1. James Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong (New York: Touchstone, 1995), 146, 148.
2. Jeffrey S. Passel, “The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U.S.,” Pew Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006, http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/61.pdf; Steven A. Camarota, “Immigrants at Mid-Decade: A Snapshot of America’s Foreign-Born Population in 2005,” Center for Immigration Studies, December 2005, www.cis.org/articles/2005/back1405.html.
3. Nolan Malone, Kaali Baluja, Joseph M. Costanzo, and Cynthia J. Davis, “The Foreign-Born Population, 2000,” Census 2000 brief issued December 2003, www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr34.pdf.
4. Jeffrey S. Passel and Robert Suro, “Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration 1992–2004,” Pew Hispanic Center, September 27, 2005, http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/53.pdf.
5. Immigration slowed in the 1920s, ’30s, and ’40s, but started to climb again, slowly, in the 1950s and ’60s, and more rapidly in the 1970s and ’80s. (Even though far fewer immigrants arrived in the 1920s than in previous decades, the numbers of immigrants arriving exceeded the numbers of foreign-born people who died, making 1930 the peak year.) The low point, percentage-wise, in foreign-born population was 1970, at 4.7 percent, or 9.6 million people. Numbers and percentage of the foreign born then rose, to 6.2 percent or 14.1 million people in 1980, and to 7.9 percent or 19.8 million people in 1990. See Campbell J. Gibson and Emily Lennon, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850–1990,” Population Division Working Paper No. 29, February 1999, www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html.
6. Arthur M. Schlesinger, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: Norton, 1998); Samuel P. Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004).
7. Quoted in Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 117.
8. U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of the Population, “Quick Facts: Race,” http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68176.htm.
9. “Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” United Nations, www.un.org/Overview/rights.html.
10. “Learn about the United States: Quick Civics Lesson,” United States Citizenship and Immigration Services, www.uscis.gov/graphics/citizenship/flashcards/M-638.pdf.
11. See Christian Joppke, “The Evolution of Alien Rights in the United States, Germany, and the European Union,” in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. T. Alexander Aleinikoff and Douglas Klusmeyer (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001), 36–62, esp. 38–44.
12. Ron Hayduk, Democracy for All: Restoring Immigrant Voting Rights in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2006), 3–4.
13. Ron Hayduk and Michele Wuker, “Immigrant Voting Rights Receive More Attention,” Migration Information Network, November 1, 2004, www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=265.
14. Hayduk, Democracy for All, 4.
15. Joaquín Avila, “Political Apartheid in California: Consequences of Excluding a Growing Non-Citizen Population,” UCLA Chicano Studies Research Center, Latino Policy and Issues Brief 9, December 2003, www.chicano.ucla.edu/press/siteart/LPIB_09Dec2003.pdf.
1. F. Froebel, J. Heinrichs, and O. Krey, The New International Division of Labour (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
2. In the 1980s dozens of states, from Connecticut to Florida to Oregon, established enterprise zones in economically distressed areas, offering businesses tax and other incentives to locate there. For some analyses of these efforts, see the bibliography by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, “Enterprise Zones: Case Studies and State Reports,” www.huduser.org/publications/polleg/ez_bib/ez_bib3.html.
3. Rakesh Kochhar, “Growth in the Foreign-Born Workforce and Employment of the Native Born,” Pew Hispanic Center, August 10, 2006, http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=69.
4. U.S. Census, “U.S. International Trade in Goods and Services,” April, 2006. www.census.gov/foreign-trade/Press-Release/2006pr/04/ftdpress.txt.
5. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employment Status of the Civilian Non-Institutional Population, 1940 to Date,” ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/special.requests/lf/aat1.txt or www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat1.pdf.
1. Steven Greenhouse and David Leonhardt, “Real Wages Fail to Match a Rise in Productivity,” New York Times, August 28, 2006.
2. The National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education found college costs increased sharply with respect to average income in the previous decade, so that in 2006 the cost of sending a child to college was over 30 percent of an average family income. See “Measuring Up 2006: The National Report Card on Higher Education,” September 7, 2006, http://measuringup.highereducation.org/. See also Christian E. Weller, “Drowning in Debt: America’s Middle Class Falls Deeper in Debt as Income Growth Slows and Costs Climb,” Center for American Progress, May 2006, www.americanprogress.org/kf/boomburden-web.pdf.
3. Robert Frank, “U.S. Led a Resurgence Last Year Among Millionaires Worldwide,” Wall Street Journal, June 15, 2004.
4. Esther Cervantes, “Immigrants and the Labor Market: What Are ‘The Jobs that Americans Won’t Do’?” Dollars and Sense, May–June 2006, 31.
5. This remark was widely reported, and widely criticized, in the United States. See “Mexican Leader Criticized for Comment on Blacks,” May 15, 2005, http://edition.cnn.com/2005/US/05/14/fox.jackson/.
6. Sociologist Michael Piore gave the classic description of this phenomenon among early-twentieth-century European immigrants in Birds of Passage (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
7. Doris Meissner, “U.S. Temporary Worker Programs: Lessons Learned,” Migration Information Source, March 1, 2004, www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?ID=205.
8. Nancy Folbre, The Invisible Heart: Economics and Family Values (New York: New Press, 2001); Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild, “Introduction,” in Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003), 7–9.
