Marching Through Suffering: Loss and Survival in North Korea

Introduction

1. Amartya Sen and Jean Drèze, The Amartya Sen & Jean Drèze Omnibus: (comprising) Poverty and Famines; Hunger and Public Action; and India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 68.

2. Juche, often translated as “self-reliance,” is the central institution or guiding philosophy of North Korean society, paraphrased as doing things “our own way,” and being “master of one’s own fate.” Juche is a product of North Koreans’ experiences with colonialism, the Korean War, and economic developments. It frames the proper North Korean ways of being and interpreting the world. All of North Korea’s official political, social, and economic activities are organized around the ideology of Juche. Jae-Jung Suh, “Making Sense of North Korea: Juche as an Institution,” in Origins of North Korea’s Juche: Colonialism, War and Development, ed. Jae Jung Suh, 1–32 (Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books, 2013), 2, 8.

3. Stephen Devereux, ed., The New Famines: Why Famines Persist in an Era of Globalization, Routledge Studies in Development Economics (New York: Routledge, 2007), 3, 7; and Stephen Devereux, Theories of Famine: From Malthus to Sen (Hemel Hempstead, UK: Harvester Wheatsheaf Publishers, 1993), 35.

4. Devereux, The New Famines, 7.

5. Devereux, Theories of Famine, 137.

6. Andrew Natsios identifies “profound political implications” that resulted from the 1990s famine, particularly in the area of public support for the DPRK government. The North Korean state took measures during the famine years, and subsequent years of ongoing difficulty. These measures can be seen across the period from the famine to the present in what Natsios refers to as the “three shocks.” The first shock was at the peak of the famine in 1996; the second occurred after the July 2002 economic reforms in agricultural, food, and industrial sectors; and the third shock occurred in November of 2009 with the currency reforms and ongoing food insecurity in the country. An excellent analysis of these shocks can be read in Andrew S. Natsios, “North Korea’s Chronic Food Problem,” in Troubled Transition: North Korea’s Politics, Economy, and External Relations, ed. Choe Sang-Hun, Gi-Wook Shin, and David Straub. (Stanford, CA: Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center, Shorenstein APARC, Stanford University, 2013), 120–30.

7. Mamadou Baro and Tara F. Deubel, “Persistent Hunger: Perspectives on Vulnerability, Famine, and Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Annual Review of Anthropology 35 (2006): 521–38.

8. Susan George, How the Other Half Dies: The Real Reasons for World Hunger (Harmondworth, Middlesex, UK: Penguin, 1976).

9. The term Konanŭi haenggun can also be translated as the Arduous March.

10. Alex de Waal, Famine That Kills: Darfur, Sudan, 1984–1985 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989).

11. Frank Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62 (London: Bloomsbury, 2010).

12. Jean-Luc Nancy, Listening, trans. Charlotte Mandell (New York: Fordham University Press, 2007), 10.

1. The Busy Years

1. Andrew S. Natsios, “North Korea’s Chronic Food Problem,” in Troubled Transition: North Korea’s Politics, Economy and External Relations, ed. Choe Sang-Hun, Gi-Wook Shin, and David Straub, 117–38 (Stanford, CA: Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center, Stanford University), 118.

2. Ibid., 118–19.

3. Daniel Schwekendiek, “Regional Variations in Living Conditions During the North Korean Food Crisis of the 1990s,” Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, May 25, 2009.

4. Daniel Schwekendiek, “A Meta-Analysis of North Koreans Migrating to China and South Korea,” in Korea: Politics, Economy, Society, ed. R. Frank, J. Hoare, P. Koellner, S. Pares, 247–70 (Leiden: Brill, 2011).

5. The following chronology is excellently illustrated in table form in Schwekendiek, “Regional Variations,” 3.

6. In descriptions of class distinctions, the term “hostile class” is often used in human rights reports. Kay Seok, “North Korea’s Transformation: Famine, Aid and Markets,” in Review of North Korea Economy, April 16, 2008, available at Human Rights Watch website, http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/04/14/north-korea-s-transformation-famine-aid-and-markets; Human Rights Watch, “Denied Status, Denied Education: Children of North Korean Women in China,” Human Rights Watch, April 2008, http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2008/04/11/denied-status-denied-education; Human Rights Watch, “North Korea: Harsher Policies against Border-Crossers,” Human Rights Watch, March 5, 2007, http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2007/03/05/north-korea-harsher-policies-against-border-crossers; and Human Rights Watch, “The Invisible Exodus: North Koreans in the People’s Republic of China,” Human Rights Watch, November 19, 2002, http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/11/19/invisible-exodus-0. See also, Amnesty International, “Democratic People’s Republic of Korea: Persecuting the Starving: The Plight of North Koreans Fleeing to China,” Amnesty International, December 15, 2000, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA24/003/2000/en; and Amnesty International, “Starved of Rights: Human Rights and the Food Crisis in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea),” Amnesty International, January 17, 2004, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA24/003/2004/en. In academic materials, see Kong Dan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, Through the Looking Glass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000); and Stephen Haggard and Marcus Noland, Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid and Reform (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007). In oral accounts, many North Koreans used expressions like hwan kyongi an choŭn saramdŭl (people of bad “environment” or background).

7. Schwekendiek, “Regional Variations.”

8. Ibid., 9.

9. Prahar, Peter A., “North Korea: Illicit Activity Funding the Regime.” Statement Before the Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information, and International Security, Senate Homeland Security and Government Affairs Committee, April 25, 2006, hsgac.senate.gov/public/_files/042506Prahar.pdf, p. 41. For more contemporary research on North Korea’s illicit trade, see the 2014 report for Human Rights in North Korea by Sheena Chestnut Greitens, “Illicit: North Korea’s Evolving Operations to Earn Hard Currency.” Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, 2014, http://www.hrnk.org/uploads/pdfs/SCG-FINAL-FINAL.pdf.

