The Pax Mongolica is what enabled Qiu Chuji to travel westward to meet with Genghis Khan. Prior to the rise of the Mongol Empire, trade and travel across Eurasia was difficult due to multiple border crossings and banditry. However, the Mongols enforced strict control over the areas they conquered, enabling increased traffic along routes like the Silk Road. Thus, (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the Southern Song Dynasty was not conquered until the 1270s, after the Mongol Empire had fragmented. The faction that formed the Yuan Dynasty adopted the trappings of Chinese civilization, while other factions such as the Ilkhanate did not. (B) is incorrect because it explains why Qiu Chuji was invited to speak with Genghis Khan, to discuss the secret of immortality, but not how the audience was able to take place at all. (D) is incorrect because there is nothing in the passage to indicate that any disease is rampant; furthermore, the Black Death did not spread until the fourteenth century, while this passage is dated as 1228.
The passage describes the Hui people of northwestern China as practicing neither Buddhism nor Daoism, suggesting they practice some other religion. Recall that one of the five duties of Islam is to pray five times a day facing Mecca. From the perspective of someone in China, Mecca, located in present-day Saudi Arabia, would be to the west. Thus, (B) is correct because the author is alluding to the Hui people being Muslims when he says that they “only worship the west.” (A) is incorrect because it does not address the religious aspect of the quotation, which is clear from the author previously stating that the Hui were neither Buddhists nor Daoists. (C) is incorrect because it only explains why the Hui were allowed to continue following their religion, not what that religion was nor what “only worship the west” meant. While tempting because China is diverse, (D) is incorrect because the passage suggests that only land to the east of the narrator’s location historically belonged to China, while the land to the west, where the Hui were, did not.
The passage concerns a Daoist master, Qiu Chuji, accepting the invitation of Ghengis Khan. Their interactions are an example of the Mongol Empire utilizing the talents of conquered peoples; in this case, Ghengis Khan’s efforts were initially focused on discovering the secret of immortality, and later he sought to dine with Qiu Chuji to speak with the Daoist master further. Thus, (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because the Mongols were anything but compassionate to many of their subjects, gaining a reputation for wholesale slaughter. (C) is incorrect because, even though Genghis Khan awards the master an ironic title after his honest response, there is no indication that the master is being appointed to a position of high rank that is warranted based on merit. While the Mongols were skilled at diplomacy, as demonstrated in part by the way Ghengis Khan easily accepted Qiu Chuji giving him an undesired answer to his question about the secret to immortality, the excerpt does not mention Ghengis Khan playing his enemies off one another. Qiu Chuji is merely an expert he is consulting. (D) is incorrect.
In Source 1, Steel describes how the Empire of Delhi had a minaret constructed out of the remnants of Hindu temples. In Source 2, Boulger describes how Kublai Khan, leader of the Mongol Empire and founder of the Yuan Dynasty, showed tolerance for existing beliefs among his conquered subjects. No particular religion was discouraged under Kublai Khan. Thus, (A) is correct and (D) is incorrect. The Empire of Delhi is shown to disregard existing beliefs among its conquered subjects and impose its own religion. (C) and (D) are incorrect.
As the Turks conquered Asia Minor, which is modern-day Turkey, they imposed their language on the region, making (C) correct. Eliminate (A) because, although there were religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims, a civil war did not break out in this period. (B) is incorrect because the Chinese retained their belief systems even under Mongol rule; in fact, the Mongols often adopted the religions of the groups they conquered. Eliminate (D), too, because the Mongols who attacked China did not spread Islam.
The first source describes an empire founded by a nomadic Turkic group. Following the collapse of the Seljuk Dynasty, a new Turkic body arose at the turn of the fourteenth century, when a tribal leader named Osman founded the Ottoman Empire. Thus, (D) is correct. While an Islamic empire, (A) is incorrect because Mali was not based on nomads conquering a settled society. (B) is incorrect because the Russian Empire arose as a result of Muscovite princes resisting Mongol conquest. In the context of Source 1, this would be akin to an Indian empire arising after resisting Turkic conquest. (C) is incorrect because the Yuan Dynasty practiced religious toleration, unlike what was described in Source 1.
Nomadic expansion, especially that of the Mongols, increased trade connections. This occurred because the nomads controlled the entire length of the Silk Road, making it safer to travel; (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because farmers rarely became herders or pastoralists; they lived in areas ideal for agriculture and were used to a sedentary way of life. (C) is incorrect because, while the Yuan Dynasty was short-lived, the Delhi Sultanate lasted some 300 years. (D) is incorrect because the Delhi Sultanate did not practice religious toleration; Hindu and Buddhist temples were often targeted for destruction.
In this era, rulers attempted to centralize power by limiting the power of existing elites. These elites were typically large, landowning families (in this case, the daimyo). By implementing these regulations, the ruler was eliminating threats to his power. (D) is correct. (A) is incorrect because landowning classes often worked in cooperation with central rulers. In most cases, they were still responsible for carrying out regulations. They also benefited from expansion of the empire, so they would likely not resist expansion efforts. (B) is incorrect because, although this is true of the time period, the document was addressing the upper-class daimyo and samurai warriors, rather than the peasantry. (C) is incorrect because, in spite of widening global economic opportunities during this time period that raised many merchants to positions in a new economic elite, Japanese merchants did not benefit due to restrictions on trade.
These regulations served to limit the power of the daimyo, who ruled locally. To that end, these regulations prevented the daimyo from forming alliances and displaying their wealth, thus ensuring stability throughout Japan and limiting the possibility of rebellion. (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because an imperial examination system would be merit-based to select members of the bureaucracy. In contrast, this system used existing large landowners as local governors. (B) is incorrect because the economy flourished in the Tokugawa period. The shogun encouraged frugality to limit threats to his power. (D) is incorrect because the daimyo were already under the control of the shogun. If they were not, these edicts would be meaningless and would not do anything to help the shogun gain the loyalty of the daimyo.
