accessibility A principle of category salience that suggests that a given category is more likely to become salient to the extent that it has prior meaning and significance for a perceiver.
Ascertaining Identity Resources (AIRing) The process of discovering which social identities are important to people in a given context and which therefore serve as a basis for their social behavior (see Haslam et al., 2003).
authentic leadership A model of leadership that argues that leaders need to be true to themselves and to the realities that they and their followers confront. Amongst other things, this means that a leader’s rhetoric must match his or her actions, be meaningful rather than superficial, and correspond to social and organizational reality.
bureaucratic control The process of attempting to manage behavior and bring about desired outcomes through administrative and other formal strategies.
bureaupathy Dysfunctional organizational behavior that is associated with displays of petty tyranny and is generally assumed to reflect an underlying personality disorder.
categorization The process of perceiving two or more things to be similar to or different from each other as a function of properties they are perceived to share or not share in a particular context.
charisma A leader characteristic associated with a person’s capacity to inspire and motivate followers. This has been conceptualized both as a personality trait and as an attribute conferred by followers.
charismatic leadership A capacity to influence group members to contribute to group goals that is seen to derive from the distinctive charismatic qualities of a leader.
coercion The process of attempting to influence the behavior of another person or group behavior through the use of power alone.
cognitive alternatives Group members’ awareness of specific ways in which social relations could be restructured in order to bring about social change.
cohesion A group characteristic that reflects a high degree of psychological alignment among its members and enables them to act in concert as a group.
collective action Behavior that is determined by a person’s membership of a social group and that is performed in concert with other members of that group. This is apparent in dramatic events such as strikes, rallies and demonstrations, but also in more mundane activities that are part of everyday life (e.g., driving, recycling, watching sport).
comparative fit A principle of category fit that suggests that a given category is more likely to become salient to the extent that the differences between members of that category are perceived to be smaller than the differences between members of that category and comparison others.
consideration Leader behavior that is characterized by concern for the well-being of subordinates.
contingency theories Theories that explain a particular process (e.g., leadership, power) as the product of the interaction between an individual’s personality and features of the environment in which they operate.
depersonalization The process of self-stereotyping through which the self comes to be perceived as categorically interchangeable with other in-group members.
distributed leadership A model of leadership that recognizes that multiple group members (not just leaders) play—and need to play—a role in helping groups achieve their goals.
distributive justice The provision of fair outcomes (e.g., rewards and penalties).
empowerment The process of devolving power and authority to individuals or groups that were previously powerless.
equity theory A theory of social behavior that suggests that people seek equality between individuals in the ratio of their inputs to outputs.
ethical leadership A model of leadership that argues that leaders need to focus not only on ensuring that groups are effective but also on orienting groups towards goals that are socially responsible and moral.
extrinsic motivation Motivation based on features of the task environment that are external to the individual (e.g., reward or punishment).
fit A principle of category salience that suggests that a given category is more likely to become salient to the extent that the pattern of similarities and differences between category members defines that category as meaningfully different from one or more other categories.
followership The process whereby people are influenced by leaders in such a way that they contribute to the realization of group goals.
glass ceiling An informal organizational or professional barrier that denies members of disadvantaged groups (e.g., women) access to high-status positions.
glass cliff A precarious leadership position occupied by a member of a disadvantaged group (e.g., women) that is associated with a high risk of failure.
group consensualization The process that leads to individuals’ attitudes (and behavior) becoming more consensual after group interaction.
identity leadership A model of leadership (as outlined in Chapter 8 of this book) that argues that leaders’ primary function is to represent, manage, and promote the sense of shared social identity that underpins a group’s existence and purpose.
idiosyncrasy credit Psychological credit that leaders build up with other group members (followers), so that those group members will respond positively to their idiosyncratic ideas (Hollander, 1958). This credit is seen to allow leaders to initiate change.
impermeability (of group boundaries) A condition that prevails when it is perceived to be impossible to move from one particular group into another.
inclusive leadership A model of leadership that argues that leaders need to build positive relationships with their followers and ensure that all group members are encouraged to participate in group activities that bear upon the leadership process (e.g., strategy development, governance, goal-setting).
