1. Mecca
1. Tor Andrae, Muhammad: The Man and His Faith, trans. Theophil Menzel (London, 1936), 59.
2. Quoted in R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge, 1953), 83.
3. Toshihiko Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an (Montreal and Kingston, ON, 2002), 46.
4. Ibid., 63.
5. Labid ibn ‘Rabi‘ah, Mu’allaqah, 5.81, in Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 63; cf. Qur’an 2:170, 43:22–24.
6. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 72.
7. Ibid., 29.
8. Zuhayr ibn ‘Abi Salma, verses 38–39 in Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 84.
9. Nicholson, Literary History, 93.
10. Mohammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy, Discourse (Minneapolis, 1999), 17–20.
11. Ibid., 30.
12. Ibid., 11–12.
13. Ibid., 38.
14. Qur’an 105.
15. Johannes Sloek, Devotional Language, trans. Henrick Mossin (Berlin and New York, 1996), 89–90.
16. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 32.
17. Ibid., 43.
18. Muhammad ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 120, in A. Guillaume, trans., The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah (London, 1955); cf. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven and London, 1992), 42.
19. Ibid., 155, Guillaume translation.
20. Qur’an 103:2–3.
21. Qur’an 6:70, 7:51.
22. Wilhelm Schmidt, The Origin of the Idea of God (New York, 1912), passim.
23. Qur’an 10:22–24, 24:61, 63, 39:38, 43:87, 106:1–3.
24. Izutsu, God and Man in the Koran, Semantics of the Koranic Weltanschauung (Tokyo, 1964), 93–101, 124–129.
25. F. E. Peters, The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places (Princeton, 1994), 24–27.
26. Ibn al-Kalbi, The Book of Idols in Peters, Hajj, 29.
27. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 22–24.
28. Ibid., 79–80; Reza Aslan, No god but God, The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (New York and London, 2005), 9–13.
29. Genesis 16.
30. Flavius Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 1.12.2.
31. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 25–27.
32. Psalm 135:5.
33. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 89–144; Aslan, No god but God, 13–15; Izutsu, God and Man, 107–18.
34. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 143, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
35. Ibid., 145, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
36. Peters, Hajj, 39–40.
37. Izutsu, God and Man, 148.
38. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 151, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 105.
39. Qur’an 96 in Michael Sells, ed. and trans., Approaching the Qur’an: The Early Revelations (Ashland, OR, 1999). Muhammad Asad translates lines 6–8: “Verily man becomes grossly over-weening whenever he believes himself to be self-sufficient: for, behold, unto thy Sustainer all must return.”
40. Qur’an 53:5–9, Sells translation.
41. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 153, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid., 154.
44. Qur’an 21:91, 19:16–27. Sells, Approaching the Qur’an, 187–93.
45. Qur’an 97, Sells translation.
46. Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy: An Inquiry into the Non Rational Factor in the Idea of the Divine and its relation to the rational, trans. John W. Harvey, 2nd ed., (London, Oxford and New York, 1950), 12–40.
47. Qur’an 93, Sells translation.
2. Jahiliyyah
1. This was noted by the seventh century Meccan historian Ibn Shifan al-Zuhri, who is quoted in W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford, 1953), 87.
2. Muhammad ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 161, in A. Guillaume, trans. and ed., The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah (London, 1955), 115.
3. Muhammad ibn Sa’d, Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, 4.1.68, in Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (London, 1983), 47.
4. Ibn Sa’d, 3.1.37, Kitab at-Tabaqat, in Lings, Muhammad, 47.
5. Qur’an 27:45–46, 28:4.
6. Jalal al-Din Suyuti, al-itqan fi’ulum al-aq’ran, quoted in Maxime Rodinson, Mohammed, trans. Anne Carter (London, 1971), 74.