10. Robert Dirks, “Social Responses During Severe Food Shortages and Famine [and Comments and Reply],” Current Anthropology 21, no. 1 (February 1980): 27.

11. Quoted in Oh and Hassig, Through the Looking Glass.

12. See, for example, the website http://www.uriminzokkiri.com/, which appears in Korean and English, offering extended texts by and about the Kim family and the rescue of the Korean people.

13. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 51.

14. Seok, “North Korea’s Transformation”; and Human Rights Watch, “Denied Status, Denied Education.”

15. Oh and Hassig, Through the Looking Glass, 32. The term “Red Banner Sprit,” or “the Red Flag” (Pulkŭnki Chaeng Chi’wi Undong), first appeared in an editorial in the Rodong Shinmun on January 9, 1996. Further details are available in Korean at http://www.kcna.co.jp/calendar/2005/11/11–18/2005-1118-004.html, and at https://www.dailynk.com/korean/read.php?cataId=nk00700&num=7828.

16. Good Friends Centre for Peace, Human Rights and Refugees, “Human Rights in North Korea and the Food Crisis: A Comprehensive Report on North Korean Human Rights Issues,” March 2000, p. 22, www.goodfriends.or.kr/eng/data/NKHR2004-final.doc.

17. Jasper Becker, Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 29.

18. Richard Seaton, Hunger in Groups: An Arctic Experiment (Chicago: Quartermaster Food and Container Institute, U.S. Army, 1962), 90, http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0284922.

19. See Alex Argenti-Pillen, “The Discourse on Trauma in Non-Western Cultural Contexts: Contributions of an Ethnographic Method,” in International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma, ed. A. Shalev, R. Yehuda, and M. D. McFarlane (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), 96.

20. Arjun Appadurai, Fear of Small Numbers: An Essay on the Geography of Anger (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006); and Vigdis Broch-Due, ed. Violence and Belonging: The Quest for Identity in Post-Colonial Africa (New York: Routledge, 2004).

21. Alexander de Waal, Famine Crimes: Politics and the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 215.

22. David Turton, “Response to Drought: The Mursi of Southwestern Ethiopia,” Disasters 1, no. 4 (1997): 284. doi:10.1111/j.1467–7717.1977.tb00047.x.

23. Klaus Mühlhahn, “Hunger, Starvation and State Violence in the PRC, 1949–1979,” Unpublished paper presented at the Hunger, Nutrition and Systems of Rationing Under State Socialism (1917–2006) conference, Institute for East Asian Studies, Sinology University of Vienna, February 23, 2008.

24. Viktor E. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York: Washington Square Press Pocket Books, 1963), 14.

25. Judith Herman, Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence from Domestic Violence to Political Terror (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 77.

26. The psychological tendency to align oneself with the oppressor has been noted in various studies on domestic and political violence, of which Judith Herman’s 1997 book Trauma and Recovery is perhaps the best known.

27. János Kornai, The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 56.

28. Andrei Lankov, “The Natural Death of North Korean Stalinism,” Asia Policy, no. 1 (January 2006): 111.

29. Ibid.

2. Cohesion and Disintegration

1. Suk-young Kim, Illusive Utopia: Theater, Film, and Everyday Performance in North Korea (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010).

2. Hy-Sang Lee, “Supply and Demand for Grains in North Korea: A Historical Movement Model for 1966–1993,” Korea and World Affairs 18, no. 3 (1994): 551; and Marcus Noland, Sherman Robinson, and Tao Wang “Famine in North Korea: Causes and Cures” Economic Development and Cultural Change 49, no. 4 (July 2001): 743.

3. Michael Schloms, North Korea and the Timeless Dilemma of Aid: A Study of Humanitarian Action in Famines (Berlin: Lit Verlag Münster, 2004), 96.

4. Monique Macias, “In North Korea, China’s Tiananmen Square Protests Stirred Hope for Change,” Guardian, June 4, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/04/north-korea-china-tiananmen-square-protests.

5. Daily NK Special Report Team, “Anti-Regime Activities Inside North Korea Revealed for the First Time,” DailyNK, January 26, 2005, http://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?num=17&cataId=nk00100.

6. So Yeol Kim, “Remembering the Coup d’Etat in 1996 [Prospects for North Korean Change] Part 2,” Daily NK, February 5, 2011, http://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?cataId=nk02100&num=7321;Macias, “In North Korea”; and Young Jin Kim, “Mass Protest Incident in Hoiryeong,” Daily NK, November 9, 2006, http://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?num=1290&cataId=nk01500.

7. Charles Armstrong, “Familism, Socialism and Political Religion in North Korea,” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 6, no. 3 (December 2005): 384.

8. Kim Illusive Utopia.

9. Ibid.

10. Kong Dan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, Through the Looking Glass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000).

11. Stephen Haggard and Marcus Noland, Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid and Reform (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).

12. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Hunger as a Factor in Human Affairs, ed. and trans. Elena P. Sorokin (Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1975), 149. Sorokin’s study was written during the 1921–22 Povolzhye famine, while Sorokin suffered famine himself. It was prepared for publication in Leningrad in 1922 but was censored and the author banished from the USSR. His wife, Elena P. Sorokin, edited and translated the text, which was published by the University Presses of Florida in 1975.

