CHAPTER 5
Focusing Themes
What Are Focusing Themes on the Social Studies Test?
All of the content knowledge tested on the Social Studies test will be related to one of two “focusing themes.” In fact, nothing that cannot be attached to a focusing theme will appear on the test. The two themes are:
• Development of modern liberties and democracy
• Dynamic responses in societal systems
What this means is that you will need to have a basic idea of the historical roots of U.S. government and social structures. You will also need to understand how societies respond to world events of all sorts. Almost all of the content information you need is provided in the earlier chapters of this section. However, there is some required background knowledge that falls outside the scope of Civics and Government, United States History, Economics, or Geography and the World. Though world history is not a specific content area on the Social Studies test, a broad understanding of how major world civilizations rose and fell will be necessary.
The Earliest Civilizations
A civilization is more than a group of people; it represents the next step toward social organization. In a civilization, people organize governments and social classes, establish writing systems, build cities, create works of art, study science and mathematics, and invent new ways of doing things.
To sustain human life, two things are required: a temperate climate and ready sources of food and freshwater. Under the right conditions, this leads to a surplus of food and thus an increase in health, life span, and income. With extra resources and more spare time, people turn to pursuits beyond the hunting and gathering of food—they create civilizations.
Human beings began to create civilizations around 3500 BCE (Before the Common Era). The Fertile Crescent (present-day Iraq, Syria, and Egypt) was home to the early civilizations. This period is called the Bronze Age for the copper-tin alloy people discovered around 3000 BCE. Bronze produced stronger tools and weapons than copper alone.
Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) gave the world its first written language, its first organized religion, the basics of modern mathematics, the wheel (used first for making pottery, then for transportation), and the first literary epic (The Descent of Inana). The first city-states were created in southern Mesopotamia by a people called the Sumerians. Archaeologists have unearthed many luxury objects at Sumerian sites, including musical instruments, game boards, and jewelry. These artifacts allow us to conclude the existence of a wealthy class of Sumerians: only the wealthy can purchase luxury items. The use of metal in a region where no metal exists proves that the Sumerians traded with other civilizations.
The Babylonian Empire came into being around 2000 BCE. Babylonians could plot the fixed stars, follow the course of the sun, and predict lunar eclipses. Their mathematicians were the first to use the number 60 as a base for measuring circles, spheres, and time; we use that system today. Babylonian law codes, such as the Code of Hammurabi, show that in ancient times, people valued the concept of abstract justice and believed in punishing criminals. Another great civilization arose at the same time in the Nile River valley in Egypt. The Great Pyramids of Egypt prove that the Egyptians were able not only to design monumental buildings, but also to plan and carry out their construction—a remarkable engineering feat in an era with no technology beyond the wheel and the lever. Less is known about the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day Pakistan because historians have not yet been able to decipher its written records.
EXERCISE 1
The Earliest Civilizations
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Based on the information above, which of the following statements is NOT true?
A. The earliest known civilizations arose in what is now the Middle East.
B. The written records of the ancient Indus Valley people remain a mystery to this day.
C. Babylonian mathematicians established systems and conventions that we still use today.
D. Early civilizations discovered that using copper for tools was better than using bronze.
2. Based on the information above, which of the following statements is an opinion, not a fact?
A. The presence of luxury items among Sumerian artifacts found by archaeologists shows some Sumerians were wealthy.
B. Archaeologists have found clear evidence that Sumerians traded with other ancient civilizations.
C. The foundations of modern mathematics were developed by the Mesopotamians.
D. A Mesopotamian writer created the first known work of literary fiction.
Answers are on page 829.
Early China
China has existed as a culturally unified entity since at least 1000 BCE; aspects of Chinese culture that may date back even further include the domestication of silkworms, the production of ceramic and jade objects, and the use of chopsticks. The classical Chinese written language, originating well before 1000 BCE, served as an important unifying force.
The early Chinese settlements were located along the rivers—the highways of the ancient world. China was isolated from the Fertile Crescent not only by distance, but by obstacles such as deserts and mountain ranges. There is no evidence that ancient China and the ancient Near East had any knowledge of one another.
K’ung-fu-tzu, known in the West as Confucius, became influential in Chinese thought. Born in the 6th century BCE into the minor nobility, Confucius became a teacher and a scholar. Confucius supported the established order of society, in which everyone had a place. If each person knew and kept his place, did his duty, and respected tradition, society would function smoothly.
Under the Han dynasty (206 BCE–AD 220) China achieved a free-market economy, the invention of paper, a universal law code, and a merit-based bureaucracy. This period also saw the establishment of the Silk Road, a major overland trade route from Luoyang in the east all the way to Constantinople and Alexandria in the west. Horses from Iran, luxury objects from Rome, silks from China, spices and cotton from India, and stories and ideas from all cultures were traded along the Silk Road.
EXERCISE 2
Early China
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Before the establishment of the Silk Road, the peoples of the Fertile Crescent and China
A. shared a common language and religion.
B. were unable to domesticate horses.
C. were unaware of each other’s existence.
D. made war on each other repeatedly.
2. Based on the information above, which of the following existed in China as early as 1000 BCE?
A. wine
B. diamond jewelry
C. steel
D. chopsticks
Answers are on page 829.
