In evaluating the accuracy of a primary source, the most useful tool for evaluating it is another primary source, preferably one not connected to the first document. Thus, (B) is correct. While a secondary source can be useful in terms of consulting experts on the accuracy of a given source or author, primary sources are still best evaluated by comparing them to concrete evidence, such as other eyewitness accounts, so (A) and (C) are incorrect. While (D) is tempting, an unconnected primary source would be more useful since he or she would not possess the same background and biases as John of Plano Carpini’s party.
Both the British Empire and the Mongol Empire established periods of economic and political stability by conquering large swaths of the world. Known as the Pax Britannica and Pax Mongolica respectively, these periods enabled trade to flourish within a large zone of common administration. This trade also allowed for the flow of culture and technology between world regions. Thus, (B) is correct. At their maximum extent, the British ruled nearly a quarter of the Earth’s land area, but they never ruled all of Asia; in fact, nineteenth century Russia was a British geopolitical rival. Similarly, the Mongols never extended their control of Asia across all of India. (A) is incorrect. Rebellions only overthrew some of the Mongol successor states after the unified empire had already collapsed due to disputes over succession, while Britain generally decolonized peacefully. (C) is incorrect. While the British Empire spread English as a common language, the Mongols did not forcibly spread their own or any other language. (D) is incorrect.
Circa 1200, Islam had expanded throughout North and West Africa. It provided a common cultural identity for elites from various nations, easing diplomacy and facilitating the expansion of trade networks. Thus, (A) is correct. While tempting, (B) is incorrect; the map is labeled as depicting trade networks circa 1400, but the Mongol Empire had fractured into various khanates by 1294, and Silk Road trade largely broke down over the fourteenth century. Likewise, (C) is incorrect because the Portuguese did not begin their expansion along the West African coastline until 1415. (D) is incorrect because Islam was already practiced in West Africa circa 1230, when Sundiata Keita established the Mali Empire.
Trans-Saharan trade circa 1400 depended on merchants having both the technology and environmental knowledge to travel across the Sahara Desert. The technology included the camel, as the more globally common horse was unsuited to the extreme conditions of the Sahara. The environmental knowledge included travel time and distance of particular routes, as well as management of water resources. Thus, (D) is correct. (A) is incorrect because there was little state-sponsored commercial infrastructure around the Sahara (especially compared to other regions; e.g., the Inca road network in the Andes). While Mali was known for its gold exports during this period as a form of hard money, (B) is incorrect because the map focuses on trade routes, not the economies that revolved around them. (C) is incorrect because the Columbian Exchange occurred nearly a century after the trans-Sahara routes of 1400.
During the Crusades, Western Europe’s elites personally experienced the diverse luxury goods and literature of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Muslim caliphate. This, plus increased shipping capacity for troop movements, boosted the already-growing trade volumes with the eastern Mediterranean and led to increased interaction with all the civilizations to the south and east of Europe. Therefore, (B) is correct. While navigational technology improved in Europe due to the Crusades, the Holy Land is in the Middle East, not East Asia, so (A) is incorrect. (C) is incorrect because the Crusades actually weakened feudalism: the knightly class loosened its hold on its landed estates due to prolonged absences, war deaths, and sales to raise travel funds. (D) is incorrect because it reverses cause and effect. The sanctions against trade with Islamic kingdoms cannot be a continuing failure because the decree is establishing them.
The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire had been fighting the Islamic armies for centuries and had hoped the Western crusaders would join with them in a Christian coalition. However, in 1204, in a climax to increasingly hostile sectarian tensions, crusaders sacked the imperial capital of Constantinople. The punitive attitude toward Christians diverging from Catholic doctrine is reflected in the passage; (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the self-flagellant movement arose in response to the Black Death. Also, the Crusades did retake the Holy Land, but they could not hold onto it indefinitely. (B) is incorrect because the Avignon Papacy was rooted in a conflict between the Church and France over the extent of the papacy’s secular authority. (D) is incorrect because, while philosophers like Thomas Aquinas synthesized ancient Greek philosophy and Christian revelation, discussion of those ancient works was not previously unacceptable. They had merely been lost until reintroduced to Europe by the Islamic world.
The treasure fleets were an attempt by the Ming Dynasty to project Chinese wealth and power around the Indian Ocean, thus enticing various trading ports and states to become Chinese tributaries. Therefore, (A) is correct. The map does not depict the Silk Road maritime routes, so (B) is incorrect. (C) is a speculative statement that cannot be supported using the information presented in the map. (D) is incorrect because it attributes the voyages depicted on the map to the incorrect Chinese dynasty: Zheng He commanded these fleets during the Ming Dynasty, not the Song Dynasty.