13. Andrew S. Natsios, “North Korea’s Chronic Food Problem,” in Troubled Transition: North Korea’s Politics, Economy, and External Relations, ed. Choe Sang-Hun, Gi-Wook Shin, and David Straub, 117–38 (Stanford: Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center, Stanford University, 2013), 129.

14. Louis Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays Part Two. Trans. from the French by Ben Brewster (New York: Monthly Review Press 1971), 166; emphasis added, 165, 169.

15. Kim, Illusive Utopia.

16. Ibid.

17. Tzvetan Todorov, Hope and Memory: Reflections on the Twentieth Century. Trans. David Bellos (London: Atlantic Books, 2003).

18. Oh and Hassig, Through the Looking Glass, 33.

19. Referenced in ibid.

20. Amartya Sen and Jean Drèze, The Amartya Sen & Jean Drèze Omnibus: (comprising) Poverty and Famines; Hunger and Public Action; and India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 171; and Stephen Devereux, ed., The New Famines: Why Famines Persist in an Era of Globalization, Routledge Studies in Development Economics (New York: Routledge, 2007), 3.

21. AsiaPress International, Rimjin-gang: News by North Korean Journalists from Inside North Korea, part 3, “The Kim Jong-il Regime and the People” (Osaka, Japan: AsiaPress 2010), 294.

22. Claude Lévi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques, trans. John Weightman and Doreen Weightman (New York: Penguin, 1955).

23. Armstrong, “Familism, Socialism and Political Religion,” 388.

24. Hyok Kang, This Is Paradise! With Philippe Grangereau. Trans. from the French by Shaun Whiteside (London: Little, Brown, 2005), 89.

25. Ibid., 91.

26. Sorokin, Hunger as a Factor in Human Affairs, 232.

27. There have been efforts to link women’s mortality advantage with prostitution, but because this coping strategy places women at an increased risk of death from violence and disease, the connections between mortality advantage and this coping strategy are likely to be weak. It is as yet unclear whether more women survived the North Korean famine than men; there are indicators from other famines that women’s greater knowledge of famine foods and cooking responsibilities, which gives them more access to food, results in greater likelihood of survival. The dispersal of information concerning famine foods was universal in North Korea and not given to men or women only. While research from other famines shows that women are more likely to seek help from relief agencies and hospitals, and relief agencies are likely to classify women and children as more vulnerable and thus distribute relief accordingly, in the case of North Korea where engagement with relief agencies was fully regulated, it is not possible to predict if these characteristics were the same. See Kate Macintyre, “Female Mortality Advantage,” in Famine Demography: Perspectives from the Past and Present, ed. Tim Dyson and Cormac O Gráda, 240–59 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

28. Chol-Hwan Kang with Pieire Rigoulot, The Aquariums of Pyongyang: Ten Years in a North Korean Gulag, trans. Yair Reiner (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 142.

29. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death Without Weeping: The Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.

30. Václav Havel, “The Power of the Powerless,” in Open Letters: Selected Writings: 1965–1990, trans. and ed. Paul Wilson (New York: Knopf, 1991), 42.

3. The Life of Words

1. See John L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962).

2. Information about the Red Banner Sprit or the Red Flag Movement, pulgŭn ki chaengch’ wi undong, can be found in a Rodong Shinmun editorial published on November 18, 1995. Further details are available in Korean at http://www.kcna.co.jp/calendar/2005/11/11–18/2005-1118-004.html, and at https://www.dailynk.com/korean/read.php?cataId=nk00700&num=7828, both last accessed on September 9, 2011.

3. Robert Dirks, “Social Responses During Severe Food Shortages and Famine [and Comments and Reply],” in Current Anthropology 21, no. 1 (February 1980): 21–44.

4. Richard Seaton, Hunger in Groups: An Arctic Experiment (Chicago: Quartermaster Food and Container Institute, U.S. Army, 1962), 90.

5. See Austin, How to Do Things with Words; John Searle, “Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969); Judith Butler, Giving an Account of Oneself (Assen, Neth.: Royal Van Gorcum, 2003); and Shoshana Felman, The Literary Speech Act: Don Juan with J. L. Austin, or Seduction in Two Languages, trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 6.

6. Charles Armstrong, The Koreas (New York: Routledge, 2007), 78.

7. V. N. Vološinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, trans. Ladislav Matejka and I. R. Titunik (New York: Seminar Press, 1973); and Lev S. Vygotsky, Thought and Language, rev. and exp. ed., with a new introduction by Alex Kozulin, ed. and trans. Eugenia Hanfmann, Gertrude Vakar, and Alex Kozulin (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2012).

8. Vološinov was, among other outstanding intellectuals, a victim of the Stalinist purges of the 1930s, at which time he and his work were consigned to oblivion. His own fate remains a mystery. This confluence of his intellectual work and the silencing of both him and the work are not without relation.

9. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 1973); Tzvetan Todorov, Voices from the Gulag: Life and Death in Communist Bulgaria, trans. Robert Zaretsky (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1999); and Tzvetan Todorov, Hope and Memory: Reflections on the Twentieth Century, trans. David Bellos (London: Atlantic Books, 2003).

10. Elinor Ochs, “Narrative Lessons,” in A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology, ed. A. Duranti, 269–89 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 271.

11. Alex de Waal, Famine That Kills: Darfur, Sudan, 1984–1985 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989).

12. James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).

13. Caroline Humphrey, “Remembering an ‘Enemy’: The Boyd Khan in Twentieth-Century Mongolia,” in Memory, History and Opposition Under State Socialism, ed. Rubie S. Watson, 24–27 (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1994).