The Tokugawa shoguns feared rebellion due to the prior period of civil war, in which several leaders claimed to be shogun. During that prior period, wars occurred and the daimyo changed their allegiances. The Tokugawa shoguns implemented these regulations to limit threats to their power. (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because, although European merchants began to arrive in Japan in the sixteenth century, the edicts did not discuss regulations regarding trade or interactions with foreigners. (C) is incorrect because Western merchants arrived to engage in trade in this period. However, trade agreements were not forced on Japan by the West until after Matthew Perry’s voyage in the mid-nineteenth century. (D) is incorrect because, even though Neo-Confucian values were embraced by the Tokugawa shoguns, the shoguns did not have a tributary relationship with China.
Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa shogunate in 1600, after a period of civil war that began in 1467. Ieyasu hoped to stabilize the country and end the unrest by increasing his control over the daimyo. The unification of Japan under the Tokugawa family began a period of peace and prosperity that lasted over 250 years. (D) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the emperor remained a figurehead in the Tokugawa era and was not a threat to the shogun’s power. In fact, emperors were typically ceremonial rulers prior to the Meiji period that began in the mid-nineteenth century. (B) is incorrect because the Tokugawa implemented a series of regulations that are often called the “closed country edicts.” They strictly regulated trade with Westerners and banned Christianity. (C) is incorrect because the shogun was not overthrown until the Meiji Restoration in the mid-nineteenth century.
Western encroachment in the nineteenth century forced Japan to open up trade with Europe and the United States. This led to rebellions against the Tokugawa shoguns and the restoration of the emperor to power, known as the Meiji Restoration. (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because, even though the Western powers influenced Japan’s economy, they did not conquer or colonize Japan. Japan did not have any conflicts with China at this time, making (C) incorrect. (D) is incorrect because, despite these regulations, there was strong economic growth within Japan due to the period of peace fostered by the Tokugawa shogunate.
Indigenous tribes and empires, such as the Mexica and Inca, were conquered by Europeans who used new ships and navigational tools to reach their land. These tribes and empires lacked gunpowder weapons that were used by Europeans to subdue them. (C) is therefore correct. (A) is incorrect because, although indigenous populations eventually declined by approximately 90 percent, they were not completely destroyed. Colonization occurred shortly after initial contact due to superior weapons technology. Even though in some cases indigenous peoples provided assistance to the Spanish, such as enemies of the Mexica, most resisted subjugation, so (B) is correct. (D) is incorrect because the Mexica and Inca empires collapsed as a result of conquest by Europeans, not before European arrival.
Mercantilist economic policies were embraced by European monarchs in order to increase revenues. One goal of mercantilism was to have a favorable balance of trade in which the kingdom exported more than it imported. Another goal was for the kingdom to have a monopoly on trade with its colonies. This allowed a kingdom to pay relatively low prices to the colonies for raw materials and to charge high prices for selling finished goods to the colonies. (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because joint-stock companies were mainly used in the Indian Ocean basin network to engage in trade. In contrast, the governments of the European mother countries controlled trade in the Americas. The colonies were the source of cash crops, such as cotton, sugar, tobacco, coffee, and indigo, and of raw materials, such as furs, whale oil, and lumber, making (B) incorrect. (D) is incorrect because Atlantic trade developed and increased in this era. Indian Ocean trade was thriving and intensifying as well due to a European presence and the use of silver from the Americas.
As the Spanish conquered indigenous peoples and colonized much of Latin America, they developed a hierarchy of racial classifications often referred to as the casta system. In this system, those of European descent had higher status than mixed-race groups (e.g., mestizos) and those without European ancestry. Thus, (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because colonists paid taxes to the British government in North America. This later led to a revolution against British imperial rule. European governments used a variety of administrative techniques to manage their overseas colonies. In addition, European control was not overthrown until revolutions occurred in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, making (C) incorrect. (D) is incorrect because tensions among European maritime powers increased due to competition over claiming land. These powers also competed to dominate global maritime trade.
The building of monumental architecture like that shown was financed using money generated from taxing trade and mercantilist policies. Note that mercantilism is the belief that a nation’s power was based on its material wealth, particularly in gold and silver. Therefore, (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because, although militaries were used to centralize power, the Taj Mahal does not reflect that. Empires at this time were expanding due to the use of gunpowder weapons, as opposed to contracting or losing territory; (B) is incorrect. (D) is incorrect because the Taj Mahal was from an Asian empire.
Throughout history, empires have sponsored the construction of buildings to display their power and wealth. The Taj Mahal is an excellent example of such prominent construction. (B) is correct. The Taj Mahal was a tomb, not a defense fortification, making (A) incorrect. (C) is incorrect because architecture throughout the world has not used Greco-Roman features, such as domes, columns, and arches, so it has not been universally adopted. (D) is incorrect because, although the Taj Mahal was a tomb, it was not built as a religious building or place of worship.
European involvement in Asian trade was due to maritime reconnaissance, which is another term for exploration. The initial goal of European powers in exploring the Indian Ocean was not to conquer, but to control trade. By the mid-1500s, Portugal had 50 trading posts from West Africa to East Asia. The English and Dutch later became the dominant seafaring powers with faster, cheaper, and more powerful ships. Their imperial expansion was aided by the use of joint-stock companies, in which investors, rather than royal governments, funded expeditions. (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because British imperialism in India occurred much later, in the nineteenth century. Although Europeans did conquer North America, silver was mined in Latin America (mainly in Mexico and Peru), making (C) incorrect. (D) is incorrect because, while trading posts were established in West Africa, their purpose was mainly to acquire slaves to bring to the Americas rather than to acquire goods to trade with Asia.
Silver, the most abundant American precious metal, was responsible for stimulating the global trade network. Spain, for example, used silver to trade for silk and porcelain in Asia. China used the precious metal as a primary medium of exchange and to finance a powerful military and bureaucracy. Europeans had a large role in the global circulation of silver because they brought it from its source (Latin America) to China. (C) is correct. (A) and (D) are incorrect because these choices represent Europeans using silver themselves rather than serving as “middlemen” in trade. Although (B) is a true statement, it does not discuss the role of silver.
Due to the silver trade, Europeans set up trading posts in the Indian Ocean basin in order to get the goods they desired. As a result, Europeans became intermediaries in global trade. (D) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the Ming and Qing Dynasties ruled in this period. The imperial government remained strong until the nineteenth century. The conquest of American Indians happened in the decades after Columbus’s arrival, and silver was mined once colonial rule was established, making (B) incorrect. (C) is incorrect because goods from Europe were not highly valued by those in Asia because Europeans had very few products that Asian civilizations were not already producing.