From 1405 to 1433, the Ming Dynasty sponsored seven massive naval expeditions in order to reinforce Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean, impose imperial control over trade, and impress foreign peoples with the authority of the Ming Dynasty. However, Confucian officials convinced the Chinese emperor that the voyages were too expensive and unprofitable, especially because of renewed concern over the northern Mongol border. Thus, in 1433, the voyages ended. This contraction of Chinese influence left the Indian Ocean uncontested when Portugal sent its first ship to India in 1498. Thus, (D) is correct. While the Mongols were a factor in the decline of the treasure fleets, (A) is incorrect because Temujin is another name for Genghis Khan, who died in the thirteenth century. (B) and (C) are incorrect because the Ming, not the Yuan, sponsored Zheng He.
Confucian officials in the court of the Ming emperor believed that Zheng He’s voyages were too expensive and not worth the cost of investment, as the money could be better spent elsewhere. This fear of lavish spending is justified in light of the Mali Empire’s downfall, as overspending by a series of kings spurred internal unrest and the collapse of their empire. Thus, (D) is correct. The Mongol conquest of Song China took many decades and was a hard-fought conflict, which does not reflect either party weakened by excessive spending; (A) is incorrect. The outbreak of the Hundred Years’ War was caused by tensions between English and French kings over territory in Scotland and Flanders, as well as the issue of dynastic succession. (B) is incorrect. (C) is incorrect because the 1204 sack of Constantinople primarily resulted from a sectarian religious conflict between Eastern Orthodox Christians and Roman Catholics.
The Hanseatic League was a trading organization that filled a void created by the weak, decentralized states common to Western and Northern Europe in the period circa 1200 to 1450. The passage illustrates the varieties of goods that flowed through Europe during a time when states were weak; this flow was made possible by the Hanseatic League, so (A) is correct. Nothing in the passage is suggestive of commercial infrastructure playing a vital role in commerce, making (B) incorrect. While the activities of a Hanseatic merchant are discussed in the passage, nothing related to banks or bills of exchange is mentioned; (C) is incorrect. While the passage describes Europe shifting away from feudal agriculture to a commercial economy, industrialization did not begin until the eighteenth century, so (D) is also incorrect.
The passage compares Bruges to early twentieth-century London as the “world-mart” of its day, a market where goods from all across the world are bought and sold. To determine whether this is an accurate comparison, more information on the origin and comparative value of the goods (such as spices) being sold in each city during their respective periods would be useful. Thus, (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because the question is comparing the trade of both cities, not anything to do with their populations. (C) is incorrect because the question is asking about the diversity and richness of the goods traded in both cities, not about the Hanseatic League, which declined over the centuries and, in particular, after the formation of the German Empire in 1871. (D) is incorrect because tax revenue is not necessarily indicative of the diversity of goods being traded in a city, and there are other potential sources of tax revenue besides trade.
The Mexica, or Aztec, people built causeways to connect their capital, Tenochtitlan, to the mainland and used chinampas, or floating gardens, to create more land for farming. (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because they did not have natural barriers, such as mountains, to provide protection from invaders. (B) is incorrect because the Americas lacked draft animals for heavy labor in the pre-Columbian era. The Mexica were able to sustain their population with their food production, making (D) incorrect.
Cities flourished as centers of trade in part because of agricultural innovations, such as the chinampas depicted on the map. While the Mexica did not invent chinampas, they were the first to use them at a large scale, leading to increased yields that could support a growing population. (B) is correct. In times of invasions, cities are more vulnerable because wealth is concentrated in one location, so the factors described in (A) would not lead to urban revival. (C) is incorrect because industrialization did not occur until the late eighteenth century. (D) is incorrect because, if trade was declining, cities would decline as well due to fewer commercial transactions.
The Mexica were militaristic and conquered surrounding groups, forcing them to pay tribute in the form of goods or people; (A) is correct. The government was centralized under the rule of an emperor, making (B) incorrect. (C) is incorrect because, although the empire was centralized, they lacked an organized bureaucracy. The government controlled much of modern-day Mexico, so (D) is incorrect.
In many civilizations through world history, cities have tended to have multiple roles, including seats of government, trading hubs, and religious centers; this is due to the fact that there is a large concentration of people in these urban areas. (D) is correct. (A) is incorrect because rural areas usually provide food and supplies for urban markets. (B) is incorrect because people live in cities in addition to conducting business there. (C) is incorrect because cities do not necessarily have access to lakes, swamps, and islands.
Rulers across the world in this period fused religion and state identity to create a durable governing foundation so that the legitimacy of state power would not be questioned. The Khmer Empire exemplifies the ways in which religion and government changed and shifted together. Similarly, rulers such as Mansa Musa used changes in religion to strengthen their rule. Mansa Musa adopted Islam in Western African states along the trans-Saharan trade route and created new relationships with neighboring states based on shared religion. (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the Jewish people did not rule in the Iberian peninsula; they were a minority given a choice between forced conversion and exile. The Crusaders sacked Constantinople in 1204, but both sides of that conflict were of the same religion, Christianity, so no major religious change occurred based on a shift in governance; (B) is incorrect. Islam did spread along the Silk Road and Spice Route, but that diffusion did not directly stem from changes in state religion, so (D) is incorrect.