14. Robert Desjarlais, Leon Eisenberg, Byron Good, and Arthur Kleinman, World Mental Health: Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 175; and J. H. Jenkins, “The Medical Anthropology of Political Violence: A Cultural and Feminist Agenda,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 12, no. 1 (1998): 122–31, doi:10.1525/maq.1998.12.1.122.

15. Mary Douglas, Natural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmology (New York: Pantheon Books, 1982); and Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (Boston: Ark Paperbacks, 1985).

16. Sigmund Freud, Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious, trans. and ed. James Strachey, with a biographical introduction by Peter Gay (New York: Norton, 1960), 11, 49, 156, 208.

17. Alex Argenti-Pillen, “The Global Flow of Knowledge on War Trauma: The Role of the ‘Cinnamon Garden Culture’ in Sri Lanka,” in Negotiating Local Knowledge: Power and Identity in Development, ed. Johan Pottier, Alan Bicker, and Paul Stillitoe, 189–214 (London: Pluto Press, 2003); and Alex Argenti-Pillen, Masking Terror: How Women Contain Violence in Southern Sri Lanka (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003).

18. Douglas, Purity and Danger.

19. Marcelo M. Suarez-Orozco, “Speaking of the Unspeakable: Toward a Psychosocial Understanding of Responses to Terror,” Ethos 18, no. 3 (September 1990): 353–83.

20. Václav Havel, “The Power of the Powerless,” in Open Letters: Selected Writings: 1965–1990, trans. and ed. Paul Wilson (New York: Knopf, 1991), 25–26.

21. Ibid., 31.

22. Shin-Wha Lee, “International Engagement in North Korea’s Humanitarian Crisis: The Role of State and Non-State Actors,” East Asia: An International Quarterly 20, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 82.

23. Todorov, Hope and Memory; and Havel, Power of the Powerless.

24. Kong Dan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, Through the Looking Glass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000).

25. Suarez-Orozco, “Speaking of the Unspeakable,” 367.

26. Juan Carlos Kusnetzoff, quoted in ibid.

27. See, for instance, how this is explained in the North Korean encyclopedia Chosŏn Ensik’lip’edia (Pyongyang, DPRK: Paekhwasachŏn Publishing House, 1995), 179–81.

28. See, for example, de Waal, Famine That Kills; Amartya Sen and Jean Drèze, The Amartya Sen & Jean Drèze Omnibus: (comprising) Poverty and Famines; Hunger and Public Action; and India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999; Margaret Kelleher, The Feminization of Famine: Expressions of the Inexpressible? (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997); and Rae Yang, Spider Eaters: A Memoir (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

29. Alex Argenti-Pillen, “The Discourse on Trauma in Non-Western Cultural Contexts: Contributions of an Ethnographic Method,” in International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma, ed. A. Shalev, R. Yehuda, and M. D. McFarlane, 87–102 (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), 88–89, 92, 93.

30. Todorov, Hope and Memory, 115.

31. Yang, Spider Eaters, 59.

32. Oh and Hassig, Through the Looking Glass, 32.

33. Personal interview with Dr. Vollertsen, Seoul, South Korea, August 2006.

34. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death Without Weeping: Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 174.

4. Life Leaves Death Behind

1. After Todorov: “But facts don’t come with their meaning attached, and it is the meaning that interests me.” Tzvetan Todorov, Hope and Memory: Reflections on the Twentieth Century, trans. David Bellos (London: Atlantic Books, 2003), 1.

2. See Elinor Ochs, “Narrative Lessons,” in A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology, ed. A. Duranti, 269–89 (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004).

3. Rubie S. Watson, ed. Memory, History and Opposition Under State Socialism (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1994).

4. For further discussion on socialism’s relationship to science, see Todorov, Hope and Memory, 32–33.

5. Ibid., 44; and Watson, Memory, History and Opposition.

6. Shin-Wha Lee, “International Engagement in North Korea’s Humanitarian Crisis: The Role of State and Non-State Actors,” East Asia: An International Quarterly 20, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 74–93.

7. Don Oberdorfer, The Two Koreas (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997), 20.

8. Alessandro Triulzi, “The Past as Contested Terrain: Commemorating Newsites of Memory in War Torn Ethiopia,” in Violence, Political Culture and Development in Africa, ed. Preben Kaarsholm, 122–138 (London: James Currey, 2006), 123.

9. Jerome Bruner, “Life as a Narrative,” Social Research 54, no. 1 (1987): 15.

10. X. Zhang, Grass Soup, trans. Martha Avery (London: Secker & Warburg, 1994).

11. “N Korea ‘Develops Special Noodle,’” BBC News, August 23, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7578231.stm.

12. James Burnham, The Managerial Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1960), 222–26.

13. János Kornai, The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 231.

14. Korea Institute for National Unification (KINU), White Paper on Human Rights in North Korea, September 25, 2008, http://www.kinu.or.kr/eng/pub/pub_04_01.jsp?bid=DATA04&page=1&num=26&mode=view&category=2672; and KINU, White Paper on Human Rights in North Korea, December 31, 2006, http://www.kinu.or.kr/eng/pub/pub_04_01.jsp?bid=DATA04&page=1&num=22&mode=view&category=2672.

15. Stephen Haggard and Marcus Noland, “Hunger and Human Rights: the Politics of Famine in North Korea” (Washington, DC: U.S. Committee for Human Rights in North Korea, 2005), http://hrnk.org/uploads/pdfs/Hunger_and_Human_Rights.pdf.