Missionaries, such as the Jesuits, traveled to Asia to spread Christianity in this period. In Japan, for example, Christianity made some important inroads by 1580, with 150,000 Japanese Christian converts, but the government ended these missions and outlawed the religion. Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci arrived in China, introducing European science and technology. The Jesuit goal of converting the Chinese population to Christianity proved to be unsuccessful, but the missionaries were able to bring back Chinese knowledge to Europe. (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because, although some Asians may have adopted some Western cultural aspects, it was not typical. Additionally, one group rarely ever completely adopted all the elements of another group. Zheng He’s voyages took place before Europeans arrived in Asia (early in the fifteenth century), making (C) incorrect. (D) is incorrect because Africa was not conquered in this period. The slave trade was due to the demand for labor on plantations in the Americas.
Improved ship designs led to the discovery and conquest of the Americas. This caused trade to be truly global and led to mercantilist policies. Mercantilism is an economic theory that describes the ways in which nation-states enrich themselves by limiting imports and encouraging exports. (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the first trade links between Europe and Asia were via the Silk Road. (B) is incorrect because, although the caravel led to the establishment of new trade networks, existing ones remained and intensified. (D) is incorrect because, while Chinese navigational technology diffused to Europe indirectly through the Crusades, the caravel was a European design.
The compass was invented in China but was adopted by merchants in the Indian Ocean basin in the previous time period and spread to Europeans as a result of the contact with Arabs during the Crusades. (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because the technology spread rather than blended with existing technologies. Although the intensification of existing trade networks did occur in this period, it was not due to the compass but, rather, the arrival of Europeans; (C) is incorrect. (D) is incorrect because the technology spread from China, not from the Americas due to Columbus’s voyages.
Major technological developments such as the compass and improved shipbuilding technology shaped the development of the world by facilitating exploration and cross-cultural contact. This in turn led to the development of trade routes, especially through the Indian Ocean region, and the growth of trading cities. (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because these technologies were not new. Although technologies diffused from other regions, some were adapted by the Europeans, making (C) incorrect. (D) is incorrect because the Americas did not have any of these inventions prior to the arrival of Europeans.
In 1857, the Indian troops mutinied after they received rifles with cartridges rumored to be greased in animal fat; consuming beef and pork fat violates Hindu and Muslim customs, respectively. The troops killed British officers, escalating the conflict into a large-scale rebellion, which is referred to as the Indian Rebellion of 1857. At least 800,000 Indians would die. British racial ideologies led to the treatment of native peoples as inferior while viewing their cultural traditions as barbaric, which caused the Indian soldiers to be angry. (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because agricultural production was not limited by the British since they relied on cheap cash crops from India, such as cotton. (C) is incorrect because, while Christian missionaries attempted conversions, Indians were not forced to convert and most retained their Hindu or Muslim beliefs. (D) is incorrect because the British did not incorporate Enlightenment ideas, such as representative government and legal equality, into the colonial government.
Elite Indians who had been educated in British universities were inspired by Enlightenment values and began to criticize the British colonial regime. They called for political and social reform. This passage describes how Indian princes were afraid of losing power due to British interference, so they joined the rebellion to preserve their power. (C) is correct, and (A) is therefore incorrect. (B) is incorrect because positions were not stable, as shown by the description of English actions. The passage focuses on rebellion and political aspects, rather than economic conditions, so (D) is incorrect.
England’s involvement in India began strictly as a business venture. Founded in 1600, the British East India Company enjoyed a monopoly on English trade with India and increasingly took advantage of the Mughal Empire’s growing weakness. Expanding its trading posts, the company petitioned the British government to outright conquer areas important to its trade in order to protect its interests. It enforced its rule with a combination of British troops and Indian troops. In 1857–1858, the British government had crushed the Indian rebellion referenced in the passage. It went on to impose direct imperial rule on India (the “British Raj”) with a viceroy representing British authority. (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because exploration (maritime reconnaissance) took place in the previous era. India was not a settler colony, like Australia or South Africa. Settler colonies were often in temperate climates and there were large-scale migrations of Europeans that settled in these areas permanently. Thus, (C) is incorrect. (D) is incorrect because imperialism was beyond economic—there was political control too.
India fought loyally as part of the British Empire in World War I, in the hopes of gaining more independence after the war. When the fighting ended, Britain introduced some minor reforms and liberalization but maintained complete control. This led to a surge in Indian nationalism under the leadership of the Congress Party as well as the charismatic Mohandas Gandhi, who demanded full independence. (A) is correct. Fearing losing one of their most lucrative colonies in response to nationalist movements, the British sought to maintain complete control. (B) is therefore incorrect. (C) is incorrect because British and Indian leaders were in opposition to one another. The British wanted to maintain control of India, while the Indians wanted independence. The Indian colonists continued to resist until they were successful in achieving independence shortly after World War II, so (D) is incorrect.
Toussaint L’Ouverture fought in the Haitian Revolution in the French colony of Saint-Domingue and helped end the practice of slavery there, which accords with the author’s views as an abolitionist; (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the tsar was conservative, and coerced labor continued in Russia until the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. Therefore, it would not explain why the author glorifies L’Ouverture. (C) is incorrect because, while L’Ouverture fought the French in the Haitian Revolution, that explanation does not jibe with the final sentence of the passage. (D) is incorrect because the fact that he is British would not necessarily demonstrate why he would support a former slave who rebelled against the French. His position as an abolitionist is more important in understanding that support.
As Enlightenment ideas of human equality and liberty spread throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, abolition became an important political cause in several Western countries; (D) is correct. The Haitian Revolution was interpreted through preexisting ideology; those who opposed colonialism supported it, those who supported colonialism opposed it. The revolution alone would be unlikely as a cause for the author’s pro-abolition stance; (A) is incorrect. The creation of the United States did not result in the emancipation of slaves; this was the cause of the American Civil War from 1861–1865. (B) is incorrect. While the Napoleonic wars were certainly violent, slavery was not a central issue in them; (C) is incorrect.