Primary sources are invaluable in researching the lived reality of cultures over time because they come directly from the time and place being studied. In contrast, secondary sources always come from a later time (and sometimes a different place), so they encode the biases, preconceived notions, suppositions, and mistakes of their authors and their authors’ distinct cultures. Thus, to evaluate this secondary source, primary sources would be most helpful; (D) is correct. While a literary historian might want to read the rest of the author’s works, the best way to evaluate a passage of this kind is by corroborating it with primary sources, so (A) is incorrect. (B) is incorrect for similar reasons as (A); looking at European travel accounts would give historical insight into that period, but not the Khmer Empire itself. Satellite analysis of Angkor is itself primary source analysis, but would not cover the entire scope of the Khmer Empire, only the remains of its capital city, so (C) is incorrect.
All of the choices are true, but the only one directly supported by the map is (A). The map contains roads, canals, and the Tigris River, which feeds into the Persian Gulf. This offers proof that land routes and water routes ran through Baghdad even in the early common era, and this could be extrapolated forward to the era in the question, though more evidence would be needed for the conclusion to be proven and not merely proposed. This is an example of supporting evidence, not conclusive proof. While pathogens, religions, and technologies did flow along trade routes as noted, those conclusions are not directly supported by the map alone and would require additional source material for evidence. (B), (C), and (D) are incorrect.
As the Afro-Eurasian market for Asian goods expanded, the trading cities grew to meet the expanded demand and increased volume of trading caravans; (B) is correct. Manufacturing was expanded in Asia, notably China with iron and steel, but it was not a major part of the economy of the trading cities, so (A) is incorrect. There was a movement from rural to urban areas much later during the Industrial Revolution, but not in the period in the question; (C) is incorrect. The trading cities belonged to many different states or were independent; the trade route was not directly created by governments. (D) is thus incorrect.
The Red Turban Rebellion, an uprising of Chinese peasants upset over Mongol domination and high taxation, best reflects Voltaire’s idea of a historical cycle where the elite are overthrown by an underclass that subsequently become the new elite. The Mongols had once been steppe nomads poor enough that they were forced to make clothes from the pelts of field mice. Later, even with the fragmentation of their empire, they ruled China under the banner of the Yuan Dynasty. Zhu Yuanzhang, a peasant turned Red Turban, would overthrow them and become the first Ming emperor. Therefore, (C) is correct. The sack of Constantinople weakened the Byzantine Empire, but the Crusaders only looted the city; they did not take power, so (A) is incorrect. The Ghanaian Empire arose organically from villages along a trade network; thus, (C) is incorrect. The Byzantine Empire was created as the Roman Empire shrank, and the Byzantines thought of themselves as Roman; this is an example of reorganization, not rebellion. Thus, (D) is incorrect.
Analyzing change over time in a single area would allow the historian to find a concrete example of the phenomenon; if it is true, then the analysis could be applied to other regions for further testing. This is a common technique that allows scholars to see effects that were likely happening across broader areas, without making their inquiry too broad and getting bogged down in too much data. The important thing is the scope of the source, either through time, or across multiple regions, or both. (A) is correct. Records of population growth could be used to support conclusions about governments and change, but not by themselves; (B) is incorrect. Primary source accounts of governments could be used indirectly to see changes over time, but like the population records, these are best used as supporting sources. (C) is incorrect. Religious and social changes often cross political boundaries and are not a reliable indication of governmental change; (D) is incorrect.
Situated at the western end of the Trans-Saharan trade route, the Malian conversion to and spread of Islam contributed to trade and diplomatic relationships with neighboring states and exposure to the broader Islamic world (Dar al-Islam); (B) is correct. The Ottomans practiced forced conversion, but the Malians did not; (A) is incorrect. Islam spread in Africa from the Arabian peninsula and supplanted native African religions, especially in states in Northern Africa, but we cannot know if it caused conflict among the native religions. The wide acceptance of a foreign religion like Islam indicates an atmosphere of religious tolerance, though more evidence would be needed to prove that. (C) is incorrect. Both Shi’a and Sunni make a pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), so we cannot make a judgment about sectarian splits in Africa from this example alone; (D) is incorrect.