Early India
Geography played a major role in the isolation of ancient India. The Himalayas, which include some of the world’s tallest mountains, blocked access from the north; the other two sides of the triangular peninsula border on the Indian Ocean. This unique geographical location ensured that India could be invaded only from the northwest, through present-day Pakistan.
The Aryans, Eastern Europeans who invaded and settled in Persia and the Indus Valley around 1500 BCE, had a lasting influence on Indian culture. Historians believe that Hinduism is a mix of Indian and Aryan ideas and beliefs. Hinduism links a religious belief in sacrifice with a caste system based on duty to others; it continues to hold sway over present-day India.
Siddhartha Gautama, born into the nobility in 563 BCE, is known to history as the Buddha (the title means “Enlightened One”). The Buddha taught that since all suffering and conflict in the world came from frustrated ambition, passion, or egotism, the elimination of these emotions would lead to contentment and spiritual peace. Buddhism also opposed the caste system. Today, Buddhism has its greatest influence in China, not India.
EXERCISE 3
Early India
Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question.
1. Based on the information above, it can be assumed that
A. Himalayan mountain passes made easy routes for invaders.
B. the caste system, which still influences Indian society, has existed for centuries.
C. the Buddha fought the caste system by becoming a powerful and wealthy emperor.
D. the Aryans entered India from the east by traveling from Mongolia through Nepal.
The answer is on page 829.
Classical Greece
The beginning of an identifiable Greek culture goes back to 2000 BCE and the arrival of the Achaeans from the present-day Balkan region of southeastern Europe. The peninsular and island culture of Greece meant a close relationship with the sea; trading was done by boat, and the navies of the Greek states became the strongest and best of the era.
The Greek idea of abstract philosophy—that people could use their reasoning powers to understand the workings of the universe—is Greece’s most important contribution to the development of Western culture. During the Greek Classical Age (roughly 750–400 BCE), the Greeks created the basis of Western art, architecture, literature, science, philosophy, and government.
At a time when the world was ruled by the principle of the divine right of emperors, some of the Greek city-states featured a new form of government called democracy. This was not democracy as we understand it today; neither slaves nor free women had many legal rights or freedoms, and only men in positions of power (about 10 percent of the total population) could vote. Still, the government did give some of its citizens some say in the laws they had to live by. This principle of government by the consent of the governed would eventually hold sway throughout the Western world.
The northern Greek kingdom of Macedonia took over the Greek civilization under Philip II and his son and successor Alexander the Great. During the 4th century BCE, Alexander’s wars of conquest spread Greek culture, language, and customs all the way from the Danube River in Europe to the Indus River in India.
EXERCISE 4
Classical Greece
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Based on the information above, you can assume that
A. the Roman emperors modeled their laws on those of Greek emperors.
B. Greek navies were superior to all others in the ancient world.
C. Alexander the Great tried to conquer China but failed to do so.
D. democracy ended in Greece because of slave revolts.
2. What claim about philosophy is supported by the information above?
A. The philosophers of ancient Greece continue to be read and studied.
B. The word philosophy comes from philo, meaning love, and sophia, meaning wisdom.
C. Alexander the Great was an avid student of philosophers such as Socrates.
D. The ancient Greek language used in philosophical texts is no longer understood.
Answers are on page 829.
Rome
The Roman Empire (500 BCE–AD 476) was the largest and most impressive political achievement of the ancient world. With the aid of its bureaucracy and army, Rome brought all the Western civilizations together into a unified whole that allowed each individual culture to flourish. The phrase “Western Civilization” refers to the Greco-Roman heritage—the history, culture, and understanding of the world common to all Western nations that were part of the Roman Empire or influenced by it.
The key to the Roman Empire’s success and longevity was tolerance. Roman rulers allowed diversity to flourish, requiring only three things: obedience to the Roman law code, payment of taxes, and loyalty to the Roman state. Worship of the Roman gods was mandatory, but the people might also worship any other gods they pleased.
Romans adopted elements of mythology, religion, and culture from the Greeks and the Etruscans (an earlier Italian people). Rome’s most important original achievements were in law, government, and engineering. Latin, the Roman language, would be the common language of all educated Westerners for well over 1000 years after the Empire fell. Rome began as a monarchy, but in 509 BCE a republic was established. Both patricians (aristocrats) and plebeians (commoners) were represented in the Senate, and the plebeians’ representatives had veto power over those of the patricians. By 100 BCE the republic had become a dictatorship, but the institution of the Senate endured.
Christianity came into existence under the Roman Empire as a new sect of Judaism, the ancient religion of the Hebrews. Judaism was revolutionary for two things: its followers worshipped only one god instead of many, and its moral code (the Ten Commandments) applied to all people, from monarchs to slaves. This defied the common ancient belief that monarchs were divine and not to be questioned.
Christians and Jews worship the same god, but Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth was the son of God, the Messiah or Christ (both words mean “anointed one”) whose appearance on Earth was foretold in the Hebrew Bible. After Jesus’ execution, his most influential follower, Paul, preached his message of universal love and eternal salvation through the eastern half of the Roman Empire. To make Christianity appeal to his culturally Greek audience, Paul blended Hebrew beliefs with elements of Hellenistic culture and religion, such as the abstract philosophy of the Trinity. Christianity spread rapidly across the Roman Empire, and would hold sway throughout Western Europe for centuries to come.