7. Bukhari, Hadith 1.3, in Lings, Muhammad, 44–45.
8. Qur’an 20:114, 75:16–18.
9. Michael Sells, ed. and trans., Approaching the Qur’an: The Early Revelations (Ashland, OR, 1999), xvi.
10. Sells, Approaching the Qur’an, 183–84.
11. Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immorality and Freedom, trans. Willard Trask (London, 1958), 56.
12. Sells, Approaching the Qur’an, 183–204. See also Qur’an 81:8–9.
13. See Qur’an 82:17–18, 83:8–9, 19.
14. Sells, Approaching the Qur’an, xliii.
15. Qur’an 81:1–6, 14, in Sells, Approaching the Qur’an.
16. Qur’an 99:6–9, Sells translation.
17. Qur’an 90:13–16, Sells translation.
18. Qur’an 81:26, Sells translation.
19. Qur’an 88:21–22.
20. Qur’an 88:17–20, Sells translation.
21. Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, 68.
22. Qur’an 26:214.
23. Qur’an 17:26–27.
24. Abu Ja’rir at-Tabari, Ta’rikh ar-Rasul wa’l Muluk, 1171 in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 117–118.
25. Qur’an 83:4, 37:12–19.
26. Qur’an 45:23, 36:77–83.
27. Qur’an 83:10–12.
28. Qur’an 6:108, 27:45, 10:71–72. Mohammed A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam, Mind, Economy, Discourse (Minneapolis, 1999), 180–184.
29. Qur’an 10:72.
30. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Faith and Belief (Princeton, 1979), 44–46; Toshihiko Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an (Montreal and Kingston, ON, 2002), 132–133.
31. Tor Andrae, Muhammad: The Man and His Faith, trans. Theophil Menzel (London: 1936), 22–35; W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca: History in the Qur’an (Edinburgh, 1988), 69–73; Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, 103–109; Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 208–9.
32. Ibn Sa’d, Kitab at-Tabaqat 8i, 137, in Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 208.
33. Tabari, Ta’rikh ar-Rasul, 1192, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 165.
34. Qur’an 53:12.
35. Qur’an 53:26.
36. Tabari, Ta’rikh ar-Rasul, 1192, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 166.
37. Ibn Sa’d, Kitab at-Tabaqat, 137, in Andrae, Muhammad, 22.
38. Tabari, Ta’rikh ar-Rasul, 1192, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 166.
39. Qur’an 22:52.
40. Qur’an 53:19–23, in Muhammad Asad, trans. and ed., The Message of the Qur’an (Gibraltar, 1980).
41. Qur’an 39:23, translation by Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 197.
42. Qur’an 59:21, Asad translation.
43. Qur’an 29:17, 10:18, 39:43.
44. Qur’an 112, Sells translation.
45. Reza Aslan, No god but God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam (London and New York, 2005), 43–46.
46. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 167–8, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 119.
47. Qur’an 17:46, 39:45.
48. Qur’an 38:6.
49. Qur’an 38:4–5.
50. Qur’an 41:6.
51. Qur’an 80:1–10.
52. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 66; Cantwell Smith, Faith and Belief, 39–40.
53. Qur’an 29:61–63, 2:89, 27:14.
54. Qur’an 17:23–24, 46:15. Asad translation.
55. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 127–57.
56. Qur’an 7:75–76, 39:59, 31:17–18, 23:45–47, 38:71–75.
57. Qur’an 15:94–96, 21:36, 18:106, 40:4–5, 68:56, 22:8–9.
58. Qur’an 41:3–5, 83:14, 2:6–7.
59. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 28–45.
60. Ibid., 28.
61. Ibid., 68–69, Qur’an 14:47, 39:37, 15:79, 30:47, 44:16.
62. Qur’an 90:13–17.
63. Qur’an 25:63, Asad translation.
64. Qur’an 111. This is the only occasion when the Qur’an mentions one of Muhammad’s enemies by name.
65. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 183–4 in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 130–31.
66. Ibid., in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 132.
67. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 227, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 157.