The Haitian Revolution was inspired by the American Revolution and took place during the French Revolution. Saint-Domingue was a lucrative French colony based on a system of plantation labor, and those slave laborers were at the forefront of the uprising against French rule; (A) is correct. While Enlightenment ideas influenced all three revolutions, they were not as relevant as the revolutions themselves; (B) is incorrect. The Industrial Revolution changed production and working conditions on the European continent, but the colonies were not industrialized themselves; (C) is incorrect. The Russian Revolution happened in 1918; thus, (D) is anachronistic and incorrect.
The passage claims that advances in transportation and mechanical production allowed for more intensive agricultural cultivation; (D) is correct. The workers listed in the passage (with the exception of engineers) are unskilled laborers like miners and construction workers; (A) is incorrect. The supply of fossil fuels was seemingly unlimited, and it was the steady demand for those fuels that spurred developments in transportation; (B) is incorrect. The argument of (C) is not directly addressed by the passage, but inequality between laborers and owners increased during the Industrial Revolution period. There were waves of emigration from Europe to the United States, suggesting that things were not perfect for the whole society. (C) is incorrect.
Often, workers in the industrial era did not see the benefits that accrued to the owners of factories, child labor was widespread, wages were low, and conditions were generally poor. Thus, it is likely that industrial workers would not have as positive an opinion about the advent of machine labor; (D) is correct. Capitalists typically owned the factories or made money trading their products, and they would likely agree with the author of the passage; (A) is incorrect. Governments during this period were practicing a laissez-faire type of capitalist oversight and would likely agree with the author of the passage. Later in the nineteenth century, reform movements arose that were concerned with the living and working conditions of the lower classes, but that had not yet occurred when the passage was written; (B) is incorrect. Landholding elites often benefited by industrial production, either by direct investment or increased utilization and value of their land; (C) is incorrect.
European participation in global trade in the early modern period provided profits that were used to invest in factories and other ventures. In addition, changes in government caused by Enlightenment ideas led to laws protecting private property. (A) is correct. (B) is incorrect because the colonization of Africa occurred as an effect of industrial production due to the increased demand for raw materials, not the other way around. Europe’s population was increasing due to the introduction of American food crops and new agricultural methods; (C) is incorrect. (D) is incorrect because agricultural surpluses were necessary before industrialization in order to feed urban factory workers.
The reforms were an attempt to modernize China in response to Western economic imperialism that occurred following the Opium Wars, particularly the creation of European spheres of influence in Asia; (D) is correct. (A) is incorrect; China was not colonized and the Qing Dynasty retained control of the government. While Enlightenment ideals can be seen in points 1, 3, and 16, the bulk of the edicts are clearly economic in nature; (B) is incorrect. As noted above, the Qing Dynasty retained control of the government during this time period; (C) is incorrect.
In Japan during the Meiji Restoration, the government actively sought to modernize the country and promote reforms that would improve technology and the economy, which is what China was attempting to do; (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the Russian Revolution was a movement that sought to overthrow the existing political and social order and found a new government, not reform what was there. (C) is incorrect because the Mexican Revolution was focused on land reform and other social changes rather than on technological and economic reforms. The Second Industrial Revolution was a private set of changes, not something guided and driven by government policy; (D) is incorrect.
The weak government and failure to modernize led to the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and eventually to a civil war between Chinese communists and nationalists, which then led to the Chinese Communist Revolution. (C) is correct. While China is an industrial power now, that happened in the late twentieth century, and it is not a democracy; (A) is incorrect. The Qing Dynasty fell but was replaced by a short-lived republican form of government; (B) is incorrect. China was never controlled by a foreign power other than the brief occupation by Japan in the Second World War; (D) is incorrect.
The “White Man’s Burden” is popularly understood to mean that Europeans had a mission to bring “civilization” to their colonial possessions, particularly in the areas of hygiene, social organization, religion, and technology. This is the particular ideology behind the Spanish missions in the New World, which were designed to convert the indigenous population to the Catholicism of the Spanish crown. (A) is correct. While Protestants and Catholics experienced severe conflict, it was not based on a desire to civilize either group, but rather on sectarian religious disagreement between otherwise similarly situated groups of people; (B) is incorrect. Similarly, the proxy wars during the Cold War were justified as halting the expansionist aggression of the communist (or capitalist, from the Soviet viewpoint) powers, but neither group considered themselves to have a civilizing mission. They were concerned with their own geopolitical conflict, not the well-being or status of their proxies. (C) is incorrect. Genocides do not target groups for conversion or reeducation, but annihilation, which was the purpose of the Holocaust. The poem evinces a paternalistic attitude toward non-Western peoples, but not a genocidal one. (D) is incorrect.
Particularly in the first stanza, there is infantilizing language used to describe colonized peoples, and the phrase “half devil” especially reflects scientific racism. (A) is correct. Fascist governments did not arise until the 1920s and 30s, and were mainly a reaction to global economic instability, not colonialism; (B) is incorrect. The revolutions of the nineteenth century in Latin America affected Spanish and Portuguese colonies, and while they dealt with issues of racism and colonialism, this is less specific than the racial ideologies mentioned in (A); (C) is incorrect. Enlightenment ideas were used by opponents of colonization to justify their independence movements, but they are not reflected in the poem; (D) is incorrect.
Gandhi famously followed the concept of ahimsa, or nonviolence, in his struggle against British rule in India. This inspired other civil rights leaders of the twentieth century, like Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., in the United States and Nelson Mandela in South Africa. (C) is correct. Gandhi was not a Hindu nationalist, and he wanted to create a unified Indian state. (A) and (D) are incorrect. However, examples of both of these things would appear in Indian politics in later decades. After experiences in South Africa, Gandhi did not believe in working for reform within the British system, but rather pushed for total independence; (B) is incorrect.
When doing a comparative historical analysis, it is best to compare like items, so the analysis can focus on the meaning, not differences in style or structure. All of the items listed would be of interest to a historian of the era, but (A) provides a directly contrasting viewpoint in a similarly fictional and allegorical mode; thus, (A) is correct. A white paper from a European group would give more of the European understanding of the issue but would not illuminate the other side of the poem; (B) is incorrect. The poem deals with cultural and social factors, and while economic records might provide some limited information about those subjects, they would not be as useful in a cultural analysis as contemporaneous fiction; (C) is incorrect. Similarly the newspaper accounts would be interesting for context, but not comparison; (D) is incorrect.