By the 4th century AD, the Roman Empire had become too large to govern effectively from one city; it split into two halves, with the eastern half eventually breaking away altogether as the Byzantine Empire, governed from Constantinople (founded AD 330). Disagreements over dogma split the Christian religion; Rome became the seat of Roman Catholicism, while Constantinople became the seat of Eastern Orthodoxy. Rome was culturally Latin while Constantinople was culturally Greek—another reason for the division. Finally, the Roman Empire was mired in economic troubles and faced serious threats of invasion from the north.
EXERCISE 5
Rome
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
Questions 1 and 2 are based on the following map.
1. During which time period did the Roman Empire expand to include Spain?
A. before 264 BCE
B. 241–218 BCE
C. 201–133 BCE
D. after 133 BCE
2. Which statement is true?
A. By 133 BCE the Roman Empire included regions on two continents.
B. The Roman Empire reached to the Atlantic Ocean by 264 BCE.
C. Britain was acquired by the Roman Empire in 133 BCE.
D. Gaul was acquired by the Roman Empire before 264 BCE.
Answers are on page 829.
The Great Migration and the Middle Ages
From the 6th millennium BCE, people had inhabited the steppes of Central Asia—bleak grasslands bordered by the Ural Mountains and the Gobi desert. Small tribes of people roamed the harsh terrain, following the herds on which they depended for milk and meat. By mastering horses and learning to work with iron—they were the first people to make wheels with spokes—the Central Asian tribes became formidable bands of warriors. They spearheaded a great westward migration that ended in the settlement of Europe.
Peoples from Central Asia migrated into Europe in waves. The Goths established a stronghold around present-day Poland and Hungary; the Huns drove them out between AD 100 and 300. The Goths moved south, defeating the Roman army at Adrianople and achieving official Roman recognition of a Goth state in 382. By 550–600 the Slavs had become the dominant culture in southeastern Europe. In the West, the Germanic tribe of the Franks divided, with the West Franks eventually becoming the French and the East Franks eventually becoming the Germans. The West Franks dominated a mixed culture that included Roman Gauls, Bretons, Belges, Vikings, and a mix of others; the East Franks absorbed Slav elements into their culture. At the same time, the Sueves, Burgundians, and Anglo-Saxons established themselves in present-day Spain, France, and Britain. The culture of these nomadic migrants was primitive compared to Greco-Roman Classical civilization, which is why the Romans referred to all the Northern peoples as “barbarians.” Instead of emphasizing intellectual and artistic achievement or creating sophisticated governments and law codes, the Northern tribes concentrated on pillage and plunder.
The Middle Ages, also known as the medieval period, was an era of conflict that began in the 5th century with various migrating peoples continually struggling for supremacy. The early medieval period, especially the years from 750 to 1054, was a time of continual raids on France, Britain, and Eastern Europe by Viking tribes from Scandinavia. In the same period, Vikings traveling through what is now Russia founded the cities of Kiev and Novgorod; the local Muscovy princes would later absorb these states into the expanding Russian empire. After the Christian conversion of Vladimir I in 988, Kiev became culturally more Slavic and Byzantine. To meet the threat of the Viking invaders, the local Slavs began reorganizing themselves along Viking-style political lines; this led to greater social organization and thence to true civilization rather than tribal culture.
EXERCISE 6
The Great Migration and the Middle Ages
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Which of the following tribes of nomadic migrants became part of West Frank culture?
A. Sueves
B. Burgundians
C. Bretons
D. Slavs
2. Viking tribes traveled through many parts of Europe, including areas in which of the following modern-day countries?
A. Spain
B. Portugal
C. Greece
D. Russia
Answers are on page 829.
Feudalism
The feudal system developed during this early medieval era—not only in Europe, but also in India, China, and Japan. The social contract between classes was based on an oath of loyalty, which people of this era considered legally binding. The monarch provided warriors with vast land grants and noble titles in exchange for their loyal military service. The warrior thus became the lord of a large estate—the ruler of his own small feudal realm, in which he protected and housed his vassals in exchange for their military service, loyalty, and obedience. The “lord” of the estate might even be a lady; very few medieval women were warriors (there were rare exceptions even to this rule, such as Joan of Arc), but some women achieved positions of great power through marriage or widowhood.
The monarch and the lords worked out an uneasy balance of power. The monarch wanted to control the realm and command the obedience of all his subjects, but the lords held so much independent power on their estates that they might easily defy the monarch, even though they agreed that the monarch ruled by divine right. The Magna Carta is an example of what could happen when the lords united against the monarch. King John of England had such a disgraceful record of bad administration and unwise rule that in 1215, the lords forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which specifically stated that even the monarch was not above the law, and laid the foundations for the parliamentary system that England would eventually adopt.
EXERCISE 7
Feudalism
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Feudal vassals were given housing and farmland by lords in exchange for
A. military service and obedience.
B. a promise of marriage.
C. giving up one child for slavery.
D. taxes on sales at the local market.
2. King John of England signed the Magna Carta following disputes with
A. the king of France.
B. English lords.
C. English commoners.
D. French knights.
Answers are on page 829.