68. Ibid., 228, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 158.
69. Aslan, No god but God, 46.
70. Qur’an 11:100.
71. Qur’an 2:100, 13:37, 16:101, 17:41, 17:86.
72. Qur’an 109, Sells translation.
73. Qur’an 2:256, Asad translation.
3. Hijrah
1. Muhammad ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 278, in A. Guillaume, trans. and ed., The Life of Muhammad (London, 1955), 169–70.
2. Ibid., 280, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 193.
3. Qur’an 46:29–32, 72:1, in Muhammad Asad, trans. and ed., The Message of the Qur’an (Gibraltar, 1980). This is Asad’s explanation of this incident, given in the textual notes that accompany this passage, which he admits is tentative.
4. Qur’an 17:1, Asad translation.
5. Muhammad ibn Jarir at-Tabari, Ta’rikh ar Rasul wa’l Muluk, 2210, Muhammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy, Discourse (Minneapolis, 1999), 144–45.
6. Qur’an 53:15–18 in Michael Sells, trans. and ed., Approaching the Qur’an; The Early Revelations (Ashland, OR, 1999).
7. Sells, ibid., xvii–xviii.
8. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 271, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
9. Qur’an 3:84,cf. 2:136, Asad translation.
10. Toshihiko Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an (Montreal and Kingston, ON, 2002), 189.
11. Qur’an 3:85, Asad translation.
12. Qur’an 12:111.
13. Qur’an 5:69, Asad translation.
14. Qur’an 5:48, Asad translation.
15. Qur’an 24:35, Asad translation.
16. Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (London: Islamic Society Texts, 1983), 57, 105–111; W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Mecca (Oxford, 1953), 141–49; Watt, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford, 1956), 173–231.
17. Reza Aslan, No god but God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam (London and New York, 2005), 54; Gordon Newby, A History of the Jews in Arabia (Columbia, SC, 1988), 75–79, 84–85; Moshe Gil, “Origin of the Jews of Yathrib,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1984).
18. Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi, Kitab al-Maghazi in Aslan, No god but God, 54.
19. Ibn Ishaq, 287, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
20. Ibid., 289, in Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 153–54.
21. Ibid., 291–2, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
22. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 153–3.
23. Qur’an 5:5–7; cf. Acts of Apostles 15:19–21, 29.
24. Qur’an 10:47.
25. Qur’an 8:30, 27:48–51.
26. Qur’an 60:1, 47–13.
27. W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca: History of the Qur’an (Edinburgh, 1988), 101–6; Muhammad at Mecca, 149–51.
28. Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca, 25.
29. Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 56.
30. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 297, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
31. Ibid., 304–5, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
32. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 216–217.
33. Aslan, No god but God, 56–59.
34. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
35. Qur’an 9:40.
36. Clinton Bennet, “Islam,” in Jean Holm with John Bowker, eds, Sacred Place (London, 1994), 88–89; Fatima Mernissi, Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry, trans. Mary Jo Lakeland (Oxford, 1991), 106–108.
37. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 247, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 236.
38. Ibid., 414, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
39. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 218.
40. Qur’an 8:72–73, Asad translation.
41. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 341, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 232.
42. Qur’an 43:37–43, Asad translation.
43. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 386, translation in Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts, 29.
44. Qur’an 4:137, Asad translation.
45. Qur’an 2:8–15, Asad translation.
46. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 341, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
47. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 201–2.
48. D. S. Margoliouth, The Relations between Arabs and Israelites Prior to the Rise of Islam (London, 1924); Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 3:261; Hannah Rahman, “The Conflict between the Prophet and the Opposition in Medina,” Der Islam (1985); Moshe Gil, “The Medinan Opposition to the Prophet,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (1987).
49. S. N. Goitein, Jews and Arabs (New York, 1960), 63; Newby, History of the Jews, 78–90; Aslan, No god but God, 97–98.
50. David J. Helperin, “The Ibn Sayyad Traditions and the Legend of al-Dajjal,” Journal of the American Oriental Society (1976).
51. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah., 362, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
52. Qur’an 6:151.
53. Qur’an 2:111–113, 120.
54. Qur’an 2:116, 19:88–92, 10:68, 5:73–77, 116–118.
55. Qur’an 5:73.
56. Qur’an 3:115, Asad translation.
57. Qur’an 2:67–68, Asad translation.
58. Qur’an 3:65.
59. Qur’an 3:67, in Arthur J. Arberry, trans. and ed., The Koran Interpreted (Oxford, 1964).
60. Qur’an 6:159, Asad translation.
61. Qur’an 6:161–3.
62. Qur’an 2:144, Asad translation.
63. Qur’an 2:150, Asad translation.
4. Jihad
1. Muhammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy, Discourse (Minneapolis, 1999), 198.
2. W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford, 1956), 2–5.
3. Qur’an 2:216.
4. Qur’an 22:36–40, in Muhammad Asad, trans., The Message of the Qur’an (Gibraltar, 1980).
5. Qur’an 2:190.
6. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 6–8; Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 198–99; Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, 3 vols (Chicago and London, 1974), 1:175–76; Tor Andrae, Muhammad: The Man and His Faith, trans. Theophil Menzel (London, 1936), 195–201.
7. Qur’an 2:217, Asad translation.
8. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 200, 231; Andrae, Muhammad, 203–6; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 11–20; Martin Lings, Mohammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (London, 1983), 138–59.
9. Muhammad Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 435, in A. Guillaume, trans. and ed., The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah (London, 1955).
10. Ibid.
11. Qur’an 8:5–9.
12. Muhammad Ibn Jarir at-Tabari, Ta’rikh ar-Rasul wa’l Muluk,in Fatima Mernissi, Women in Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry, trans. Mary Jo Lakeland (Oxford, 1991), 90.
13. Qur’an 8:8.
14. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 442, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
15. Qur’an 47:5.
16. Qur’an 3:147–48, 8:16–17, 61:5.
17. Qur’an 2:193–194.
18. Qur’an 8:62–63.
19. Qur’an 5:45, Asad translation.
20. Qur’an 4:90.
21. Reza Aslan, No god but God: The Origins, Evolution and Future of Islam (New York and London, 2005), 89–90; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 225–43.
22. Nabia Abbott, Aishah, the Beloved of Muhammad (Chicago, 1992), 67.
23. Mernissi, Women and Islam, 106–11.
24. Muhammad al-Bukhari, Al-Sahih (Beirut, 1978); Mernissi, Women and Islam, 142–3; Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven and London, 1992), 52–53.
25. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Raszul Allah, 543, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
26. Aslan, No god but God, 89–90; Lings, Muhammad, 160–62; Andrae, Muhammad, 207; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 190–210.
27. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 296, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
28. M. J. Kister, “Al-Hira: Some Notes on its Relations with Arabia,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 6 (1985).
29. Lings, Muhammad, 170–97; Andrae, Muhammad, 210–2213; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 20–30.
30. Ibn Ishaq, 717, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
31. Qur’an 4:3–3, Asad translation.
32. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 272–83, 289–93; cf. Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, 43–44, 52.
33. Mernissi, Women and Islam, 123, 182.
34. Qur’an 24:33, in Arthur J. Arberry, The Koran Intepreted (Oxford, 1964).
35. Mernissi, Women and Islam, 162–3; Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, 53.
36. Lings, Muhammad, 203–4; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 185, 211–17; Aslan, No god but God, 90–91; Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 201–2.
37. Lings, Muhammad, 207–8.
38. Qur’an 24:53, 32:29, 47:35,46. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 231–4.
39. Qur’an 4:102; Lings, Muhammad, 208–10; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 163–7.
40. Lings, Muhammad, 21–212; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 153–4, 172.
41. Qur’an 49:2, 4–5.
42. Muhammad ibn Sa‘d, Tabaqat al-kubra (Beirut, n.d.), 8:174; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 172.
43. Lings, Muhammad, 107–8; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 174.
44. Tabari, Tafsir (Cairo, n.d.), 22:10; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 115–31. In some versions, all Muhammad’s wives, not simply Umm Salamah, take the initiative.