9. Bruce Western, Vincent Schiraldi, and Jason Ziedenberg, “Education and Incarceration,” Justice Policy Institute, 2003, www.justicepolicy.org/downloads/EducationandIncarceration1.pdf. See also Ira Glasser, “Drug Busts=Jim Crow,” The Nation, July 10, 2006, 24–26.
10. “Felony Disenfranchisement Laws in the United States,” The Sentencing Project, April 2006, www.sentencingproject.org/pdfs/1046.pdf.
1. Kim Moody uses this phrase in “Global Capital and Economic Nationalism: Protectionism or Solidarity?” Against the Current, 2000, www.solidarity-us.org/node/951.
2. William D. Haywood, Bill Haywood’s Book: The Autobiography of William D. Haywood (New York, 1929), 181. Cited in David Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White: The Strange Journey from Ellis Island to the Suburbs (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 121.
3. Gompers, “Talks on Labor,” American Federationist 12 (September 1905), 636–37, cited in Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness, 87.
4. Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness, 80, citing Andrew Neather, “Popular Republicanism, Americanism and the Roots of Anti-Communism, 1890–1925” (PhD diss., Duke, 1993), 242; Henry White, “Immigration Restriction as a Necessity,” American Federationist 17 (April 1910), 302–304.
5. Peter Kwong, Forbidden Workers: Illegal Chinese Immigrants and American Labor (New York: New Press, 1997), 147.
6. Philip S. Foner, U.S. Labor Movement and Latin America: A History of Workers’ Response to Intervention (South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey, 1988), 28–29.
7. Samuel Gompers, “Imperialism—Its Dangers and Wrongs,” Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 1898–1935 (Jim Zwick, website ed.), www.boondocksnet.com/ai/ailtexts/gompers.html.
8. Vernon M. Briggs, Jr., “American Unionism and U.S. Immigration Policy,” Digital Commons at ILR, Cornell University (backgrounder, Center for Immigration Studies, 2001, 1–11), http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/hr/22, 1.
9. Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness, 84.
10. Kwong, Forbidden Workers, 141.
11. Rogin, Blackface, White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot (Berkeley: University of California Press, rpr. ed. 1998), 57.
12. Kwong, Forbidden Workers, 141.
13. Rogin, Blackface, White Noise, 57.
14. Herbert Hill, “Racism within Organized Labor: A Report of Five Years of the AFL-CIO,” Journal of Negro Education 30, no. 2 (Spring 1961), 109–118.
15. Kwong, Forbidden Workers, 152.
16. Kwong, 152–53.
17. Briggs, “American Unionism,” 6.
18. Briggs, “American Unionism,” 7.
1. On the growth of the informal economy in New York and other major cities in the era of globalization, see Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), especially chaps. 8 and 9.
2. Brent Haydamack and Daniel Flaming, “Hopeful Workers, Marginal Jobs: LA’s Off-the-Books Labor Force,” Economic Roundtable, with Pascale Joassart, December 2005, synopsis available at www.economicrt.org/summaries/hopeful_workers_marginal_jobs_synopsis.html.
3. Eduardo Porter, “Illegal Immigrants are Bolstering Social Security with Billions,” New York Times, April 5, 2005.
4. Porter, “Illegal Immigrants are Bolstering Social Security.”
1. Steven A. Camarota, “The High Cost of Cheap Labor: Illegal Immigration and the Federal Budget,” Center for Immigration Studies, August 2004, 7, www.cis.org/articles/2004/fiscal.pdf.
2. Camarota, “High Cost of Cheap Labor.”
3. Sarah Beth Coffey, “Undocumented Immigrants in Georgia: Tax Contributions and Fiscal Concerns,” Georgia Budget and Policy Institute, January 2006, www.gbpi.org/pubs/garevenue/20060119.pdf.
4. Robin Baker and Rich Jones, “State and Local Taxes Paid in Colorado by Undocumented Immigrants,” Bell Policy Center Issue Brief no. 3, June 30, 2006, www.thebell.org/pdf/IMG/Brf3taxes.pdf.
5. Thomas D. Boswell, June Nogle, Rob Paral, and Richard Langendorf, Facts About Immigration and Asking Six Big Questions for Florida and Miami-Dade County, Bureau of Economic and Business Research, University of Florida, Gainesville, November 2001.
6. See Ronald D. Lee and Timothy Miller, “Immigrants and Their Descendants,” Project on the Economic Demography of Interage Income Reallocation, Demography, UC Berkeley (1997); National Research Council, The New Americans (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997), chaps. 6 and 7; Alan J. Auerbach and Philip Oreopoulos, “Generational Accounting and Immigration in the United States,” University of California, Berkeley, March 1999, http://elsa.berkeley.edu/ffiburch/immigration13.pdf.
7. Jeffrey S. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants: Numbers and Characteristics—Background Briefing for Task Force on Immigration and America’s Future,” Pew Hispanic Center, June 14, 2005, 31, http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/46.pdf.
8. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 34–35.
9. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 42.
1. Inter-American Development Bank, “Sending Money Home: Remittances from Latin America to the U.S., 2004,” www.iadb.org/exr/remittances/images/Map2004SurveyAnalysisMay_17.pdf.