individual difference approach An approach to the study of social behavior based on an appreciation of the differences between individuals (e.g. in personality, motivation, cognitive style).
in-group A group that is perceived to be self-defining in a particular context (i.e., a social self-category).
initiation of structure Supervisory behavior that enhances performance by clarifying the definition and organization of people’s roles, goals, and tasks.
interactionism The attempt to explain how people behave with reference both to factors internal to the individual (e.g., personality) and to the situation in which they find themselves. Mechanical interactionism argues that behavior is simply the product of these two elements (as seen in contingency theories of leadership). Dynamic interactionism argues that individual and situation have the capacity to transform each other.
intrinsic motivation Motivation based on features of the task environment that are internal to the individual (e.g., personal goals).
leader style The means by which a leader attempts to influence followers to contribute to group goals. Distinctions are often made between styles that focus on the task and those that focus on relationships between group members, as well as between styles that are autocratic, democratic, and laissez faire.
leadership The process of influencing others in a manner that enhances their contribution to the realization of group goals.
leadership categorization theory A theory of leadership that argues that in order to be successful, leaders need to behave in ways that conform to followers’ pre-existing leadership stereotypes.
least preferred co-worker (LPC) A construct central to Fiedler’s (e.g., 1964) contingency theory of leadership that is used to differentiate people on the basis of their leadership style. Depending on how positively they rate their least preferred co-worker, the construct distinguishes between individuals who are task-oriented (low LPC) and those who are relationship-oriented (high LPC).
level of abstraction The degree of inclusiveness associated with a particular categorization. Categories defined at a higher level of abstraction are more inclusive.
meta-contrast A principle of categorization that suggests (a) that a given category is more likely to become salient to the extent that the differences between members of that category are perceived to be smaller than the differences between members of that category and salient others (i.e., where there is comparative fit) and (b) that a given category member is more likely to be seen as representative of a given category to the extent that he or she is perceived to be less different to other category members than to members of other salient categories.
minimal group A group or social category that has no prior meaning for a perceiver.
minimal group paradigm An experimental strategy that involves assigning individuals to groups that have no prior meaning for them (after Tajfel et al., 1971).
minority influence The process by which a minority exerts influence over a majority. This process plays a critical role in social change and ensures that the status quo is not simply reproduced through an ongoing process of conformity to the views of the majority.
normative fit A principle of category fit that suggests that a given category is more likely to become salient to the extent that the pattern of observed content-related similarities and differences between category members is consistent with the perceiver’s prior expectations about the categories.
norms Attitudes and behaviors that are shared by members of a particular group. These serve to define the group and to guide its members’ thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
organization (n.) A social system that coordinates people’s behavior by means of roles, norms, and values. This coordination allows for the achievement of goals that individuals could not achieve on their own.
organizational citizenship Altruistic or conscientious organizational behavior that enhances the organizational environment as a whole but that is not explicitly demanded or task-related.
organizational identification A form of social identification that reflects an individual’s readiness to define him- or herself as a member of a particular organization or organizational unit.
out-group A group that is perceived to be nonself-defining in a particular context (i.e., a social nonself-category).
perceiver readiness A principle of category salience that suggests that a given category is more likely to become salient to the extent that a perceiver is psychologically predisposed to use it as a basis for perception or action (e.g., because it has prior meaning and significance).
performance A measure of either (a) behavioral output or (b) behavioral output relative to expectations.
permeability (of group boundaries) A condition that prevails when it is perceived to be possible to move from one particular group into another.
personal identity An individual’s knowledge that he or she is different from other people (group members) together with some emotional and value significance to him or her of this sense of individuality.
petty tyranny A regime of management characterized by (a) arbitrariness and self-aggrandizement, (b) belittling of subordinates, (c) lack of consideration for others, (d) a forcing style of conflict resolution, (e) discouraging initiative, and (f) non contingent punishment.
positive distinctiveness A condition in which an in-group is defined more positively than a comparison out-group on some self-valued dimension.
power The process that results in a person or group having (or being perceived to have) control over the behavior and circumstances of others by virtue of the reward- and punishment-related resources at their disposal.
power distance The perceived discrepancy in the power of two or more people or groups.