Analyzing Malian production, building, and trade relationships compared to its closest neighbors would give us the most accurate picture of the empire relative to its contemporaries; (C) is correct. Knowing gold production weights would not tell us the relative value of that gold during the Malian Imperial period, so (A) is incorrect here. However, that information could be useful in another context, for example in an analysis of relative gold production among states in the period. Trading caravans leaving one city would give us a lopsided picture of the total imperial economy; (B) is incorrect. The expenditure of gold along the pilgrimage route to Mecca is one of the legendary aspects of Musa I and his reign, but it does not significantly indicate the economic strength of the Malian Empire; (D) is incorrect.
Islam spread into Africa from the Arabian peninsula after its founding in the seventh century, eventually making it to the western end of the continent. The map shows one result, as an Islamic leader makes a pilgrimage back to the Arabian peninsula. Trade routes are typically created by non-state actors and follow the boundaries of geography, particularly in arid regions like northern Africa. (A) is correct. Most of the northern African states were Islamic; (B) is incorrect. The map does not indicate a movement of populations, and we cannot support that inference from the evidence here; (C) is incorrect. Similarly, while we could find examples of stronger states conquering weaker neighbors, or forcing them into tributary relationships, this map would not work as evidence for that claim; (D) is incorrect.
Starting before the common era and continuing in stages to the present, successive dynasties sponsored the construction and expansion of the Grand Canal, with the goal of improving trade between the northern and southern regions of China. Most of the major Chinese rivers are not navigable by trade vessels. By the 1200s (the Song Dynasty), advances in agricultural production coupled with transportation innovations like the Grand Canal led to economic growth. (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because the canal was built before European industrialization, which began around 1750. In this era, China was exporting innovations to Europe, like gunpowder and paper. The main aim and effect of the Grand Canal was more efficiently moving products internally within Chinese markets, not internationally; (C) is incorrect. State-owned enterprise was a feature of twentieth-century China, not thirteenth- to fifteenth-century China; (D) is incorrect.
The main effect of the Grand Canal and the Inca road system was the facilitation of intra-regional trade by state sponsored infrastructure; (B) is correct. The spread of plague in Europe affected the economy negatively and was not caused by infrastructure development, so (A) is incorrect. The Silk Road crossed national boundaries and created prosperity across countries and regions, not in only one; (C) is incorrect. The Hanseatic League fostered inter-regional trade between different states and independent cities, not intra-regional trade within one governmental entity; (D) is incorrect.
The Black Death (bubonic plague) spread through infected fleas carried by rodents, but Europeans at the time did not understand this disease vector. Instead interpreting the plague as divine punishment and viewing the Church as powerless to stop it, many Europeans turned to whipping themselves as penance for their sins. Thus, (C) is correct. While the crusades continued in piecemeal fashion into the early fifteenth century, Muslims in the Holy Land were not specifically targeted as scapegoats for the plague. Rather, Jews and other minorities within Europe were. So (A) is incorrect. Although the labor scarcity created by the plague helped end serfdom in Western Europe, it did not do so in Eastern Europe, which suffered comparatively less population loss. That makes (B) incorrect. Europe was largely deforested prior to the plague; the widespread population loss from the plague actually led to reforestation. (D) is incorrect because it suggests the opposite.
While the societies and institutions of Western Europe had outwardly endured the plague unaltered, internally they had changed due to, for example, a labor shortage. Workers were able to demand higher wages and greater political rights, such as freedom of movement, which contributed to undermining feudalism. Thus, (D) is correct. Only one-third of the population died in the first five years of the plague, not two-thirds; (A) is incorrect. The English Civil War did not take place until the seventeenth century. In fact, the plague strengthened the power of monarchies throughout Europe; (B) is incorrect. While tempting due to the plague’s impact on the course of the conflict, especially in terms of French manpower loss, (C) is incorrect because the start of the Hundred Years’ War predates the outbreak of the plague in Europe by a decade.
Hecker offers a negative characterization of the Catholic Church gaining new lands and money during the plague, suggesting it led to retrogression. In fact, the introduction of added wealth spurred a culture of corruption and wealth-seeking within the Church that helped spark the Protestant Reformation a century and a half later. Thus, (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because there were only nine official crusades conducted by the Catholic Church, the last of which ended in 1291. Later crusades were regional or national affairs, not overseen by the Church. (B) is incorrect because medical science in this time period was unable to treat the plague. (D) is incorrect because, while the financial gains made by the Church did help fund various Renaissance projects later on, Hecker is referencing a negative outcome for the Church, not a positive one.
In the context of the passage, Hecker is referring to near-term positive developments for European civilization after it suffered greatly from the Black Death. The Renaissance was a period of artistic and scientific self-discovery in Europe, particularly from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries. Thus, (A) is correct. The First Crusade was called for in 1095, long before the plague; (B) is incorrect. The Enlightenment took place in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—too late for Hecker; (C) is incorrect. Although (D) is tempting in the context of the war strengthening English and French identity and government, it is too limited to be correct. The Renaissance had a widespread impact throughout the European continent.