16. Vigdis Broch-Due, ed. Violence and Belonging: The Quest for Identity in Post-Colonial Africa (New York: Routledge, 2004), 24.

17. Ibid., 17.

18. Edward Peters, Torture (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), 171.

19. Maria B. Olujic, “Embodiment of Terror: Gendered Violence in Peacetime and Wartime in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 12, no. 1 (March 1998): 46.

20. Robert Desjarlais, Leon Eisenberg, Byron Good, and Arthur Kleinman, World Mental Health: Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Death Without Weeping: Violence of Everyday Life in Brazil (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); and Marcelo M. Suarez-Orozco, “Speaking of the Unspeakable: Toward a Psychosocial Understanding of Responses to Terror,” Ethos 18, no. 3 (September 1990): 353–83.

21. Olujic, “Embodiment of Terror,” 31.

22. Alex de Waal, “Whose Emergency Is It Anyway? Dreams, Tragedies and Traumas in the Humanitarian Encounter,” Centre for Research Architecture, December 2008, http://roundtable.kein.org/node/1078.

23. Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Philippe Bourgois, eds., Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004); Michel Foucault, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984, vol. 3, ed. James E. Faubion, trans. Robert Hurley and others. (London: Penguin, 1994), 385.

24. Broch-Due, Violence and Belonging, 24; and Foucault, Power, 402–3, 330.

25. Caroline Nordstrom and JoAnn Martin, The Paths to Domination, Resistance and Terror (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 8.

26. Carole Nagengast, “Violence, Terror, and the Crisis of the State,” in Annual Review of Anthropology 23 (1994): 111.

5. Breaking Points

1. Republic of Korea Ministry of Unification, Data & Statistics, “Major Statistics in Inter-Korean Relations,” http://eng.unikorea.go.kr/index.do?menuCd=DOM_000000204003000000.

2. Even if we take the highest estimates of North Korean defectors in China as 300,000 and defectors in South Korea, Japan, and abroad as about 35,000, the percentage of North Koreans who leave home is still very tiny compared to the number who have stayed.

3. For details concerning defection and punishment, see “Report on the Detailed Findings of the Commission of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea” Human Rights Council, Twenty-fifth session, Agenda item 4, “Human Rights Situations that Require the Council’s Attention,” February 7, 2014, p. 107, para. 381–84, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/CoIDPRK/Pages/ReportoftheCommissionofInquiryDPRK.aspx; for information on shoot to kill policy, see ibid., p. 112, para. 402.

4. The Sino-DPRK border is guarded by the Korean People’s Army and the State Security Department on the DPRK side, and by the Ministry of People’s Security on the Chinese side.

5. Kong Dan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, Through the Looking Glass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000), 37.

6. Stephen Jones, “Old Ghosts and New Chains: Ethnicity and Memory in the Georgian Republic,” in Memory, History and Opposition Under State Socialism, ed. Rubie S. Watson, 149–65 (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1994), 153–56.

7. Michel Foucault, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984, vol. 3, ed. James E. Faubion, trans. Robert Hurley and others (London: Penguin, 1994), 449.

8. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, Exodus to North Korea: Shadows from Japan’s Cold War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007).

9. As observed in Sri Lanka by Argenti-Pillen. See Alex Argenti-Pillen, “The Discourse on Trauma in Non-Western Cultural Contexts: Contributions of an Ethnographic Method,” in International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma, ed. A. Shalev, R. Yehuda, M. D. McFarlane, 87–102 (New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 2000), 92.

10. S. H. Bak and C. S. Bak, Kulmchulimpota musŏun kŏsŭn hŭimangŭl ilhŏpŏlinŭn ilipnita [More frightening than starvation is the loss of hope] (Seoul: Sidae chŏngsin, 2000).

11. Ibid., 29–30.

12. Ibid., 32–33.

13. Ibid., 34–35.

14. See, for example, Viktor E. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York: Washington Square Press Pocket Books, 1963).

15. Bak and Bak, More Frightening than Starvation, 38.

16. Ibid., 141.

6. The New Division

1. Good Friends Centre for Peace, Human Rights and Refugees, “Human Rights in North Korea and the Food Crisis: A Comprehensive Report on North Korean Human Rights Issues,” March 2004, 23, http://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-peoples-republic-korea/human-rights-north-korea-and-food-crisis-comprehensive. See also Good Friends: Centre for Peace, Human Rights and Refugees Choŭn Pŏttŭl, http://goodfriends.co.kr/ (Korean Site), or http://goodfriends.or.kr/eng/ (English site).

2. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, Exodus to North Korea: Shadows from Japan’s Cold War (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), 231.

3. Ibid.

4. Fifty pyeong is equal to approximately 165 square meters.

5. Defected North Koreans in China, South Korea, and elsewhere sometimes opt to purchase Chinese mobile phones and arrange for these to be smuggled to family in border hometowns. These phones can then be used to contact family inside North Korea using Chinese mobile telecommunications that leak over the Sino-DPRK border.

6. James Foley, Korea’s Divided Families: Fifty Years of Separation (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003).

7. The Korean War Armistice was signed by the United Nations Command represented by U.S. army lieutenant general William Harrison Jr., the North Korean People’s Army represented by North Korean general Nam-Il, and the Chinese People’s Volunteer Army. The Republic of Korea has not signed the armistice.

8. Women and children are given medical, psychiatric, and education support at Hanawon Resettlement Center in Anseong, Gyeonggi Province, while North Korean men receive the same support through the Hwachon-gun, Gangwon Province resettlement center.

9. The Constitution of the Republic of Korea states in chapter 1, article 3 that the territory of the ROK is the Korean peninsula and its adjacent islands, http://korea.assembly.go.kr/res/low_01_read.jsp.