As transit options like steamships and railways became larger and faster, more migrants were able to take advantage of the lower costs and undertake voyages to other countries like the United States; (C) is correct. A historian would be able to look at the chart and connect the rise in Italian emigration to the expansion of the U.S. economy, the rise of the steamship era, and the acceleration of a globally connected economic system that would eventually result in the Great Depression of the 1930s. Because the table only gives us absolute numbers of emigrants and not relative numbers, there is no way to know from the data presented what portion of the population emigrated, large or small. The reasons for emigration cannot be inferred from the number of migrants alone; (A) is incorrect. As above, all we can see in the chart are raw totals, and we do not know the countries to which the Italian migrants went in Europe. Without further data, this conclusion cannot be supported; (B) is incorrect. The premise that the workers were high-skilled cannot be supported by the data in the table, as it does not address the nature, but rather the numbers, of the immigrant experience. (D) is incorrect.
Italian migrants came to the Americas looking for jobs as the region industrialized; Italy was economically behind Northern and Western Europe. (A) is correct. While there were decades of peace after the Franco-Prussian War in the 1870s, typically peacetime is not a driver of migration, so this explanation is not the best. (B) is incorrect. Governments in the destination countries accepted immigrants with varying degrees of welcome, but none of them sponsored immigrants or immigrant voyages; (C) is incorrect. Governments in the less frequented regions like Asia and Oceania did not restrict Italian immigration, but they did not have as many available jobs as the Americas or Europe; (D) is incorrect.
Often, immigrants were viewed with suspicion by native residents in their new countries, and there were typically language barriers, as immigrants seldom spoke the native tongue. As a consequence, they often formed ethnic neighborhoods in the areas where landlords would rent to them, keeping traditional cultural forms alive in a new setting; (B) is correct. While many children of immigrants abandon traditional practices in favor of assimilation into the majority, this is a process that takes generations; (A) is incorrect. The majority of Italian immigrants were Roman Catholic and moved to other Christian areas where Catholic practice was accepted, so there was no need to form a syncretic religion; (C) is incorrect. Migrants typically adopt pieces of their new home culture, and Italians were no different—there was no wholesale rejection of new cultural forms in their diaspora; (D) is incorrect.
NATO and the Warsaw Pact were alliances during the Cold War that developed due to tensions between the United States (and its capitalist allies) and the Soviet Union (and its communist allies). Non-Aligned Movement members wished to remain neutral in the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect as the world economy had recovered from the Great Depression by the mid-1950s, due to extensive war spending in World War II, and there was no economic crisis. While decolonization was happening during the period, it did not lead to the alliance system. The Non-Aligned Movement was mostly comprised of newly independent states attempting to avoid being slotted into the preexisting NATO/Warsaw Pact framework; (B) is incorrect. While genocidal practices had been present in the Nazi state during World War II, they did not lead to the creation of the postwar alliance system; (D) is incorrect.
The Non-Aligned Movement was meant to reject the polarization of the world into communist and capitalist spheres. During the Cold War, NATO and the Warsaw Pact attempted to bring newly independent states into their orbit, and leaders feared this would lessen their ability to create their own path in the postcolonial world; (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect; the Non-Aligned Movement was not a military alliance, but more of a cooperative of nations, similar to the United Nations. (C) is incorrect because these nations were already independent. If they had been colonies, they would have been subject to control of their mother country. (D) is incorrect; while the Non-Aligned Movement touched economic concerns due to the nature of the Cold War, that was not its reason for being.
There never was a direct outbreak of war between the United States and the Soviet Union, but there was indirect fighting in proxy wars, particularly in Southeast Asia in countries like Korea and Vietnam. (D) is correct. The Soviet Union provided weapons and intelligence for the communist groups while the United States provided aid to those fighting communism. (A) is incorrect because environmental organizations tend to be nongovernmental organizations, such as Greenpeace, and did not arise out of military alliances. As mentioned, war between the United States and the Soviet Union did not occur; (B) is incorrect. While one could argue that trade agreements like the North American Free Trade Agreement stem from the jockeying for position in the Cold War, they are not a direct result; (C) is incorrect.
The space race developed directly out of conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States, beginning with the launch of the first Sputnik satellite in 1957 and culminating in the United States landing on the moon in 1969. (A) is correct. While they were an important part of the Cold War conflict, atomic weapons were first developed during the Second World War; (B) is incorrect. The Green Revolution happened in the 1960s and 70s and is not directly tied to the Cold War; (C) is incorrect. Democratization in Eastern Europe occurred after the fall of the Soviet Union, not during the height of its power, as represented on the map. (D) is incorrect.
As the United States and Western Europe moved toward knowledge-based jobs and service industries, manufacturing shifted away from the West toward Asia and the Pacific Rim, resulting in rapid economic growth there. (C) is correct. (A) is incorrect because China began rapid industrialization in the 1970s and Japan continued to manufacture items such as computers and cars. The United States still has very high levels of consumption and strong demand for imported goods; (B) is incorrect. Europe is fully integrated into the global economy, and no area of the modern world is “self-sufficient”; (D) is incorrect.
Economic institutions, such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, as well as regional agreements, such as the European Union, have facilitated economic growth and stimulated demand, as well as allowed states to modernize their industrial capacity; (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because, while international organizations such as the United Nations lay a foundation for economic growth, they do not directly or necessarily lead to it. (C) is incorrect because countries that grow their economies often violate human rights by providing few protections for workers; most protest movements against globalism, if effective, would decrease economic activity rather than increase it. (D) is incorrect because economic isolation would not result in rising per capita GDP in the modern global economy.
The rapid economic growth among Asian Tigers, caused by a fundamental shift in economic basis, mimics the growth of Europe’s economy during the Industrial Revolution; (D) is correct. (A) is incorrect because Western Europe in the twentieth century generally did not experience rapid economic growth, due to the world wars and the Great Depression. (B) is incorrect because industrial growth has occurred slowly in sub-Saharan Africa, which remains one of the least industrialized areas in the world. (C) is incorrect because in the nineteenth century, India and China were economically dominated by Western powers seeking to extract resources.
