 1966, Bates ATMXPRIV0014423–4507 and 2023918152–8173.
57. For Saiger: “Saiger Study Involving Inclusion of Many More Variables in Statistical Analyses,” Feb. 26, 1966, Bates 955008172. For SP-100: “Critique by a Panel of Experts of Statistics Relied upon by the Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee,” Oct. 6, 1966, Bates 955008165–8168. For Olkin: A. W. Spears to A. J. Stevens, March 1, 1976, Bates 00500240–0241; also Bates CTRSP/FILES013812–3815. Olkin was also paid at least $1,600 under Jacob and Medinger’s Special Account #4, a pool of cash reserved for sensitive legal work; see Bates 955019744–9755. Compare Bates 955008065 (for SP-26), 955008099 (SP-30), 955008108 (SP-31), 955008113–8114 (SP-32), and 955008178 (SP-103).
58. Deposition of McAllister in Blue Cross v. Philip Morris, June 15, 2000, Bates McAllisterH061500, p. 101. A list of 106 Special Projects grantees can be found in Judge Kessler’s “Amended Final Opinion,” p. 135.
59. “Statement of Dr. Victor Buhler,” April 24, 1969, Bates 2015039120–9130.
60. “Statement of Arthur Furst,” April 24, 1969, Bates 2015039164–9171.
61. John P. Wyatt, “Statement,” April 24, 1969, Bates 2015039186–9189; “Statement of Duane Carr, M.D.,” April 25, 1969, Bates 2015039247–9254.
62. For “probably invalid”: Statement of Theodor D. Sterling, April 24, 1969, Bates 2015039196–9214 (and the TI press release at Bates 2015039195); and for his other work for the industry, see his “A Critical Reassessment of the Evidence Bearing on Smoking as the Cause of Lung Cancer,” Sept. 1971, Bates 680143516–3625. For “exaggerated propaganda,” seehis “Dubious Figures Cast a Cloud over Anti-Tobacco Lobby,” Vancouver Sun, Sept. 2, 1993, Bates 87715643 and 2015039272–9277; and for background: Glantz et al., Cigarette Papers, pp. 296–301.
63. For Grant 56-B: Alexander Holtzman to David R. Hardy, Oct. 3, 1968, Bates 1005084784–4786. For “witness in litigation”: Kessler, “Amended Final Opinion,” p. 115. Hickey doesn’t mention his Special Project funding in his article with Richard C. Clelland and Evelyn B. Harner, “Smoking, Birth-Weight, Development, and Pollution,” Lancet 1 (1973): 270, Bates 955004255.
64. For “dictated by priorities”: Domingo M. Aviado, “Annual Report to Shook, Hardy and Bacon,” Jan. 27, 1982, Bates 94347226–7240; also his “Asbestos/Cigarette Smoking Interactions—A Review of the Medical Literature, 1882 to 1982,” Oct. 5, 1983, Bates 2062774448–4949 at 4568. For “no health hazard”: Australian Tobacco Institute, “Cigarette Smoke and the Non-Smoker,” March 1976, Bates 503676995–7004, p. 51. For SHB’s Project No. 9: Domingo M. Aviado, “Annual Report to Shook, Hardy and Bacon,” Jan. 20, 1981, Bates 94347206–7223.
65. David R. Hardy to Thomas F. Ahrensfeld et al., June 13, 1972, Bates 1005084973–4976. Mancuso had been on friendly terms with the TIRC since the 1950s, though his first application for CTR funds was not until 1972, when he asked for $328,850 to study occupational epidemiology. By July 1973, in a paper coauthored with Theodor D. Sterling, he was disputing the theory that “a single factor, smoking, is the major cause of lung cancer”; see Bates CTRSP/FILES010513/05.
66. James F. Glenn to Dr. Jacobson and CTR Staff, “Alvan R. Feinstein, MD, Yale,” Feb. 2, 1988, Bates CTRSP-FILES025320. Feinstein edited the Journal of Chronic Diseases (1982–88) and was founding editor of the Journal of Clinical Epidemiology (1988–2001).
67. Timothy M . Finnegan to Ahrensfeld et al., “Alvan R. Feinstein,” July 7, 1981, Bates 503654999–5000.
68. “Evidence-Based Medicine Has Come a Long Way,” BMJ 329 (2004): 990–91.
69. Alvan R. Feinstein, “Justice, Science, and the ‘Bad Guys,’ ” Toxicologic Pathology 20 (1992): 303–05.
70. Henry T. Lynch to David Stone, “Application #2352, ‘Improved Scientific Methods in Clinical Epidemiology,’ Alvan R. Feinstein MD,” Feb. 16, 1988, Bates CTRSP/FILES025318–5319.