45. Qur’an 33:35.
46. Qur’an 4:37.
47. Qur’an 4:23.
48. Qur’an 2:225–240, 65:1–70.
49. Tabari, Tafsir, 9:235; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 131–32; Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, 53.
50. Qur’an 4:19.
51. Tabari, Tafsir, 8:261; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 132.
52. Mernissi, Women and Islam, 154–59.
53. Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, 8:205.
54. Ibid.
55. Qur’an 4:34.
56. Ibn Sa’d, Tabaqat, 8:204.
57. Lings, Muhammad, 215–30; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 36–58; Mernissi, Women and Islam, 168–70.
58. Ibn Ishaq, 677, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
59. Qur’an 33:12.
60. Qur’an 33:10–11.
61. Ibn Ishaq, 683, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
62. Ibid., 689.
63. Aslan, No god but God, 91–98; Norman A. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands (Philadelphia, 1979).
64. Qur’an 29:46, Asad translation.
5. Salam
1. Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi, Kitab al-Maghazi, 488–490, in Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (London, 1983), 227.
2. Fatima Mernissi, Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry, trans. Mary Jo Lakeland (Oxford, 1991), 17–172.
3. Qur’an 33:51, 63.
4. Qur’an 33:59–60.
5. Lings, Muhammad, 212–214; Tor Andrae, Muhammad: The Man and His Faith, trans. Theophil Menzil (London, 1936), 215–16.
6. Qur’an 33:36–40.
7. Qur’an 33:53, in Muhammad Asad, trans., The Message of the Qur’an (Gibraltar, 1980).
8. Qur’an 33:53, 59.
9. Mernissi, Women and Islam, 88–191; Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven and London, 1992), 53–57.
10. Mernissi, Women and Islam, 177–78; Lings, Muhammad, 235–45; W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford, 1956), 185–86; Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, 51.
11. Muhammad Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 726, in A. Guillaume, trans. and ed., The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah (London, 1955).
12. Qur’an 12:18, Asad translation.
13. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 735, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
14. Qur’an 24:11.
15. Lings, Muhammad, 247–55; Andrae, Muhammad, 219–27; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 46–59, 234–35; Mohammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam, Mind, Economy, Discourse (Minneapolis, 1999), 222–27.
16. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 748, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
17. Ibid., 741.
18. Ibid., 743.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid., 745.
21. Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 50.
22. Qur’an 2:193.
23. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 748, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
24. Ibid., 747.
25. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 226–27.
26. Mernissi, Women in Islam, 184–86.
27. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 747, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
28. Ibid., 748.
29. Lings, Muhammad, 254.
30. Ibid., 255.
31. Qur’an 48:26, translation by Toshihiko Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an (Montreal and Kingston, ON, 2002), 31.
32. Qur’an 48:29, in Arthur J. Arberry, The Koran Interpreted (Oxford, 1964).
33. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 751, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
34. Qur’an 110, in Michael Sells, ed. and trans., Approaching the Qur’an, The Early Revelations (Ashland, OR, 1999).
35. Ibn Sa‘d, Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, 7:147, in Lings, Muhammad, 271.
36. Lings, Muhammad, 282.
37. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 717, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
38. Qur’an 17:82, Arberry translation.
39. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 821, in Asad, Message of the Qur’an, 794.
40. Qur’an 49:13, Asad translation.
41. Abu Ja’far at-Tabari, Tariq ar-Rasul wa’-Muluk, 1642, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad, 553.
42. Lings, Muhammad, 311.
43. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 886, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
44. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 227–29.
45. Waqidi, 837–38, in Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 228.
46. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 969, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
47. Ibid., 1006.
48. Ibid., 1006.
49. Ibid., 1012.
50. Qur’an 3:144, Arberry translation.
51. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 1013, in Guillaume, Life of Muhammad.
52. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton and London, 1957), 305.