2. IADB, “Sending Money Home,” 1.
3. B. Lindsay Lowell and Rodolfo O. de la Garza, “The Developmental Role of Remittances in U.S. Latino Communities and in Latin American Countries,” Inter-American Dialogue, June 2000, 8–9, www.iadialog.org/publications/pdf/lowell.pdf.
4. Lowell and de la Garza, “Remittances,” 13.
5. Jane Collins, Threads: Gender, Labor, and Power in the Global Apparel Industry (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2003).
6. Catherine Elton, “Latin America’s Faulty Lifeline,” MIT Center for International Studies, “Audit of Conventional Wisdom” series, March 20, 2006, http://web.mit.edu/CIS/pdf/Audit_03_06_Elton.pdf.
1. Henry David Thoreau, Civil Disobedience, Part I, 1849, available in many editions including online at http://thoreau.eserver.org/civi11.html.
2. Satya Sagar, “U.S. Elections: Let the Whole World Vote!” ZNet, February 27, 2004, www.zmag.org/content/print_article.cfm?itemID=5049§ionID=33.
1. Aristide R. Zolberg, A Nation By Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006).
2. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 18.
1. United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women, Fact Sheet, www.un-instraw.org/en/index.php?option=content&task=blogcategory&id=76&Itemid=110; see also the Universal Declaration of Human Rights at www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm.
2. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 2.
3. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 3; Passel, “Size and Characteristics,” 4.
4. Passel, “Size and Characteristics,” 1.
5. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 4.
6. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 9.
7. Bill Ong Hing, Defining America through Immigration Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004), 200.
8. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 9.
9. Passel, “Size and Characteristics,” 6–7.
10. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 26.
11. Passel, “Unauthorized Migrants,” 27.
12. See Aviva Chomsky, Linked Labor Histories (Durham, NC: Duke University Press), forthcoming.
13. Lance Compa, “Blood, Sweat, and Fear: Workers’ Rights in U.S. Meat and Poultry Processing Plants,” Human Rights Watch, 2004, 12, www.hrw.org/reports/2005/usa0105/usa0105.pdf.
14. Compa, “Blood, Sweat, and Fear,” 16.
1. Sample questions are provided on the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services website: www.uscis.gov/graphics/citizenship/flashcards/Flashcard_questions.pdf.
2. David W. Haines, ed., Refugees in America in the 1990s: A Reference Handbook (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996), 3.
3. Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants Since 1882 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004), 71–87.
4. Haim Genizi, America’s Fair Share: The Admission and Resettlement of Displaced Persons, 1945–1952 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993). See also Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, chaps. 3–5, for numerous examples of the overt and covert restrictions against Jews.
5. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 108–110.
6. Ong Hing, Defining America, 245–47.
7. Alejandro Portes and Alex Stepick, City on the Edge: The Transformation of Miami (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 51.
8. Ong Hing, Defining America, 247; Portes and Stepick, City on the Edge, 52.
9. Howard W. French, “Between Haiti and the U.S. Lies a Quandary,” New York Times, November 24, 1991.
10. Anthony DePalma, “For Haitians, Voyage to a Land of Inequality,” New York Times, July 16, 1991.
11. DePalma, “For Haitians, Voyage to a Land of Inequality.”
12. Portes and Stepick, City on the Edge, 53.
13. Barbara Crossette, “Court Halts Expulsion of Haitians as Hundreds More Leave for U.S.,” New York Times, November 20, 1991.
14. Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1994), 270.
15. Farmer, Uses of Haiti, 270–71, citing Cathy Powell, “ ‘Life’ at Guantánamo: The Wrongful Detention of Haitian Refugees,” Reconstruction 2, no. 2 (1993), 58–68.
16. Roberto Suro, “U.N. Refugee Agency Says U.S. Violates Standards in Repatriating Haitians,” Washington Post, January 11, 1995.
17. Farmer, Uses of Haiti, 273.
18. Daniel Williams, “Suddenly, the Welcome Mat Says ‘You’re Illegal,’ ” Washington Post, August 20, 1994.
19. “12,000 Remain at Guantánamo,” Washington Post, August 19, 1995.
20. “U.S. Policy Changed with Guantánamo Safe Havens,” Washington Post, February 5, 1995.
21. Bob Herbert, “In America, Suffering the Children,” New York Times, May 27, 1995.
22. For a detailed account of these events, see María Cristina García, Seeking Refuge: Central American Migration to Mexico, the United States, and Canada (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006).
23. Michael McBride, “Migrants and Asylum Seekers: Policy Responses in the United States to Immigrants and Refugees from Central America and the Caribbean,” International Migration 37, no. 1 (March 1999), 296.
24. Ong Hing, Defining America, 239, 250.
25. Jay Matthews, “500,000 Immigrants Granted Legal Status: A Milestone for Central American Refugees,” Washington Post, December 20, 1990.
26. Ong Hing, Defining America, 249, 254.
1. I’m referring here to HR 4437 of 2005, which criminalized and imposed mandatory sentences on those who provided aid or services that helped an immigrant to enter or remain in the United States. Almost any kind of humanitarian or social service to an undocumented immigrant could have been prosecuted under this provision.
2. James Loewen, Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (New York: New Press, 2005), 25.
3. “Back in the Day: Indiana’s African-American History,” The Indianapolis Star, February 2002, www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/history/black_history/.
4. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 120–24 [quote from p. 124].
5. Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393, 407, www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0060_0393_ZO.html.