procedural justice The provision of fair processes for delivering outcomes (e.g., rewards and penalties).
productivity A measure of either (a) behavioral output relative to goals (effectiveness) or (b) behavioral output relative to input (efficiency).
prototypicality The extent to which a given category member is representative of the category as a whole. This is partly determined by principles of normative and comparative fit.
psychological group A group that is psychologically real for a perceiver in a particular context because it contributes to his or her social identity.
reference group A group to which an individual belongs but that does not necessarily contribute to his or her social identity (e.g., because it has no emotional or value significance).
romance of leadership The idea that perceptions of leadership result from people’s tendency to explain group processes in terms of the actions of individuals. In this way, group performance tends to be attributed to the qualities and behavior of leaders rather than of followers.
self-categorization The process of perceiving the self as an interchangeable member of a category that is defined at a particular level of abstraction (e.g., personal, social, or human).
self-categorization theory An explanatory framework developed by Turner and colleagues in the 1980s that focuses on the role of social categorization processes in group formation and behavior (see Turner, 1985; Turner et al., 1987).
servant leadership A model of leadership that argues that leaders need to serve the interests of their followers (rather than the other way around).
social categorization The process of perceiving two or more people (or things associated with them—e.g., attitude statements) to be similar to or different from each other in a particular context.
social change A strategy of collective action based on rejection of existing intergroup relations.
social change belief system A set of beliefs associated with the salience of a particular social identity that leads people to pursue self-enhancement by collectively defending or rejecting the status quo.
social comparison The process of comparing oneself (or one’s group) with others that are perceived to be similar in relevant respects in order to gain information about one’s opinions and abilities.
social creativity A strategy for self-enhancement that involves collective redefinition of the content and meaning of existing intergroup relations.
social exchange theory A theory of social behavior that suggests that individuals are sensitive to the costs and benefits of particular actions (e.g., improved productivity, industrial protest) and that their behavior is governed by these perceptions.
social identification A relatively enduring state that reflects an individual’s readiness to define him- or herself as a member of a particular social group.
social identity An individual’s knowledge that he or she belongs to certain social groups together with some emotional and value significance to him or her of this group membership (Tajfel, 1972). In other words, this is a sense of self that reflects a person’s internalized group membership (a sense of “us-ness”).
social identity approach A psychological metatheory that encompasses the principles and assumptions articulated within social identity and self-categorization theories.
social identity salience The process that leads individuals to define themselves and act in terms of a given social identity in a particular context.
social identity theory An explanatory framework developed by Tajfel and Turner in the 1970s that focuses on the psychological underpinnings of intergroup relations and social conflict (see Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
social influence The process through which people shape and change the attitudes and behavior of others.
social mobility A strategy for self-enhancement that involves accepting existing intergroup relations and striving for personal advancement within them.
social mobility belief system A set of beliefs associated with the salience of people’s personal identities that leads them to pursue self-enhancement individually by accepting the status quo and striving for personal advancement.
social psychology (a) The study of psychological processes (e.g., thinking and feeling) associated with social interaction and (b) those processes themselves (as in “the social psychology of leadership”).
stereotypes Cognitive representations of groups (typically in terms of traits and attributes) that are shared by members of those groups or by members of other groups.
stereotyping The process of perceiving people in terms of their group membership rather than as individuals.
Theory X A hypothetical theory of work motivation derived from assumptions that workers are inherently under-motivated and will only work hard if coerced into doing so (e.g., through reward and punishment).
360-degree feedback A method of providing leaders with information about their performance that involves obtaining feedback from multiple co-workers (e.g., supervisors, subordinates, peers). It is used to provide insight into leader style (in particular, whether or not this is transformational) and effectiveness.
transactional leadership Leadership that is based on satisfactory exchange of resources between leaders and followers. This approach assumes that successful leadership is contingent upon satisfaction of the mutual needs of leaders and followers.
transformational leadership Leadership that is based on a capacity to develop and promote values and goals that are shared by both leaders and followers. This approach assumes that successful leadership derives from a leader’s ability to encourage followers to rise above low-level transactional considerations and instead pursue a higher-order sense of morality and purpose.