Genetically modified crops were developed by private companies beginning in the 1970s during the Green Revolution, aimed at increasing agricultural yields; (B) is correct. (A) is incorrect because the end of the Cold War did not impact food production or farming methods. (C) is incorrect because the European Union reduced trade barriers and promoted economic integration, but this did not lead to the production of GM crops, and the EU has opposed some of their use. (D) is incorrect because new international organizations, such as the United Nations, did not directly impact scientific advances in agriculture.
The problems identified in the Greenpeace statement reflect a consideration beyond economics and toward broader human well-being, apart from whether or not the genetically modified seeds “work.” (D) is correct. While the passage clearly does not support industry, it also does not mention government intervention, so we cannot infer the author’s position on that issue; (A) and (B) are incorrect. While scientific advances may move us toward the goals identified in (C), the statement is focused on economic and social structures and their control on technology, not the technology itself; (C) is incorrect.
Nongovernmental organizations, like Greenpeace, developed to bring attention to environmental issues that have arisen due to globalization and population growth, (A) is correct. While neoliberal economic policies can be inferred from the references to “industrial agriculture,” regional trade agreements are not implicated in the passage; (B) is incorrect. Greenpeace is a secular organization and its stated concerns are political and economic, not religious; (C) is incorrect. The environmental movement is a global movement, but it is not an ideology, like capitalism, communism, or fascism; (D) is incorrect.
The production of genetically modified seed crops is often done by private companies like Monsanto and Bayer, which make large profits and charge high prices for their seeds, and we can see the opposition to this in the second paragraph. (C) is correct. Small farms and organic farming are not implicated in the statement, other than as an example of the failures of genetically modified crops; (A) is incorrect. Organizations dedicated to famine relief presumably support higher crop yields and are less concerned with economic issues; (B) is incorrect. Similarly, food exports have risen as a result of industrial agriculture, but this is not why Greenpeace opposes the use of GMOs, as we can see in the second paragraph. (D) is incorrect.
A successful short-answer response accomplishes all three tasks set forth by the prompt. Each part of the prompt is worth 1 point, for a total of 3 possible points.
(a) To earn the point, the response must identify a specific factor that led to population growth in the United States or England in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries. Examples include: increases in agricultural yields due to practices such as enclosure and crop rotation; the invention of new farm tools that improved productivity such as the seed drill and steel plow; and the development of the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner.
(b) To earn the point, the response must identify a population trend in the period since 1900 and explain a cause of that population trend. One example is the rapid growth of overall world population due to factors including advances in agricultural production such as the Green Revolution and the use of fertilizers, and the development of new vaccines and medical treatments. Other examples of population trends include the stagnating of population growth in more developed countries in comparison with less developed countries due to factors including availability of contraceptives, and lower worldwide infant mortality rates due to availability of food and improved diets.
(c) To earn the point, the response must explain a way in which population trends led to changes in the environment. Examples of the impact of increased world populations include: the depletion of resources such as fossil fuels, clean water, and timber due to more people using limited resources; the increased release of greenhouse gases due to increased industrial production resulting from greater demand for consumer goods; and agriculture causing the degradation of land and ecosystems, as in the processes of soil erosion, mineral depletion, and fertilizer runoff.
A successful short-answer response accomplishes all three tasks set forth by the prompt. Each part of the prompt is worth 1 point, for a total of 3 possible points.
(a) To earn the point, the response must explain a specific continuity in views of immigrants. Examples can include: the negative attitudes toward new minority groups in the United States that led to restrictions such as the Chinese Exclusion Act and quotas that limited migrants from certain European countries; the persistence of the idea that immigrants are less loyal to the government than native peoples, such as suspicions in democratic countries of foreigners being communists during the Cold War; and the formation of anti-immigrant groups, such as the Know-Nothings in the nineteenth-century United States.
(b) To earn the point, the response must identify a change in patterns of migrations. In North and South America, examples include: the shift in migrations from Western European countries, such as England, France, and Germany, to migrations from Southern and Eastern European countries, such as Italy, Poland, and Russia; the shift from forced labor migrations from Africa to voluntary labor migrations from Europe and Asia; and the shift in migrants seeking factory jobs rather than agricultural work. Other examples of world migration patterns include the migration of Europeans and indentured workers from China and India to European colonies.
(c) To earn the point, the response must explain an economic reason for changes in migration patterns. Examples include: how the Industrial Revolution led to poor working and living conditions in European cities, resulting in migrations to the Americas; the global economy created by the Industrial Revolution creating demand for raw materials and laborers; and the mechanization of farming in Europe resulting in more unskilled laborers who were seeking jobs.
A successful short-answer response accomplishes all three tasks set forth by the prompt. Each part of the prompt is worth 1 point, for a total of 3 possible points.
(a) To earn the point, the response must explain a demographic (population) change that occurred as a result of the contact between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres following Columbus’s initial voyage. Examples include: the decline of native populations as a result of diseases; the increase in populations in Afro-Eurasia as a result of new food crops from the Americas; the mixing of populations in the Americas; the emergence of mestizo and mulatto populations; and the disruptions in African societies due to the slave trade.
(b) To earn the point, the response must explain an environmental change. Examples include: deforestation and soil depletion due to the clearing of land for plantation agriculture; the impacts of monocultures on plantations; the introduction of new species of plants, such as wheat and rice, and animals, such as horses, cattle, and pigs, into the ecosystems of the Americas and Europe; and the mining boom in the Americas due to the demand for silver.
(c) To earn the point, the response must explain a specific economic change. Examples include: the rise of the Atlantic trading system, the global silver trade, the trade of cash crops grown in the Americas, the development of mercantilist policies, and the integration of the Americas into global trade.
A successful short-answer response accomplishes all three tasks set forth by the prompt. Each part of the prompt is worth 1 point, for a total of 3 possible points.
(a) To earn the point, the response must identify a major Enlightenment idea used by Haitian revolutionaries. Examples could include the use of the ideas of equality and natural rights to advocate for the emancipation of slaves held by French colonists and the use of the ideas of liberty and consent of the governed to justify the overthrow of French rule.