6. Scott v. Sandford, 410.
7. Ian F. Haney López, White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race. (New York: NYU Press, 1996), 39.
8. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 192.
9. Marian L. Smith, “ ‘Any woman who is now, or who may hereafter be married’ … Women and Naturalization, ca. 1802–1940,” Prologue Magazine [published by The National Archives] 30, no. 2 (Summer 1998), www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/1998/summer/women-and-naturalization-1.html; Haney López, White by Law, 128.
10. Haney López, White by Law, 91.
11. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 22–23.
12. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 26.
13. See critique in PR Newswire, “Hidden Facts in the New Census Hispanic Data,” Puerto Rico Herald, June 13, 2005.
14. The list is reproduced in Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 28–29.
15. Haney López, White by Law, 42–45.
16. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 7–8.
17. The phrase was originally coined by Rayford Logan in The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir in 1954. James Loewen decries its loss and tries to re-highlight it in Sundown Towns, chap. 2.
18. Dan Baum, “The Lottery: Once You Have a Green Card, What Next?” The New Yorker, January 23, 2006, www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/060123fa_fact.
19. “2007 DV Lottery Instructions,” United States Department of State, http://travel.state.gov/visa/immigrants/types/types_1318.html.
1. George Benton Adams, “The United States and the Anglo-Saxon Future,” Atlantic Monthly 78 (1896), 35–45; quotes from pp. 36, 44.
2. John Fiske, “Manifest Destiny,” Project Gutenberg, 2003, www.gutenberg.org/files/10112/10112.txt.
3. Josiah Strong, Our Country: Its Possible Future and its Present Crisis (Astor Place, NY: American Home Missionary Society, 1885), www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11531335; “Josiah Strong on Anglo-Saxon Predominance, 1891,” www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/protected/strong.htm.
4. David Roediger and James R. Barrett, “Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the ‘New Immigrant’ Working Class,” Journal of American Ethnic History 16, no. 3 (Spring 1997), 3–45; Roediger, Working Toward Whiteness; Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995).
5. David G. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 14–16.
6. Camille Guerin-González, Mexican Workers and American Dreams: Immigration, Repatriation, and California Farm Labor, 1900–1939 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 26.
7. Juan González, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York: Penguin), 100.
8. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 54.
9. Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors, 21.
10. Arnoldo de León, They Called Them Greasers: Anglo Attitudes Towards Mexicans in Texas, 1821–1900 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983), 3.
11. Guerin-González, Mexican Workers, 29.
12. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 64.
13. Ong Hing, Defining America, 120.
14. Vernon M. Briggs, Jr., “Guestworker Programs: Lessons from the Past and Warnings for the Future,” Center for Immigration Studies, March 2004, www.cis.org/articles/2004/back304.html.
15. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 72; Guerin González, Mexican Workers, 111.
16. Ruth Ellen Wassem and Geoffrey K. Collver, “RL 30852: Immigration of Agricultural Guest Workers: Policies, Trends, and Legislative Issues,” Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, February 15, 2001, http://ncseonline.org/NLE/CRSreports/Agriculture/ag-102.cfm.
17. Ong Hing, Defining America, 130.
18. Ong Hing, Defining America, 131.
19. Wassem and Collver, “RL 30852.”
20. Jeffrey S. Passel, “Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population,” March 21, 2005, 6, http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/44.pdf.
21. “Nativity of the Population, for Regions, Division, and State, 1850– 1990” (table), U.S. Census Bureau, March 9, 1999, www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/tab13.html.
22. “Population by State and U.S. Citizenship Status, With Percentages by U.S. Citizenship Status, 2003” (table), U.S. Census Bureau, www.census.gov/population/socdemo/foreign/ST023/tab1-17a.xls.
23. Camarota, “Immigrants at Mid-Decade.”
1. Toni Morrison, “On the Backs of Blacks,” Time (special issue, “The New Face of America”), December 2, 1993, www.time.com/time/community/morrisonessay.html.
2. Piri Thomas, Down These Mean Streets (New York: Vintage Books, 1991 [1967]), 24–27.
3. Loewen, Sundown Towns, 88.
4. Alex Stepick, Guillermo Grenier, Max Castro, and Marvin Dunn, This Land Is Our Land: Immigrants and Power in Miami (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 122.
5. Marcelo Suárez-Orozco and Carola Suárez-Orozco, Transformations: Immigration, Family Life, and Achievement Motivation among Latino Adolescents (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), 60. Stepick et al. describe the same phenomenon among Haitian immigrants in Miami in This Land Is Our Land.
6. Jay P. Greene and Marcus A. Winters, “Public School Graduation Rates in the United States,” Manhattan Institute for Public Policy Research, Civic Report 31, November 2002, www.manhattaninstitute.org/html/cr_31.htm. See also Gary Orfield, ed., Dropouts in America: Confronting the Graduation Rate Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2004).
7. Pew Hispanic Center and the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, “Survey Brief: Bilingualism,” Pew Hispanic Center, March 2004, http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/15.9.pdf.
8. “Poverty Status of the Population in 2003 by Sex, Age, and Hispanic Origin Type: 2004” (table), U.S. Census Bureau, www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hispanic/ASEC2004/2004CPS_tab14.2a.html.
9. Mary C. Waters, Black Identities: West Indian Immigrant Dreams and Immigrant Realities (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1999), 5.