The Middle East and Africa
Islam, the religion that would eventually unify the entire Near East, was founded in the early 7th century in Arabia. Muslims worship the same god as Jews and Christians; Allah is simply the Arabic name for him. Muslims regard Jesus as a great prophet, but secondary to Islam’s founder, Muhammad. Islam is based on the Five Pillars: faith, prayer, alms, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca.
By the end of the 10th century, Islam had taken firm hold on a sizeable region of the world. Muhammad was not only the founder of a major world religion; he was also an extraordinary political leader who unified all the Arab tribes under one central government for the first time in their history. Muslim armies conquered an empire that was highly diverse, embracing Turkish, Persian, and North African cultural and artistic traditions. The Muslims even penetrated Europe as far as northern Spain; they would remain in power on the Iberian Peninsula for the better part of 800 years.
Starting in the 15th century, much of the Middle East was controlled by Ottoman Turkish rulers based in Constantinople. Under the Ottomans, the Islamic world reached a zenith of cultural, literary, and artistic achievement—but soon lagged behind the West, partly due to its inability or refusal to embrace new scientific methods. While Europeans devised their first printing press in 1455, the Arab peoples did not acquire this technology until 1727. At a time when a pendulum clock was an ordinary household object in Europe, it was a curiosity and a rare luxury in India. Beginning around the mid-1700s, the Ottoman Empire steadily lost power and influence; the Islamic world would not play a significant power role in international politics again until the 1970s.
The major African civilizations of the first millennium included Nubia, located on the Nile River in what is now Sudan and southern Egypt, and Axum, located in what is now northern Ethiopia. The kingdom of Ghana, on the coast of West Africa, prospered from about 830 to 1235. It traded extensively by camel caravan with the countries north of the Sahara desert, providing them with gold, ivory, and salt. Foreign invasion, religious conversion, and international trade are the major themes of these civilizations.
EXERCISE 8
The Middle East and Africa
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Which statement is supported by the information above?
A. The Muslim empire required its Persian, Turkish, and North African subjects to abandon their native cultures.
B. The African kingdom of Ghana had little contact with the outside world.
C. The kingdom of Nubia was located in what is now northern Ethiopia.
D. The Ottoman Empire lasted from the 15th century into the 20th century.
2. According to the text, which of the following statements is an opinion, not a fact?
A. Muslim rulers governed Spain for hundreds of years.
B. The Ottoman Empire grew steadily weaker after the mid-1700s.
C. The kingdom of Nubia was the greatest of the ancient African civilizations.
D. Muslim armies conquered Persia, Turkey, and much of North Africa.
Answers are on page 829.
Civilizations in the Americas
Native Americans created numerous civilizations throughout the Americas. In North America, hundreds of different peoples developed ways of life that were well adapted to the continent’s different environments. Their settlements were often linked by long-distance trade networks. In the eastern forests, people lived in villages and lived by hunting, fishing, and farming based on growing maize (corn). In the Great Plains, people followed a nomadic lifestyle and survived by hunting bison and other animals. In the desert southwest, Native Americans built towns and practiced agriculture, often by irrigation.
To the south, Native American people created advanced civilizations and established empires. The Maya dominated Central America and built stone cities with large temples before AD 900. They developed a complex writing system and an accurate calendar. Later the Aztecs conquered a large empire in what is now Mexico and built their capital city where Mexico City is located today.
Farther south, in the Andes Mountains of South America, the Inca created an empire that lasted until the early 1500s. The Inca built large cities and developed an efficient administration system to make their empire run smoothly. The Aztec and the Inca civilizations flourished until their conquest by the Spanish in the early 16th century.
EXERCISE 9
Civilizations in the Americas
Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question.
1. Based on the information above, you can infer that
A. the Maya kept careful track of days and years.
B. Native American tribes in North America had little contact with each other.
C. no Native Americans ever lived in large cities.
D. native peoples in Central America failed to develop a writing system.
The answer is on page 829.
Renaissance and Reformation in Europe
Two important factors made the Renaissance, a cultural movement that began in Italy around 1350, a great turning point in Western history. One was a resurgence of interest in Classical philosophy, literature, and art. The second was a sharp rise in literacy—the effect of the development of moveable type and the printing press.
The Koreans invented movable type; it was modified in Germany and ended up having a much greater effect in the West than in Korea and China. With books readily available, people could read on their own instead of simply trusting what the learned authorities told them.
The religious movement called the Reformation began in 1517 with the founding of the Lutheran Church. By 1600, thousands of Europeans—particularly Northern Europeans—were worshipping in Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican churches. The success of Protestantism (it gets its name because its believers protested against Catholic doctrine) had multiple causes: a growing realization that the Catholic Church was neither all-powerful nor morally above reproach, a rise in secular political power, and the perfection of the printing process. People could now read the Bible (and all other books) for themselves; they no longer had to accept the Church’s interpretation of Scripture.
EXERCISE 10
Renaissance and Reformation in Europe
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Based on the text, which of the following statements is true?
A. Protestantism was the result of protests against the Lutheran Church.
B. The concept of movable type, or the printing press, was not invented in Europe.
C. The Renaissance began in Korea and China before spreading to Western Europe.
D. Calvinists thought that only church officials should be permitted to read.
2. Based on the information above, it can be inferred that
A. Lutherans, Calvinists, and Anglicans do not agree on Christian dogma.
B. the Catholic Church was opposed to Classical literature and art.
C. the sharp rise in literacy in Europe had a profound effect on history.
D. people in southern Europe were predominantly Muslim.
Answers are on page 829.
The Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution
The Scientific Revolution was a time of great progress in human understanding of the laws of the universe. This era changed not only what people thought but, more important, how they thought. The discoveries of the Scientific Revolution (such as the moons of Jupiter and the paths of the planets around the sun) were the product of practical experimentation rather than abstract philosophy.
The philosophes (French for philosophers) of the 18th-century Enlightenment applied this scientific process of critical thinking to social and political problems. They argued that all people were born free and equal and that individuals should be able to make their way in the world as reasonable beings as to how they wished to live. Their works encouraged people to believe that they did not have to accept existing conditions and that they could create new institutions to their own liking. In the end, Enlightenment teachings led directly to major revolutions in British North America and in France.
Later on in the 18th and 19th centuries, the Industrial Revolution demonstrated a third way of using the process of observation and experimentation: by applying it to the mechanical challenges of manufacturing and agriculture. New machines appeared with bewildering rapidity, permanently altering the pace of human life and shifting the Western economy from a basis in agriculture to a basis in mass production.
EXERCISE 11
The Scientific Revolution, the Enlightenment, and the Industrial Revolution
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. The philosophes of the Enlightenment applied what process to social and political problems?
A. resource management, like that used in agriculture
B. mass production, like that used in manufacturing
C. critical thinking, like that used in science
D. cataloguing, like that used in libraries
2. The progress and discoveries of the Scientific Revolution were based on
A. the opinions of French aristocrats.
B. the machines of the Industrial Revolution.
C. practical experimentation rather than abstract philosophy.
D. the migration of workers form rural areas to big cities.
Answers are on page 829.
The Age of Exploration
At the end of the 1400s, European monarchs began sponsoring voyages of exploration beyond the world they knew. Their purposes were fourfold: trade, conquest and expansion, religious conversion, and curiosity.
• Trade. The natural resources of the colonized regions—Asia, Africa, and the Americas—included such non-European items as rice, coffee, sugar, rubber, silk, cotton, gold, diamonds, and spices. West Africa was also the source of slave labor throughout the 18th century. Colonization meant that Europeans could set their own prices for what they bought from the colonies and what they sold to them.
• Conquest, expansion, and profit. A larger population meant more revenue for the crown in taxes, more income for the churches in tithes, and more soldiers in the army. Therefore three of the most powerful branches of society—the court, the clergy, and the military—were united in the desire to explore the seas and lands beyond Europe in the hope of establishing colonies that would make them richer and stronger than their neighbors.
• Religious conversion. The third motive, religious conversion, was a product of the universal Christian belief that it was a Christian’s duty to convert non-Christians and thus save their souls.
• Curiosity. The last motive, and a very powerful one, was the universal human sense of adventure and curiosity—the drive to find out things that has characterized human beings since the beginning of civilization.
EXERCISE 12
The Age of Exploration
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Which of the following was NOT a motive of explorers in the Age of Exploration?
A. conquest
B. religious conversion
C. curiosity
D. hostility
2. True or False? Religious conversion was a key objective in the Age of Exploration because Christian explorers thought it was their duty to convert non-Christians to Christianity.
Answers are on page 829.
Building Empires
Nations become empires in two ways—either by swallowing up adjoining land and thus expanding their borders or by seizing colonies some distance away. Rome, China, India, Russia, and the United States are examples of the first type of empire (the United States would acquire a few offshore colonies at the turn of the 20th century). Spain, France, Prussia (later Germany), and Britain are examples of the second.
The European powers colonized the entire continent of Africa (except Ethiopia and Liberia), and all the Southeast Asian kingdoms except Siam (present-day Thailand). These colonies could not match the military might of the invaders, so they had to accept foreign rule.
Spain colonized all of Mexico, Central America, most of South America except for Brazil, and the Philippines in Asia. It also conquered nearly one-third of the present-day United States. Portugal colonized Brazil as well as Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau in Africa and Macau in Asia.
France colonized Vietnam, much of North and West Africa, Canada, the Great Lakes region, and the Louisiana Territory, which it later sold to the United States. French Canada was conquered by Britain. France and Britain fought over control of India; in 1850 Britain won the fight and would govern India until after World War II. Britain also held colonies in Africa and Asia and sent settlers to colonize Australia and New Zealand.
The European countries profited from the colonies by extracting natural resources such as gold, oil, metals, and timber. The colonies also served as protected markets for the goods manufactured in Europe. The age of colonization ended with World War II for two reasons; the European powers could no longer afford to maintain colonies, and the people who lived in the colonized countries began to rebel against foreign rule.
EXERCISE 13
Building Empires
Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question.
1. For each country or region in the following list, indicate which country colonized it by writing the name in the proper column in the table. Then indicate the column in the table where each statement belongs. (Note: On the real GED® test, you will click on the country name and “drag” it into position in the diagram.)
The answers are on page 829.
Revolutions in Britain and France
Between 1689 and 1789, the West saw three major political revolutions—one in England, one in America, and one in France.