(b) To earn the point, the response must explain a difference in the motivations or causes of the Haitian and American Revolutions. For example, the French colonists in Haiti were advocating for the emancipation of slaves, while British colonists in North America were agitated by taxation policies and lack of political representation. The leaders of North American revolutions were mainly against emancipation of slaves, whereas most Haitian revolutionaries were slaves themselves. The Haitians were protesting coerced labor systems, while American colonists were protesting mercantilist policies that restricted trade.
(c) To earn the point, the response must explain the impact of Enlightenment ideas following the revolutions. Examples include: the establishment of constitutions that protected natural rights, the implementation of representative governments, and the abolition of slavery based on Enlightenment ideas (although delayed in the United States).
Evaluate the differences in responses to the negative effects of industrialization on European workers in the period 1750–1900.
| Category | Scoring Criteria | Notes |
| Thesis/Claim (0–1 points) |
Historically defensible thesis/claim with a logical line of reasoning. The response must make a thesis or claim without restating the prompt itself. The thesis must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, either in the introduction or the conclusion. |
This question is assessing the historical reasoning skill of comparison. The thesis should identify two to three major responses to the negative effects of industrialization and summarize how these responses differ. Examples: Advocating that the government should be hands-off in the economy and the poor should help themselves; advocating for political reform; workers organizing themselves through violent or nonviolent means. |
| Contextualization (0–1 points) |
Broader historical context related to the prompt. The response must connect the topic to historical developments, events, or processes; these can occur before, during, or after the time frame of the prompt itself. |
Contextualization for this prompt should explain, not merely mention, broader factors that influenced worker conditions. Examples: Factors contributing to the Industrial Revolution; descriptions of typical conditions for the working poor and how conditions differed from agricultural work of the past. |
| Evidence (0–3 points) |
Use of evidence to support the thesis. The response must utilize the content from at least three documents to address the topic of the prompt. (1 point) OR The response must use at least six documents to support an argument based on the prompt. (2 points) |
Evidence from the documents must be paraphrased, not merely quoted. Examples: Documents 1 and 3 as examples of those who advocated a purely free market economy; documents 5 and 7 as examples of those who supported government legislation to address working conditions; documents 2, 4, and 6 as examples of workers organizing. |
| The response must use at least one additional piece of historical evidence, beyond what is found in the documents, to support an argument. This additional evidence must be different from what was used for contextualization. (1 point) |
Example: Additional legislation passed, such as universal male suffrage and compulsory education, which allowed the lower class the opportunity to voice their opinions and improve their jobs. | |
| Analysis and Reasoning (0–2 points) |
Complexity of understanding and reasoning. The response must explain, for at least three of the documents, how or why the document’s purpose, historical basis, point of view, and/or audience are relevant to an argument. (1 point) |
Factors’ relevance to the argument about responses to industrialization should be explained, not just identified. Example: The role of purpose in document 4, in which the author presents different responses to the increasing use of machinery in the textile industry. |
| The response must show a complex understanding of the content of the prompt, using evidence to support, qualify, or modify an argument about the prompt. (1 point) |
A complex understanding should be incorporated into the overall argument about responses to industrialization. Examples: Qualifying the responses to industrialization based on individuals’ situations, as the philosophers in the documents, who were not in the position of the workers, advocated a lack of government intervention (with the exception of Owens), while the workers themselves advocated change; connecting the development of communism to the later socialist and Marxist revolutions of the twentieth century. |
In the period 1200–1750, along with alterations in social structures and in methods of production, there were also some important changes in labor management.
Develop an argument that evaluates the changes in labor systems in the period 1200–1750.
| Category | Scoring Criteria |
Notes |
| Thesis/Claim (0–1 points) |
Historically defensible thesis/claim with a logical line of reasoning. The response must make a thesis or claim without restating the prompt itself. The thesis must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, either in the introduction or the conclusion. |
This essay question assesses the skill of continuity and change over time. A strong essay examines at least two major changes in labor systems. Examples: The development of serfdom in Japan and Eastern Europe; the decline of serfdom in Western Europe; the Inca development of the mit’a system; the coerced labor systems employed by the Spanish and other European colonizers of the Americas. |
| Contextualization (0–1 points) |
Broader historical context related to the prompt. The response must connect the topic to historical developments, events, or processes; these can occur before, during, or after the time frame of the prompt itself. |
Contextualization for this prompt should explain, not merely mention, broader factors relevant to changes to labor systems. Examples: Explanations of why these labor systems developed or declined during this time, such as the impact of the shogun rule in Japan; agricultural, economic, and industrial developments in Europe; the exploration and colonization of the Americas by Europeans. |
| Evidence (0–2 points) |
Use of evidence to support the thesis. The response identifies specific examples relevant to the topic of the prompt. (1 point) OR The response uses specific examples to support an argument about the prompt. (2 points) |
Evidence must be paraphrased, not merely quoted. To earn 2 points, the evidence must be used to support an argument about changes to labor systems. Examples: The rise of feudalism in Japan as a result of warfare under the rule of the shogunate; the decline of serfdom in Western Europe as the economy diversified through trade; agricultural innovations increased output and made serfdom less profitable for landowners; the enclosure movement, and the eventual start of the Industrial Revolution; the development of the mit’a system in the Inca Empire to redistribute agricultural surplus and create/maintain infrastructure; the introduction of encomienda; the reconstitution of mit’a; and the institution of slave plantation labor by the Spanish in American colonies. |
| Analysis and Reasoning (0–2 points) |
Complexity of understanding and reasoning. The response shows historical reasoning to make an argument about the prompt. (1 point) OR The response demonstrates complex understanding, using evidence to support, qualify, or modify an argument about the prompt. (2 points) |
Comparison, causation, or continuity and change over time should be incorporated into the overall argument about changes to labor systems. Examples: A detailed description of one or more of the changes to labor systems listed above (continuity and change over time); an explanation of the factors that led to one of the changes to labor systems (causation). OR A complex understanding should be incorporated into the overall argument about changes to labor systems. Examples: Explaining both causes and effects of changes to labor systems, such as the freeing up of laborers for industrial work in Western Europe, the delaying of industrial development in Eastern Europe, and the devastation to native populations in the Americas and importation of African slaves; corroborating the argument about changes in labor systems due to European colonization by discussing it in terms of multiple course themes, such as the cultural, economic, political, religious, and environmental impacts on native populations and landscapes. |
In the period 1450–1750, existing regional patterns of trade intensified in the context of the new global circulation of goods.