1. Calvin Veltman, “The Status of the Spanish Language in the United States at the Beginning of the 21st Century,” International Migration Review 24, no. 1 (Spring 1990), 108–123. Even among four-year-olds, children of Spanish speakers tend to have significantly higher levels of English than their parents; by their teenage years, almost all children born in the United States are fluent in English (p. 113).
2. Hyon B. Shin and Rosalind Bruno, “Language Use and English-Speaking Ability: 2000,” Census 2000 Brief, issued October 2003, 2, www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf.
3. Calvin Veltman, “Modelling the Language Shift Process of Hispanic Immigrants,” International Migration Review 22, no. 4 (Winter 1988), 549.
4. Richard Alba, John Logan, Amy Lutz, and Brian Stults, “Only English by the Third Generation? Loss and Preservation of the Mother Tongue Among the Grandchildren of Contemporary Immigrants,” Demography 39, no. 3. (August 2002), 273.
5. James Thomas Tucker, “Waiting Times for Adult ESL Classes and the Impact on English Learners,” NALEO (National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials) Education Fund, June 2006, 3–4, http://renewthevra.civilrights.org/resources/ESL.pdf.
6. Pew Hispanic Center Fact Sheet, “Hispanic Attitudes Toward Learning English,” June 7, 2006, http://pewhispanic.org/files/factsheets/20.pdf.
7. See the U.S. English, Inc. website at www.us-english.org/inc/.
8. See www.onenation.org/fulltext.html for the texts of several of these laws.
9. James Cummins, “The Role of Primary Language Development in Promoting Educational Success for Language Minority Students,” in Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework, ed. C. F. Leyba (Los Angeles, CA: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University Los Angeles, 1981), 3–49.
10. See, for example, the recent comprehensive study funded by the U.S. Department of Education: Diane August and Timothy Shanahan, eds., Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006). See also J. D. Ramirez, S. D. Yuen, D. R. Ramey, and D. Pasta, Longitudinal Study of Structured English Immersion Strategy, Early-Exit and Late-Exit Transitional Bilingual Education Programs for Language Minority: Final Report, vols. 1 and 2 (San Mateo, CA: Aguirre International, 1991), and Stephen Krashen and Grace McField, “What Works? Reviewing the Latest Evidence on Bilingual Education,” Language Learner, November–December 2005, 7–10, 34, http://users.rcn.com/crawj/langpol/Krashen-McField.pdf.
11. Rafael M. Díaz, “Thought and Two Languages: The Impact of Bilingualism on Cognitive Development,” Review of Research on Education 10 (1983), 23–54; Kenji Hakuta, “Degree of Bilingualism and Cognitive Ability in Mainland Puerto Rican Children,” Child Development 58, no. 5 [Special Issue on Schools and Development] (October 1987), 1372–1388; Kenji Hakuta, Mirror on Language: The Debate on Bilingualism (New York: Basic Books, 1986).
12. James Crawford, “Hard Sell: Why Is Bilingual Education So Unpopular with the American Public?” Arizona State University Language Policy Research Unit, 2003, www.asu.edu/educ/epsl/LPRU/features/brief8.htm.
13. Crawford, “Hard Sell.”
14. Sarah Means Lohmann and Don Soifer, “Separate Unequal Classes Set Bilingual Education Back,” Chicago Sun-Times, May 17, 2005.
15. Crawford, “Hard Sell.”
16. James Crawford, Hold Your Tongue: Bilingualism and the Politics of English Only (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1992), chap. 8. Excerpt online at http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/HYTCH8.htm.
1. My discussion here draws on the work of Saskia Sassen, Douglas S. Massey, and others. Sassen’s argument is accessibly summarized in “Why Immigration?” NACLA Report on the Americas 26, no. 1 (July 1992), pp. 14–19, Massey’s in “Closed-Door Policy: Mexico Vividly Illustrates How U.S. Treatment of Immigrant Workers Backfires,” American Prospect, July 1, 2003, www.prospect.org/print/V14/7/massey-d.html.
2. Victor Clark, cited in José-Manuel Navarro, Creating Tropical Yankees: Social Science Textbooks and U.S. Ideological Control in Puerto Rico, 1898–1908 (New York: Routledge, 2002), 48.
3. García Ramis, Happy Days, Uncle Sergio, trans. Carmen C. Esteves (Fredonia, NY: White Pine Press, 1995), 33–34.
4. García Ramis, Happy Days, 55.
5. García Ramis, Happy Days, 153.
6. Quoted in Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 86.
7. Quoted in Choy, Empire of Care, 102.
8. See Tim Kane, “Global Troop Deployment, 1950–2005,” Heritage Foundation, www.heritage.org/Research/NationalSecurity/cda0602.cfm. The Guantánamo naval base in Cuba is a particularly glaring example of a long-term troop presence in defiance of the “host” country’s opposition.
9. Medea Benjamin and Elvia Alvarado, Don’t Be Afraid, Gringo: A Honduran Woman Speaks from the Heart (San Francisco: Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1987), xviii-xix.
10. Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004), 1, 23.
11. Sarah J. Mahler, American Dreaming: Immigrant Life on the Margins (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), chap. 4; Roger N. Lancaster, Life Is Hard: Machismo, Danger, and the Intimacy of Power in Nicaragua (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), esp. chap. 1.