In Great Britain, 50 years of violent conflict between Parliament and the absolutist monarchy led to the Glorious Revolution. In 1649, following defeat in battle, Charles I was captured by Parliamentary forces and executed for treason; after a brief military dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, Charles’s son Charles II was crowned in 1660. When Charles II died and his unpopular Catholic brother became king as James II, Parliament rebelled, inviting James’s Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange (in Holland) to rule jointly. James II fled to France, and the Glorious Revolution was won without a shot being fired. The English Bill of Rights, passed by Parliament in 1689, ushered in a new era of individual rights and constitutional monarchy.
In the French Revolution of 1789, commoners rebelled against an absolute monarch and an overprivileged aristocracy. Unable to devise a viable republican government to replace the monarchy, France became a military dictatorship under Napoleon Bonaparte. His attempt to conquer all of Europe united all the other nations against France and ended in his defeat and exile. The French monarchy was restored, but with constitutional limits on the monarch’s power.
EXERCISE 14
Revolutions in Britain and France
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. According to the information above, which of the following statements is true?
A. William and Mary were childless and assumed that the monarchy would end with them.
B. No actual battles were fought during the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
C. The French Revolution was an uprising against the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.
D. James II of England fled to France in 1649 following the execution of his father Charles I.
2. The English and French revolutions both eventually led to what change in the powers of the monarch?
A. Constitutional limits were placed on the monarch’s powers.
B. The monarch became a military dictator.
C. All restrictions on the monarch’s powers were removed.
D. All of the monarch’s powers were transferred to Parliament.
Answers are on page 829.
New Political Ideas in the 19th Century
Many new political forces came into being in the 19th century—liberalism, socialism, nationalism, conservatism, and Marxism. This table explains what each term means.
EXERCISE 15
New Political Ideas in the 19th Century
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Which political philosophy holds that government should control business and regulate wages and prices?
A. liberalism
B. socialism
C. nationalism
D. conservatism
2. Nineteenth-century conservatives and liberals both supported monarchy, but they differed in regard to
A. the right to strike.
B. freedom of the press.
C. pride in their country.
D. government control of business.
Answers are on page 830.
Political Developments in 19th-Century Europe
Examples of constitutional governments in Great Britain, France, and the United States led to loud calls for written constitutions in many European nations. One wave of European revolutions took place in 1830 and another in 1848. In those revolutions, the forces of liberalism, which supported representative government, scored some victories—although conservative governments were still in power in several countries at the end of the century.
One of the most conservative was the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which included a diverse mix of Germans, Czechs, Hungarians, Croats, and Italians. Nationalism—pride in one’s culture and language—made all these groups chafe at living in an empire instead of being independent. The growing strength of nationalism was a major factor in the unification of Italy in 1861 and of Germany in 1871. Nationalism in Ireland made the Irish restive under British rule and led to some reforms in Britain’s Irish policy.
Nationalism also contributed to the decline and fall of the Ottoman Empire. Throughout the 10th century the Ottomans steadily lost territory and influence, until the Empire was eliminated altogether after World War I. In 1923 the Empire was transformed into Turkey, a secular Islamic republic.
In Russia, a rebellion in 1905 did not succeed in overthrowing the tsar, but it did lay the groundwork for the Revolution of 1917.
EXERCISE 16
Political Developments in 19th-Century Europe
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Which statement is supported by the text?
A. Ireland gained independence from Great Britain in 1871.
B. The unification of Italy resulted from the revolutions of 1830.
C. Nationalism divided Austria-Hungary, but it united the states that joined to form Italy and Germany.
D. The Czechs and Croats were the most liberal groups in Austria-Hungary.
2. Which conclusion can be drawn about the Ottoman Empire?
A. In the later 19th century, the Ottomans became close allies of the French.
B. The armies of Europe were no match for the forces of the Ottoman Empire.
C. The people of Turkey still refer to themselves as Ottomans.
D. Throughout the 19th century the Ottoman Empire steadily lost territory and influence.
Answers are on page 830.
World War I and the Russian Revolution
World War I (called the Great War at the time, since no one anticipated World War II) happened primarily for two reasons. The first was nationalism: nationalist agitation among Serbs and other Slavs in Austria’s Balkan provinces threatened the power of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and German nationalism had led to a major buildup of the German military during the 1910s. The second reason for going to war was maintaining the European balance of power. The unification of Germany had created a large, strong, powerful nation-state whose ambitions caused grave concern to Britain, Russia, and especially France. Those three countries formed a defensive alliance. Germany allied itself with Austria-Hungary. When a Serb nationalist assassinated an Austrian archduke at Sarajevo in 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia, Russia mobilized to defend the Serbs, and the alliances went into action. Soon Britain, France, and Russia (the “Allies”) were at war with Germany, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire (the “Central Powers”).
The war wrecked the European economy; Russian farmers and workers were especially hard hit. Tsar Nicholas II was unable to take control and improve matters. Resentment against the tsar led to a popular uprising in 1917, and as a result Nicholas abdicated. After a chaotic power struggle, control of the government passed to the leftist Bolshevik Party led by V. I. Lenin. Lenin signed a peace treaty with Germany, withdrew Russian troops from the war, and began to convert the newly renamed Soviet Union into a Communist dictatorship. Britain and France, dismayed by the abrupt withdrawal of a powerful ally, were heartened when the United States joined the war. The tide turned in the Allies’ favor and Germany agreed to an armistice on November 11, 1918.