10. Although, for example, the South Korean National Security Act, article 8, identifies correspondence with antistate groups or those under their control a crime punishable up to ten years in prison, defectors in South Korea maintain reasonably regular contact with family by calling them on Chinese mobile phones smuggled into the North. Mobile reception in the North leaks across the Sino-Korean border, making these calls dangerous but possible.

11. Kum-Sok No with J. Roger Osterholm, A MiG-15 to Freedom: Memoir of the Wartime North Korean Defector Who First Delivered the Secret Fighter Jet to the Americans in 1953 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1996).

12. Hyun Hee Kim, The Tears of My Soul: The True Story of a North Korean Spy (New York: William Morrow, 1993).

13. In 1962 the South Korean government introduced the “Special law on the protection of defectors from the North.” For more details, see Andrei Lankov, North of the DMZ: Everyday Life in North Korea (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2007), 292.

14. J. J. Suh, “North Korean Defectors: Their Adaptation and Resettlement,” in East Asian Review 14, no. 3 (2002): 67–86; and Crisis International, “Strangers at Home,” Asia Report no. 208 (July 14, 2011), http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/north-east-asia/north-korea/208-strangers-at-home-north-koreans-in-the-south.aspx.

15. In the last decade an increasing number of memoirs by North Koreans have been published in South Korea and abroad. A large number of these are by prison camp escapees. Consider the following: An Myŏng-Chol, Wanchŏn t’ongche kuyŏk [Complete control zone] (Shidae Chongshin: South Korea, Seoul, 2007); Chul-Hwan Kang and Kim Yong-sam, A! Yotŏkk: Pukhan Auspich chŏng ch’i su suyungso kŭ chiok eso salana onn saram tŭl ŭi chŭng on [Ah! Yodok: The Testimony of North Korea’s Auschwitz Survivors] (Chosun Chulpan Marketing, 2006); Chol-Hwan Kang with Pieire Rigoulot, The Aquariums of Pyongyang: Ten Years in a North Korean Gulag, trans. Yair Reiner (New York: Basic Books, 2001); Kim Yong with Kim Suk-Young, The Long Road Home: Testimony of a North Korean Camp Survivor (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009); Kim Young Sun, Nanŭn Sŏng Hye Rim ui ch’ingu yŏtta [I was a friend of Song Hye Rim] (Seoul: Tong-shin, 2008); and Dong-Hyuck Shin, Chŏngchi’ pŏp suyongso wanchŏn t’ongche kuyŏk sesange pakŭlo naoda [Complete control political prison camp: Out into the world] (Seoul: Pukhan inkwonchongbŏ senttŏ, 2007).

16. Crisis International, “Strangers at Home.”

17. Stephen Haggard and Marcus Noland, Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid and Reform (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).

18. North Koreans who defect to South Korea are increasingly moving on to other countries for permanent settlement, such as Japan, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States. See Stephen Haggard and Marcus Noland, “The Winter of Their Discontent: Pyongyang Attacks the Market,” Policy Briefs PB10-1, Peterson Institute for International Economics (2010); and Marcus Noland, and Stephen Haggard, “Political Attitudes Under Repression: Evidence from North Korean Refugees,” MPRA Paper 21713, University Library of Munich, Germany (2010).

Conclusion

1. Woo Taek Jeon, Chang Hyung Hong, Chang Ho Lee, Dong Kee Kim, Mooyoung Han, and Sung Kil Min, “Correlation Between Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among North Korean Defectors in South Korea,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 18, no. 2 (2005): 151.

2. Cathy Caruth, Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Margaret Kelleher, The Feminization of Famine: Expressions of the Inexpressible? (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997); Dominic LaCapra, Writing History, Writing Trauma (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); and Shoshana Felman and Dori Laub, MD. Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History (New York: Routledge, 1992).

3. Robert Desjarlais, Leon Eisenberg, Byron Good, and Arthur Kleinman, World Mental Health: Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 175; and J. H. Jenkins, “The Medical Anthropology of Political Violence: A Cultural and Feminist Agenda,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 12, no. 1 (1998): 187.

4. Judith Butler, Giving an Account of Oneself (Assen, Neth.: Royal Van Gorcum 2003), 12, 38.

5. Adriana Cavarero, quoted in ibid., 26.

6. See Jean-Luc Nancy, Listening, trans. Charlotte Mandell (New York: Fordham University Press, 2007), 10.

7. Gillian Whitlock, Soft Weapons: Autobiography in Transit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

8. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge: And the Discourse on Language (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 216.

9. Just as torture does, language too can make and unmake the world. See Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

10. Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, 216.

11. Suk-young Kim, Illusive Utopia Theater, Film, and Everyday Performance in North Korea (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010); Kong Dan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, Through the Looking Glass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000); and Sonia Ryang, Reading North Korea: An Ethnological Inquiry (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012).

12. Felman Shoshana, The Literary Speech Act: Don Juan with J. L. Austin, or Seduction in Two Languages, trans. Catherine Porter (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 85.

13. Ibid.

14. Václav Havel, “Power of the Powerless Havel,” in Open Letters: Selected Writings: 1965–1990, trans. and ed. Paul Wilson (New York: Knopf, 1991).

15. Bruner Jerome, “Life as a Narrative,” Social Research 54, no. 1 (1987): 15.

16. Judith Herman, Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence from Domestic Violence to Political Terror (New York: Basic Books, 1997).

17. V. N. Vološinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, trans. Ladislav Matejka and I. R. Titunik (New York: Seminar Press, 1973).