12. Quoted in Avi Chomsky, “Innocents Abroad: Taking U.S. College Students to Cuba,” LASA Forum 27, no. 3 (Fall 1996), 16–20; quote from p. 19.
13. These and many other useful statistics have been compiled by the CIA. See www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/rankorderguide.html.
14. Dan Baum, “Lottery.”
15. García Ramis, Happy Days, 14.
16. Massey, “Closed-Door Policy.”
17. John Barrett, “The Cuba of the Far East,” North American Review 164, February 1897, 173, 177, http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgibin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578-0164-19.
18. For comparison’s sake, U.S. investment in Central America was valued at $21 million in 1897. Walter Lafeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: Norton, 1993), 35.
19. Barrett, “Cuba of the Far East,” 178.
20. Available in many sources, including Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden: The United States & The Philippine Islands, 1899,” in Rudyard Kipling’s Verse: Definitive Edition (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1929); online at www.historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5478/.
21. Quincy Ewing, “An Effect of the Conquest of the Philippines,” Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 1898–1935 (Jim Zwick, website ed.), July 3, 2006, www.boondocksnet.com/ai/kipling/ewing.html.
22. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 110.
23. Alfred Beveridge, “The March of the Flag,” speech, September 16, 1898, www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1898beveridge.html.
24. Benjamin R. Tillman, “ ‘The White Man’s Burden’ as Prophecy,” Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 1898–1935 (Jim Zwick, website ed.), www.boondocksnet.com/ai/kipling/tillman.html.
25. John Barrett, “The Problem of the Philippines,” North American Review 167, no. 502 (September 1898), http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABQ7578–0167–26.
26. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 100.
27. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 99.
28. Quoted in Karl Stephen Herrman, From Yauco to Las Marías, Project Gutenberg, www.gutenberg.org/files/10439/10439.txt.
29. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 101–102.
30. James A. Tyner, “The Geopolitics of Eugenics and the Exclusion of Philippine Immigrants from the United States,” Geographical Review 89, no. 1 (January, 1999), 63.
31. Tyner, “Geopolitics of Eugenics,” 65.
32. Tyner, “Geopolitics of Eugenics,” 65.
33. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 119.
34. Cited in Tyner, “Geopolitics of Eugenics,” 68.
35. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 120.
36. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 115.
37. Somini Sengupta, “The Color of Love: Removing a Relic of the Old South,” New York Times, November 5, 2000; Somini Sengupta, “Marry at Will,” New York Times, November 12, 2000.
38. Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 115.
39. Tyner, “Geopolitics of Eugenics,” 67.
40. Tyner, “Geopolitics of Eugenics,” 67.
41. See Aviva Chomsky, West Indian Workers and the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica, 1870–1940 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996).
42. U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, The Philippines: A Country Study (Washington, DC: GPO, 1991), http://countrystudies.us/philippines/23.htm.
43. Library of Congress, The Philippines, http://countrystudies.us/philippines/77.htm.
44. Choy, Empire of Care, chaps. 1–2.
45. Choy, Empire of Care, 75.
46. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 165.
47. Choy, Empire of Care, 96.
48. Library of Congress, The Philippines, http://countrystudies.us/philippines/24.htm.
49. Choy, Empire of Care, 13.
50. Choy, Empire of Care, 2.
51. Celia W. Dugger, “U.S. Plan to Lure Nurses May Hurt Poor Nations,” New York Times, May 24, 2006.
52. This process is described in Paul Ong and Tania Azores, “The Migration and Incorporation of Filipino Nurses,” in The New Asian Immigration in Los Angeles and Global Restructuring, ed. Paul Ong, Edna Bonacich, and Lucie Cheng (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 165–69.
53. Ong and Azores, “Migration and Incorporation,” 174–75.
54. Dugger, “Plan to Lure Nurses.”
55. Dugger, “Plan to Lure Nurses.”
56. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 166.
57. Dugger, “Plan to Lure Nurses.”
58. Dugger, “Plan to Lure Nurses.”
59. “Filipino Remittances Hit $9.7 Billion,” BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4608786.stm. (The $9.7 billion figure was for the first eleven months of 2005.)
60. Dugger, “Plan to Lure Nurses.”
1. See the list of supporters at www.tedkennedy.com/content/177/organizations-supporting-the-kennedy-mccain-immigration-legislation.
2. See statement by the National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights and list of endorsers at www.nnirr.org/projects/immigrationreform/statement.htm.
3. “Statement by AFL-CIO President John J. Sweeney on President Bush’s Principles for Immigration Reform,” January 8, 2004, www.aflcio.org/mediacenter/prsptm/pr01082004.cfm.
4. Elizabeth Auster, “Guest Worker Proposals Divide America’s Unions,” The Plain Dealer, April 6, 2006.
5. Wayne A. Cornelius, “Controlling ‘Unwanted’ Immigration: Lessons from the United States, 1993–2004,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31, no. 4, July 2005, 788, www.ccis-ucsd.org/PUBLICATIONS/wrkg92.pdf.
6. “2006 State Legislation Related to Immigration: Enacted, Vetoed, and Pending Gubernatorial Action,” National Conference of State Legislatures, July 3, 2006, www.ncsl.org/programs/immig/06ImmigEnactedLegis2.htm.