At the peace conference, the Allied leaders did three things to restore the balance of power in Europe. First, they partially redrew the map of Europe along nationalist lines, creating new states, expanding others, and breaking up the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Second, after making Germany accept responsibility for the war, they reduced Germany’s strength by ordering the Germans to maintain the German Rhineland as a demilitarized zone, to pay enormous reparations, and to reduce the size of the German army and navy. Third, the Allied leaders created the League of Nations as an international forum for resolving conflicts and maintaining peace.
EXERCISE 17
World War I and the Russian Revolution
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Which event upset the European balance of power and led to World War I?
A. the unification of Germany as a powerful, ambitious nation state
B. revolution in Russia and its transformation into a Communist dictatorship
C. the breakup of Austria-Hungary into separate nations
D. the weakness of the Allies compared to the Central Powers
2. After the war, the Allies redrew the map of Europe in response to the wishes of
A. the Central Powers.
B. Russian Communists.
C. European nationalists.
D. the League of Nations.
3. At the peace conference, the Allies imposed harsh measures on Germany. You can infer that these measures were intended to
A. stop Germany from joining the Soviet Union.
B. prevent Germany from starting another war.
C. encourage a revival of the German economy.
D. keep the League of Nations from interfering in German affairs.
Answers are on page 830.
The Rise of Fascism
During the 1920s and 1930s, fascist governments arose in Italy, Germany, Spain, and Eastern Europe; by 1937, Japan was also under strict military rule, and Communist forces were on the rise in China.
Fascism was a political doctrine that promoted extreme nationalism as a way of achieving national unity and eliminating domestic social and economic strife. In this it differed from Communism, which in theory offered a new social order run by the working class, and fascists and Communists despised each other. In day-to-day practice, however, fascism and Communism often amounted to the same thing—absolute dictatorship of a police state, with only one political party that tolerated no opposition.
In Germany, the fascists, who were called National Socialists (“Nazis”), also implemented policies of racial persecution, particularly of Jews, whom they blamed for the country’s economic and other ills. Social and political developments of the period gave rise to these dictatorships. The first was the rise of mass political parties. The second was dissension among liberals in government and parliaments and their helplessness to respond effectively when a massive economic depression struck in the 1930s. The third was the large class of World War I veterans who made an enthusiastic audience for nationalist rhetoric.
EXERCISE 18
The Rise of Fascism
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. According to the text, the rise of fascism in Germany was aided by
A. the rejection of nationalism by all political parties.
B. the growing strength of Communist parties in Asia.
C. the government’s failure to effectively combat economic depression.
D. interference in German politics by outsiders.
2. German fascists used which of the following to attract supporters?
A. alliance with the Communists
B. strikes for higher wages
C. promises to veterans that there would be no more wars
D. extreme nationalism
Answers are on page 830.
World War II
World War II was a war of German aggression—a war fought partly to change the defeat of World War I into a victory and partly to take over Europe as Napoleon had temporarily succeeded in doing at the beginning of the 19th century.
World War II began in 1939 when Germany, after taking over Austria and Czechoslovakia, invaded Poland. France and Great Britain declared war, but Germany soon conquered the Netherlands, Belgium, and France and launched air attacks on Britain. After failing to conquer Britain, Germany began an invasion of the Soviet Union. Germany and its ally Italy (the “Axis” powers) maintained control of the war until late 1942. Their well-planned invasions succeeded more or less by surprise. The German troops were extremely effective, and Germany and Italy eventually controlled almost all of Europe and a sizable chunk of North Africa.
In the Pacific, Japan had invaded the Manchurian region of China and was seeking further conquests. It joined Germany and Italy in the Axis alliance, and when Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in 1941, Germany also declared war on the United States. Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union then joined in a great alliance to defeat Germany, and their numerical and economic strength eventually turned the tide. Additionally, the distant American factories were well out of danger of being bombed or captured, so the Allied source of tanks and munitions never dried up.
During the time when Germany ruled most of Europe, the fascist Nazis implemented extreme racial persecution measures within the occupied countries. Approximately six million European Jews were forced into concentration camps and murdered—an event known as the Holocaust. Millions of other Europeans were also killed by the Nazis.
The war is accurately called a world war because of the extent of the fighting outside of Europe. After more than three years of fighting in the Pacific, Japan finally conceded defeat after it was attacked with nuclear weapons in 1945.
EXERCISE 19
World War II
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1. Great Britain and France declared war on Germany in 1939 after Germany invaded
A. Poland.
B. Austria.
C. France.
D. the Netherlands.
Question 2 is based on the following passage.
Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan. The United States was at peace with that nation, and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its government and its emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific.
—Excerpt from the speech to Congress by President Franklin Roosevelt, requesting a declaration of war, December 8, 1941
2. According to the speech, December 7, 1941, will “live in infamy” because
A. the attack on Pearl Harbor had no effect on the United States.
B. the United States was already at war with Germany in Europe.
C. Japan had never before attacked another country.
D. the attack on the United States was unprovoked, with no declaration of war.
Answers are on page 830.