71. David M. Murphy to Herbert M. Wachtell, Paul Vizcarrondo Jr., and John F. Savarese, April 28, 1992, Bates 87715635–5636.
72. Kessler, “Amended Final Opinion,” p. 3.
73. For “rebuts and discredits”: Paul M. Hahn to John W. Hill, Feb. 5, 1958, Bates 2072420837–0841. For 536,000 copies: Tobacco Institute, “Detailed Distribution of Tobacco and Health,” n.d., Bates TIMN0070595–0597. Tobacco and Health was also sent to 800 Reynolds “Student Representatives”; 50 copies were also sent to each of the company’s 1,180 salesmen (F. G. Carter to Bowman Gray, July 9, 1958, Bates 502364141).
74. Carl Thompson to William Kloepfer Jr., “Tobacco and Health Research Procedural Memo,” Oct. 18, 1968, Bates TIMN0071488–1491.
75. For “most important type of story”: Thompson to Kloepfer, “Tobacco and Health Research Procedural Memo,” p. 2. The Tobacco Institute in 1960 hired Group Attitudes Corporation, a subsidiary of Hill & Knowlton, to assess the medical response to the paper and found a great deal of sympathy (and that most U.S. doctors still smoked); see “Doctors’ Attitudes toward Tobacco and Health,” April 1960, Bates TIMS00029861–9910. And for doctors’ responses: Bates 11291393–1394, 50014938–4938, 50077581–7582, 11278247–8247, and 50033887–3887.
76. For “controlled list”: “Confidential Report: Tobacco Industry Research Committee Meeting,” Nov. 8, 1957, Bates 689329566–9570. For “almost entirely”: John W. Hill, “Smoking, Health and Statistics: The Story of the Tobacco Accounts,” Feb. 26, 1962, Bates 98721513–1551.
77. Martin Forster et al., “The State of Knowledge Regarding Tobacco Harm, 1920–1964: Industry and Public Health Service Perspectives,” Dec. 7, 2006, http://www.tobacco.org/news/243428.html; also Tobacco Industry Research Committee, “A Working Reference Catalog of Selected Scientific Papers,” 1955, Bates 01138194–8288.
78. K. Michael Cummings et al., “What Scientists Funded by the Tobacco Industry Believe about the Hazards of Cigarette Smoking,” American Journal of Public Health 81 (1991): 894–96.
79. For “one of America’s foremost”: “Little Dies; Researcher on Cancer,” (Mamaroneck) Daily Times, Dec. 23, 1971, Bates 1472169. For “hobbyhorse”: “Dr. Clarence Little, Cancer Researcher, Dies at 83,” New York Times, Dec. 23, 1971, Bates 1472190.
80. For “stripped”: James F. Glenn to Judith L. Swain, Oct. 20, 1998, Bates 70011788–1789. For “best that I resign”: Swain to Glenn, April 13, 1998, Bates 70012088–2088.
81. See, for example, Suzanne Oparil to Harmon C. McAllister, Aug. 25, 1988, Bates 50361170–1170; and extensive correspondence at Bates 50361066 through 50361127.
82. “I became an expert on the activities of the Council of Tobacco Research when I became funded by them” (Bates 70001476–1555, p. 57). Oparil had earlier served as a witness for the Campbell Soup Co., testifying that the salt they put in soup did not cause high blood pressure.
83. Suzanne Oparil, deposition testimony for Broin v. Philip Morris, June 18, 1997, Bates 70001476–1555, pp. 18–35, 51–52.
84. Suzanne Oparil, deposition testimony for Engle v. Reynolds, July 27, 1997, Bates OPARILS072797, pp. 51, 66–68, 79–80, 84.
85. Oparil was named president ofthe American Society of Hypertension (ASH) on May 22, 2006, following the resignation of Jean E. Sealey, a cardiovascular biochemist at Cornell, who had called for increased disclosure of the Society’s pharmaceutical ties. The ASH had been embarrassed by revelations that drug manufacturers had been giving large sums of money to the Society to broaden its definition of hypertension, thereby enlarging the number of people defined as needing medication. See Stephanie Saul, “Unease on Industry’s Role in Hypertension Debate,” New York Times, May 20, 2006; also Susan Jeffrey, “Sealey Resigns, Oparil Is in as Incoming ASH President,” HeartWire, May 22, 2006. For “smoking does not cause hypertension”: Oparil, deposition testimony for Engle v. Reynolds, July 27, 1997, Bates OPARILS072797, p. 72.
86. History ofthe American Heart Association, http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier = 10860, accessed Feb. 2009.