7. Bonnie Erbe, “Cities Fill Federal Void on Immigration,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 19, 2006; Mary K. Brunskill, “Pennsylvania City Passes Strict Anti-Immigration Act,” All-Headline News, July 14, 2006; Dan Sewell, “Country’s Interior Wages Own Campaign Against Illegal Aliens,” Associated Press, November 22, 2005.
8. Paul Davenport, “Bill Passes Applying Trespassing Law to Illegal Immigrants,” Associated Press, April 13, 2006; Jacques Belleaud, “Governor Vetoes Attempt to Criminalize Immigrants’ Presence in Arizona,” Associate Press, April 18, 2006.
9. “Earned Legalization and Increased Border Security Is Key to Immigration Reform According to Republican Voters: New Poll,” Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, October 17, 2005, www.manhattan-institute.org/html/immigration_pol_pr.htm.
10. Opinion Research Corporation, CNN poll, June 8–11, 2006, www.cnn.com/2006/images/06/21/lou.dobbs.tonight.poll.results.pdf.
11. Lou Dobbs, Exporting America: Why Corporate Greed Is Shipping American Jobs Overseas (New York: Warner Business Books, 2004), http://unionshop.aflcio.org/shop/product1.cfm?SID=1&Product_ID=496.
12. Jack Shierenbeck, “The New Lou Dobbs: Working Chumps’ Champion?” New York Teacher, March 21, 2004.
13. Lou Dobbs, “Our Borderline Security,” U.S. News and World Report, December 27, 2004.
14. Lou Dobbs, “Disorganized Labor,” U.S. News and World Report, March 7, 2005.
15. Pew Research Center for People and the Press and Pew Hispanic Center, “America’s Immigration Quandary: No Consensus on America’s Immigration Problem or Proposed Fixes,” Pew Hispanic Center, March 20, 2006, 15, http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/63.pdf.
16. Pew Research Center, “America’s Immigration Quandary,” 16.
17. Pew Research Center, “America’s Immigration Quandary,” 18.
18. Pew Research Center, “America’s Immigration Quandary,” 11.
19. Teresa A. Sullivan, Elizabeth Warren, and Jay Westbrook, The Fragile Middle Class: Americans in Debt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 6.
20. “Government, Corporate Scandals Damage Public Trust in Institutions at the Bedrock of Society,” Lichtman/Zogby interactive poll, May 23, 2006, www.zogby.com/News/ReadNews.dbm?ID=1116.
21. Michael P. McDonald and Samuel L. Popkin, “The Myth of the Vanishing Voter,” American Political Science Review 95, no. 4 (December 2001), 963–74.
22. Pew Research Center, “America’s Immigration Quandary,” introduction.
23. Pew Research Center, “America’s Immigration Quandary,” 17, figures from CBS/New York Times.
1. “A Summary Analysis of Voting in the 1994 General Election,” California Opinion Index, January 1995, http://field.com/fieldpollonline/subscribers/COI-94-95-Jan-Election.pdf.
2. “Summary Analysis of Voting.”
3. “Summary Analysis of Voting.”
4. Jan Adams, “Proposition 187 Lessons,” Z Magazine, March 1995.
5. Cornelius, “Controlling ‘Unwanted’ Immigration,” 777, 791 n. 7.
1. Leslie Berestein, “Migrants push east to avoid fortified border, with tragic results,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 29, 2004, www.signonsandiego.com/news/reports/gatekeeper/200409299999-lz1n29mirgran.html.
2. Mark Stevenson, “Mexico Puts Up Maps for Migrants,” Desert News, January 25, 2006, www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20060125/ai_n16022823; Richard Marosi, “Border-Crossing Deaths Set a 12-Month Record,” Los Angeles Times, October 1, 2005.
3. Esther Pan, “Q&A: Homeland Security: U.S.-Mexico Border Woes,” Council on Foreign Relations, February 22, 2006, repr. New York Times, February 22, 2006.
4. Sonia Nazario, Enrique’s Journey (New York: Random House, 2006), 5, xiv.
5. Laura Wides, “Study Says Immigration Patterns Changing with New Border Security,” Associated Press, April 1, 2005.
6. Ong Hing, Defining America, 189.
7. Cornelius, “Controlling ‘Unwanted’ Immigration,” 783.
8. Programa para el Esclaracimiento Histórico, Guatemala: Memoria del Silencio, Anexo I, Caso Ilustrativo 64, American Academy for the Advancement of Science, http://shr.aaas.org/guatemala/ceh/mds/spanish/anex01/v011/n064.html.
9. See Pierette Hondagneu-Sotelo, Doméstica: Immigrant Workers Cleaning and Caring in the Shadows of Affluence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 8.
10. Berestein, “Migrants Push East.”
11. James Smith, “Guatemala: Economic Migrants Replace Political Refugees,” Inforpress Centroamericana, April 2006, www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=392.
12. See also Nora Hamilton and Norma Stoltz Chinchilla, Seeking Community in a Global City: Guatemalans and Salvadorans in Los Angeles (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); Gabrielle Kohlpahl, Voices of Guatemalan Women in Los Angeles: Understanding Their Immigration (New York: Garland, 1999).
13. Smith, “Guatemala.”
14. Berestein, “Migrants Push East.”
1. “On Indian Removal,” President Andrew Jackson, message to Congress, December 6, 1830, available on many websites, including Our Documents, www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=25.