18. Sue Lautze, “The Famine in North Korea: Humanitarian Responses in Communist Nations,” Feinstein International Famine Center Working Paper, School of Nutrition Science and Policy (Medford, MA: Tufts University, June 1997), 6, http://repository.forcedmigration.org/show_metadata.jsp?pid=fmo:1744.

19. Jane Mansbridge, “The Making of Oppositional Consciousness,” in Oppositional Consciousness: The Subjective Roots of Social Protest, ed. Jane Mansbridge and Aldon Morris, 1–19 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); see also Herman, Trauma and Recovery.

20. János Kornai, The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 427.

21. Herman, Trauma and Recovery.

22. Nanci Adler, Keeping Faith with the Party: Communist Believers Return from the Gulag (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2012), 23.

23. For example, see Mark E. Manyin, “Kim Jong-il’s Death: Implications for North Korea’s Stability and U.S. Policy,” Congressional Research Report, January 11, 2012, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R42126.pdf; and Victor Cha and Ellen Kim, “U.S.–Korea Relations: Death of Kim Jong-Il,” Comparative Connections, January 2012, http://csis.org/files/publication/1103qus_korea.pdf.

Appendix

1. Stephen Devereux, ed., The New Famines: Why Famines Persist in an Era of Globalization, Routledge Studies in Development Economics (New York: Routledge, 2007); and Stephen Devereux, Theories of Famine: From Malthus to Sen (Hemel Hempstead, UK: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993).

2. Devereux, Famine Theory, 137.

3. Devereux, The New Famines, 4, 7.

4. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlements and Deprivation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981).

5. Victor Cha, “DPRK Briefing Book: North Korea’s Economic Reforms and Security Intentions,” testimony of Dr. Victor D. Cha for the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (March 2, 2004), 4, http://nautilus.org/publications/books/dprkbb/transition/dprk-briefing-book-north-koreas-economic-reforms-and-security-intentions/#axzz32Y2vr5vX.

6. See Devereux, Famine Theory.

7. Marcus Noland, Sherman Robinson, and Tao Wang, “Famine in North Korea: Causes and Cures,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 49, no. 4 (July 2001): 741–67.

8. Stephen Haggard and Markus Noland, Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid, and Reform (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 73–76.

9. For a discussion of entitlements, see Sen, Poverty and Famines; for relations of power, see Susan George, How the Other Half Dies: The Real Reasons for World Hunger (Harmondworth, Middlesex, UK: Penguin, 1976).

10. James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 5.

11. Hy-Sang Lee, “Supply and Demand for Grains in North Korea: A Historical Movement Model for 1966–1993,” Korea and World Affairs 18, no. 3 (1994): 551.

12. Grace Lee, “The Political Philosophy of Juche,” Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs 3, no. 1 (2003): 108.

13. Don Oberdorfer, The Two Koreas (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997), 20.

14. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea; and Kong Dan Oh and Ralph C. Hassig, Through the Looking Glass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2000), 52.

15. Peter Gey, “North Korea: Soviet-Style Reform and the Erosion of the State Economy” Friedrich Ebert Stiftung Information Series, Seoul in Dialogue + Cooperation (2004), 34, http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/singapur/04601/d+c2004-1.pdf.

16. For more information on wages and pricing in North Korea, see Andrei Lankov, “How Much Money Do North Koreans Make? Thanks to Black Market, Official Salaries Provide Very Poor Barometer,” March 25, 2014, NK News.org, http://www.nknews.org/2014/03/how-much-money-do-north-koreans-make/.

17. Gey, “North Korea: Soviet-Style Reform,” 34.

18. Michael Schloms, North Korea and the Timeless Dilemma of Aid: A Study of Humanitarian Action in Famines (Berlin: Lit Verlag Münster, 2004), 95.

19. Nicholas Eberstadt, “The Shakedown State,” American Enterprise Institute, October 31, 2003, http://nautilus.org/publications/books/dprkbb/economy/dprk-briefing-book-policy-area-economy/#axzz32Y2vr5vX.

20. Kimberley Ann Elliot, “The Role of Economic Leverage in Negotiations with North Korea,” Institute for International Economics, Nautilus Institute, April 1, 2003, http://nautilus.org/publications/books/dprkbb/sanctions/dprk-briefing-book-the-role-of-economic-leverage-in-negotiations-with-north-korea/#axzz32Y2vr5vX.

21. Schloms, North Korea and the Timeless Dilemma of Aid, 98.

22. Gey, “North Korea: Soviet-Style Reform,” 33.

23. Schloms, North Korea and the Timeless Dilemma of Aid, 106.

24. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 63.

25. Liana Sun Wyler, and Dick K. Nanto, “North Korean Crime-for-Profit Activities,” CRS Report for Congress, August 25, 2008, 7, http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/110378.pdf.

26. Peter Prahar, “North Korea: Illicit Activity Funding the Regime,” statement before the Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information, and International Security, Senate Homeland Security and Government Affairs Committee, April 25, 2006, hsgac.senate.gov/public/_files/042506Prahar.pdf.

27. Wyler and Nanto, “North Korean Crime-for-Profit Activities,” 7.

28. “N Korea ‘Develops Special Noodle,’” BBC News, August 23, 2008, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7578231.stm.

29. James Burnham, The Managerial Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1960), 222–26.

30. János Kornai, The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), 231.

31. Ibid., 237.

32. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 57.

33. Cha, “North Korea’s Economic Reforms and Security Intentions.”

34. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 57.