Develop an argument that evaluates how one or more trade networks changed as a result of the new global circulation of goods in this time period.
| Category | Scoring Criteria | Notes |
| Thesis/Claim (0–1 points) |
Historically defensible thesis/claim with a logical line of reasoning. The response must make a thesis or claim without restating the prompt itself. The thesis must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, either in the introduction or the conclusion. |
This question assesses the skill of continuity and change over time. A strong thesis should make a claim about at least two major changes in trade networks due to the rise of truly global trade systems. Example: “New trade networks emerged and old ones declined as the Americas were incorporated into a system of global trade from 1450–1750. Europeans profited from trade in precious metals and cash crops from the Americas, eventually developing the Atlantic system, while some traditional trade routes such as the Silk Road declined in importance.” |
| Contextualization (0–1 points) |
Broader historical context related to the prompt. The response must connect the topic to historical developments, events, or processes; these can occur before, during, or after the time frame of the prompt itself. |
Contextualization for this prompt should explain, not merely mention, broader factors relevant to changes to trade networks. Examples: A summary of European motivations for sea exploration; a description of the voyage of Vasco da Gama and Portuguese expansion in the Indian Ocean basin. |
| Evidence (0–2 points) |
Use of evidence to support the thesis. The response identifies specific examples relevant to the topic of the prompt. (1 point) OR The response uses specific examples to support an argument about the prompt. (2 points) |
Evidence must be paraphrased, not merely quoted. To earn 2 points, the evidence must be used to support an argument about changes to trade networks. Examples: The rise of transatlantic trade due to the establishment of plantations in the Caribbean and Brazil; the widespread use of silver from the Americas as a global currency; the spread of Christianity; the shift from the dominance of Arab merchants in the Indian Ocean basin due to the new role of Europeans as middlemen in trade; the establishment of trading posts by Europeans; the colonization of Indonesia by the Dutch and the Philippines by the Spanish; the decline in Silk Road trade due to the rise of direct sea routes from Europe to Asia and the increased risk of overland travel in Central Asia after the fall of the Mongol Empire. |
| Analysis and Reasoning (0–2 points) |
Complexity of understanding and reasoning. The response shows historical reasoning to make an argument about the prompt. (1 point) OR The response demonstrates complex understanding, using evidence to support, qualify, or modify an argument about the prompt. (2 points) |
Comparison, causation, or continuity and change over time should be incorporated into the overall argument about changes to trade networks. Examples: A detailed description of one or more of the changes to trade networks listed above (continuity and change over time); an explanation of the factors that led to one of the changes to trade networks, such as reasons that silver became a world currency, including its abundance in South American mines and Europeans’ desire to trade it for goods from China and Japan (causation). OR A complex understanding should be incorporated into the overall argument about changes to trade networks. Examples: Describing both changes and continuities of trade networks, such as the integral role of Arab, Indian, and African merchants and the continuance of trade in luxury goods (silk, porcelain, tea, spices) in Indian Ocean trade systems; explaining both causes and effects of changes to trade networks, such as the use of silver causing exploitation of native workers who were forced to mine it, the enrichment of China, and the eventual economic downturn in Spain due to its outflow of silver to purchase goods from other countries. |
In the period 1750–1900, industrializing powers established transoceanic empires.
Develop an argument explaining the factors that contributed to the rise of transoceanic empires by industrializing powers in the period 1750–1900.
| Category | Scoring Criteria | Notes |
| Thesis/Claim (0–1 points) |
Historically defensible thesis/claim with a logical line of reasoning. The response must make a thesis or claim without restating the prompt itself. The thesis must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, either in the introduction or the conclusion. |
This question assesses the skill of causation. A strong thesis should make a claim about two or three specific factors that led to transoceanic empires. Example: “The establishment of European empires around the world between 1750 and 1900 was due to industrial technology, the demand for resources and markets for European products, and ideologies that justified conquest.” |
| Contextualization (0–1 points) |
Broader historical context related to the prompt. The response must connect the topic to historical developments, events, or processes; these can occur before, during, or after the time frame of the prompt itself. |
Contextualization for this prompt should explain, not merely mention, broader factors relevant to the development of empires. Examples: A description of the Industrial Revolution and its impact on global capitalism; a description of the Age of Exploration, which enabled Europeans to begin dominating global trade. |
| Evidence (0–2 points) |
Use of evidence to support the thesis. The response identifies specific examples relevant to the topic of the prompt. (1 point) OR The response uses specific examples to support an argument about the prompt. (2 points) |
Evidence must be paraphrased, not merely quoted. To earn 2 points, the evidence must be used to support an argument about the development of empires. Examples: To support the argument that industrial technology helped Europeans establish empires, the invention of steamships that provided an advantage over sail-powered ships, such as in the Opium Wars; the use of accurate, mass-produced weapons that enabled Europeans to put down rebellions by native populations. To support the argument about increased demand for resources, the mass production of manufactured goods, such as textiles, that increased demand for raw materials, such as cotton. To support the argument about justifying ideologies, the roles of nationalism, religious conversion, and the concept of Social Darwinism. |
| Analysis and Reasoning (0–2 points) |
Complexity of understanding and reasoning. The response shows historical reasoning to make an argument about the prompt. (1 point) OR The response demonstrates complex understanding, using evidence to support, qualify, or modify an argument about the prompt. (2 points) |
Comparison, causation, or continuity and change over time should be incorporated into the overall argument about the development of empires. Example: A detailed explanation of one or more of the factors listed above that led to the development of empires (causation). OR A complex understanding should be incorporated into the overall argument about the development of empires. Examples: Describing both causes and effects of transoceanic empires, such as the exploitation of people and resources, and the lasting impacts of neocolonialism and independence movements in the twentieth century; incorporating multiple perspectives on empires, such as the nonviolent protests of Mohandas Gandhi against British rule in India and Nelson Mandela against the legacy of European supremacy and apartheid in South Africa. |