2. Tyner, “Geopolitics of Eugenics,” 57.
3. Tyner, “Geopolitics of Eugenics,” 56.
4. See Edward J. Larson, Sex, Race, and Science: Eugenics in the Deep South (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Nancy L. Gallagher, Breeding Better Vermonters: The Eugenics Project in the Green Mountain State (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1999); Bonnie Mass, “Puerto Rico: A Case Study in Population Control,” Latin American Perspectives 4, no. 4 (Autumn 1977), 66–71.
5. Alexandra Minna Stern, “Sterilized in the Name of Public Health: Race, Immigration, and Reproductive Control in Modern California,” American Journal of Public Health 95, no. 7 (July 2005), 1128–38.
6. Laura Briggs, Reproducing Empire: Race, Sex, Science, and U.S. Imperialism in Puerto Rico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 83.
7. Briggs, Reproducing Empire, 87.
8. Briggs, Reproducing Empire, 106.
9. Briggs, Reproducing Empire, 124.
10. Stern, “Sterilized in the Name of Public Health,” 1132.
11. Stern, “Sterilized in the Name of Public Health,” 1133.
12. Jane Lawrence, “The Indian Health Service and the Sterilization of Native American Women,” American Indian Quarterly 24:3 (2000), 400–419; 410. She is citing Bernard Rosenfeld, Sidney M. Wolfe, and Robert E. McGarrah Jr., A Health Research Group Study on Surgical Sterilization: Present Abuses and Proposed Regulations (Washington, DC: Health Research Group, 29 October 1973), 2–7.
13. Lawrence, “The Indian Health Service and the Sterilization of Native American Women.” She is citing “Killing Our Future: Sterilization and Experiments,” Akwesasne Notes 9:1 (1977), 4–6.
14. J. J. Salvo, M. G. Powers, and R. S. Cooney, “Contraceptive Use and Sterilization Among Puerto Rican Women,” Family Planning Perspectives 24, no. 5, (September–October 1992), 219–23.
15. Andrea P. MacKay, Burney A. Kieke, Jr., Lisa M. Koonin, and Karen Beattie, “Tubal Sterilization in the United States, 1994–1996,” Family Planning Perspectives 33, no. 4 (July–August 2001), www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3316101.html.
16. “Bennett’s Take on Blacks, Abortion Draws Fire,” Los Angeles Times, September 30, 2005, A29.
17. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 196.
18. Laura Briggs, “Making ‘American’ Families: Transnational Adoption and U.S. Latin America Policy,” in Haunted By Empire, ed. Ann Laura Stoler (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 613.
19. Laura Briggs, “Communities Resisting Interracial Adoption: The Indian Child Welfare Act and the NABSW Statement of 1972” (paper presented at the Alliance for the Study of Adoption, Identity and Kinship (ASAIK) Conference on Adoption and Culture, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL, November 17–20, 2005, www.u.arizona.edu/ffilbriggs/.
20. “In Daddy’s Arms,” Boston Globe, July 26, 2006. For a great collection on the politics of transracial and international adoption, see Jane Jeong Trenka, Julia Chinyere Oparah, and Sun Yung Chin, eds., Outsiders Within: Writing on Transracial Adoption (Boston: South End Press, 2006).
1. Terrorism: 2000–2001, U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI Publication 0308), www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terror2000_2001.pdf.
2. Steven A. Camarota, “The Open Door: How Militant Islamic Terrorists Entered and Remained in the United States, 1993–2001,” Center for Immigration Studies, www.cis.org/articles/2002/Paper21/terrorism.html.
1. Julia Preston, “Rules Collide with Reality in the Immigration Debate,” New York Times, May 29, 2006.
2. Visa Bulletin 8, no. 96, U.S. Department of State, August 2006, http://travel.state.gov/visa/frvi/bulletin/bulletin_2978.html. These figures are updated monthly; for links to subsequent issues, go to http://travel.state.gov/visa/frvi/bulletin/bulletin_1360.html.
3. “Detention and Death of 81-Year-Old Haitian Pastor ‘Appalling’ Says Humanitarian Agency Director,” press release, Church World Service, November 22, 2004, www.churchworldservice.org/news/archives/2004/11/245.html.
4. Tom Miller, “Latino USA” commentary, NPR, May 5–11, 2006, audio at www.latinousa.org/program/lusapgm683.html; transcription at www.walterlippmann.com/docs608.html.
1. For a summary of the law go to www.uscis.gov/graphics/shared/aboutus/statistics/legishist/act142.htm.
2. Eduardo Galeano, “Snapshots of a World Coming Apart at the Seams,” in Appeal to Reason: 25 Years of In These Times, ed. Craig Aaron (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002), 194.
1. “UN Population Report Says World Urban Population of 3 Billion Today; Expected to Reach 5 Billion by 2030,” press release, United Nations Population Division, March 24, 2004, www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2003/pop899_English.doc.
1. Descriptions of many of the laws named in this timeline can be found at www.uscis.gov/graphics/shared/aboutus/statistics/legishist/index.htm. For a narrative history of U.S. immigration policy, see Marian L. Smith, “Overview of INS History,” in A Historical Guide to the U.S. Government, ed. George T. Kurian (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), reproduced on the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service website at www.uscis.gov/graphics/aboutus/history/articles/oview.htm.
2. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 100.