35. Andrew S. Natsios, “North Korea’s Chronic Food Problem,” in Troubled Transition: North Korea’s Politics, Economy, and External Relations, ed. Choe Sang-Hun, Gi-Wook Shin, and David Straub (Stanford, CA: Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center, Shorenstein APARC, Stanford University, 2013), 122.

36. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 3.

37. Dong-eon Hwang, “Agricultural Reforms in North Korea, and Inter-Korean Cooperation,” East Asian Review 4, no. 3 (August 1997): 75.

38. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 52, 53.

39. Noland, Robinson, and Wang “Famine in North Korea,” 754, 747.

40. Gey, “North Korea: Soviet-Style Reform,” 34.

41. Sue Lautze, “The Famine in North Korea: Humanitarian Responses in Communist Nations,” Feinstein International Famine Center, Working Paper, School of Nutrition Science and Policy (Medford, MA: Tufts University, June 1997), dl.tufts.edu/file_assets/tufts:UA197.019.019.00002, p. 10.

42. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 59.

43. Ibid., 53.

44. Ibid., 51–52.

45. Ibid., 55.

46. Shin-Wha Lee, “International Engagement in North Korea’s Humanitarian Crisis: The Role of State and Non-State Actors,” East Asia: An International Quarterly 20, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 76.

47. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 53.

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid., 56.

50. Quoted in ibid.

51. George, How the Other Half Dies, 206–13.

52. Lee, “International Engagement in North Korea’s Humanitarian Crisis,” 76.

53. Schloms, North Korea and the Timeless Dilemma of Aid, 104n21.

54. David Morton, “Steep Learning Curves in the DPRK,” in Humanitarian Diplomacy: Practitioners and Their Craft, ed. L. Minearl and H. Smith, 194–214 (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2007), 200.

55. Jon Bennett, “North Korea: The Politics of Food Aid,” Network paper no. 28, Overseas Development Institute, Relief and Rehabilitation Network, http://repository.forcedmigration.org/show_metadata.jsp?pid=fmo:3445.

56. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 206.

57. Hugo Slim, “Positioning Humanitarianism in War: Principles of Neutrality, Impartiality and Solidarity,” Centre for Development and Emergency Planning, Oxford Brookes University (Paper presented to the Aspects of Peacekeeping Conference Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, UK, January 22–24, 1997), http://repository.forcedmigration.org/show_metadata.jsp?pid=fmo:2232.

58. NK Briefs, “Lee Myung-bak Administration Sets the Lowest Record for Assistance to North Korea,” Institute for Far Eastern Studies, January 31, 2013, http://ifes.kyungnam.ac.kr/eng/FRM/FRM_0101V.aspx?code=FRM130131_0001; and Mark E. Manyin and Mary Beth D. Nikitin, “Foreign Assistance to North Korea” Congressional Research Service, R40095, 7–5700, April 2, 2014, fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40095.pdf.

59. WFP/UNICEF/ECHO reports quoted in Schloms, North Korea and the Timeless Dilemma of Aid, 112.

60. Lautze, “Famine in North Korea”; and Marcus Noland, Avoiding the Apocalypse: The Future of the Two Koreas (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 2000).

61. Amnesty International, “Starved of Rights: Human Rights and the Food Crisis in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea),” Amnesty International, January 17, 2004, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA24/003/2004/en; and Gordon L. Flake and Scott Snyder, eds. Paved with Good Intentions: The NGO Experience in North Korea. Mansfield Centre for Pacific Affairs (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003).

62. Flake and Snyder, Paved with Good Intentions.

63. Ibid.

64. Fiona Terry, “Feeding the Dictator,” Special Report, Guardian, August 6, 2001, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/aug/06/famine.comment.

65. Haggard and Noland, Famine in North Korea, 10.

66. Ibid., 13.

67. Meredith Woo-Cumings, “The Political Ecology of Famine: The North Korean Catastrophe and Its Lessons” (Asian Development Bank Institute, Research Paper 31, January 1, 2002), 27–29, http://www.adbi.org/research%20paper/2002/01/01/115.political.ecology/.

68. Johan Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda:Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

69. Bjørn Willum, “Eyes in the Sky: In Service of Humanity?” Imaging Notes USA, September/October 2000, www.willum.com/articles/imagingsept2000.

70. Ibid.

71. Noland, Avoiding the Apocalypse, 171–72; see also Woon-Keun Kim, “Recent Changes in North Korean Agricultural Policies and Projected Impacts on the Food Shortage,” East Asian Review 2, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 93–110; and Woon-Keun Kim, “The Agricultural Situation of North Korea,” Food & Fertilizer Technology Center, September 1, 1999, http://www.agnet.org/library.php?func=view&id=20110726131553.

72. Noland, Robinson, and Wang, “Famine in North Korea,” 754.

73. Schloms, North Korea and the Timeless Dilemma of Aid, 127.

74. Ibid., 113.

75. Daniel Schwekendiek, “Height and Weight Differences Between North and South Korea,” Journal of Biosocial Science 41, no. 1 (2009): 51.

76. Kim Jong-Il, quoted in Robert Weatherly and Jiyoung Song, “The Evolution of Human Rights Thinking in North Korea,” Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 24, no. 2: 272–96, 289–90.

77. New Focus International, “North Korea Orders All Privately Cultivated Crops to Be Cut Down” June 17, 2014, http://newfocusintl.com/north-korea-orders-privately-cultivated-crops-cut/; and New Focus International, “Exclusive: Now Even Party Cadres Must Take Part in the ‘Arduous March’,” April 27, 2014, http://newfocusintl.com/exclusive-party-cadres-arduous-march/.