The End of European Dominance and the Formation of the European Union
At the start of the 20th century, Europe was the world’s most powerful region, controlling many parts of Asia and most of Africa. After 1945, the former European powers had no resources to spare for their colonial empires; all their energies and resources were concentrated on rebuilding. The postwar era therefore saw a wave of independence throughout all of Africa. It was not gained easily, peacefully, or overnight, and in some African nations it led to an era of harsh military rule, corruption, and violent social and political unrest.
India also finally broke free from British rule and was divided into two separate states: a Hindu India and an Islamic Pakistan. Millions of Indian Muslims immediately crossed the border into Pakistan, while Pakistani Hindus fled to India.
During the late 1950s, Western European nations began to profit from the experience of their wartime alliance; they realized they were stronger united than they were on their own, and that peaceful cooperation was better than wars of conquest. A European Economic Community was created, and this led to the formation of the European Union (EU) in 1991. EU nations are entirely independent and self-governing, but they share common foreign and security policies and they cooperate on matters of domestic policy and affairs of international justice. They have had a common currency, the euro, since 1999.
EXERCISE 20
The End of European Dominance and the Formation of the European Union
Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question.
Question 1 is based on the following timeline.
1. According to the timeline, how many countries joined the European Union in 2004?
A. 3
B. 6
C. 8
D. 10
The answer is on page 830.
The End of the Soviet Union
By 1945, the Soviet Union held total political sway over all of Eastern Europe. Puppet Communist governments under the control of Moscow existed in all these small Slavic nations except Yugoslavia, ruled by the fiercely independent Marshall Tito. Germany was divided into two nations, democratic West Germany and Communist East Germany. A political border nicknamed the Iron Curtain would exist between Western and Eastern Europe from the late 1940s until 1989. In the divided city of Berlin, the Iron Curtain became an actual concrete wall in 1961; the Berlin Wall would be the most powerful symbol of the Cold War. The Soviet Union did not hesitate to use brute force in suppressing popular uprisings and attempts at reform such as the Prague Spring of 1968.
Soviet Communism proved economically unfeasible, despite major Soviet victories in the “space race” with the United States. Each superpower tried to outdo the other in exploring the universe beyond Earth. After the death of dictator Joseph Stalin and a lengthy period of economic stagnation, a gradual thaw in Soviet policy eventually led to the end of the Cold War, successful political uprisings, and the coming of democratic government to Eastern Europe. The Berlin Wall was demolished in 1989, and the Soviet Union broke up into independent republics in 1991.
EXERCISE 21
The End of the Soviet Union
Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question.
1. Which of the following contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union?
A. the suppression of the “Prague Spring”
B. the division of Germany into two nations
C. a lengthy period of economic stagnation
D. the building of the Berlin Wall
The answer is on page 830.
China Today
Communist one-party rule was established in China in 1949 after a civil war. After several decades of isolation, a certain amount of market free enterprise was reintroduced, and Communist China began rising to world prominence and power. The early 21st century has been a time of great prosperity for some groups and regions in China.
However, the country continues to suffer grave social problems. Chinese citizens do not have unrestricted access to outside information sources, the press is censored, and political dissidence is not tolerated.
Tens of thousands of workers earn extremely low wages turning out electronic devices; cheap, low-quality clothing and household items; and other export items, which the United States and other nations continue to import because the prices are so low.
EXERCISE 22
China Today
Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question.
Question 1 is based on the following graph.
1. According to the graph, China’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 2011–2012 was approximately
A. $2.6 trillion.
B. $3.4 trillion.
C. $8.2 trillion.
D. $15.7 trillion.
The answer is on page 830.
The Arab World
A massive demand for oil in the post–World War II era led to an enormous economic change in the Middle East. As the source of most of the world’s oil, the region leapt into a position of international consequence and great prosperity almost overnight. In 1960, five of the Arab nations created a cartel called the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) with the purpose of regulating oil prices and controlling the supply of oil to the rest of the world. Today, OPEC has 12 member nations including 4 in Africa and 2 in South America.
Most Middle Eastern nations are either military dictatorships or monarchies; the press is heavily censored in these countries. In many of these countries, Islamic leaders constantly pressure their governments to enforce Islamic values and practices.
The creation of the state of Israel in the late 1940s caused great turmoil in the region, and the situation was worsened when Israel began a long-term occupation of territories with Arab populations during the “Six-Day War” in 1967. In 2011 a series of popular uprisings in Arab countries (dubbed the Arab Spring) raised hopes for the creation of democratic governments, but they also opened new conflicts between pro-Western liberals and Islamists.
EXERCISE 23
The Arab World
Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question.
1. What claim about the modern Middle East is supported by the text?
A. In many Middle Eastern countries, politics and religion are frequently intertwined.
B. The state of Israel was created after the “Six-Day War” in 1967.
C. OPEC allows only Middle Eastern countries as members.
D. The “Arab Spring” put an end to monarchies in the Middle East.
The answer is on page 830.
PRACTICE
Focusing Themes
Directions: Fill in the blank with the word or phrase that makes the sentence true.
1. The earliest human civilizations occurred in a region we call the ________________ because its climate was ideal for good harvests.
A. Silk Road
B. Rift Valley
C. Spice Islands
D. Fertile Crescent
2. The Romans referred to Northern tribes like the Goths and Huns as ________________ because Northern tribal culture was based on plunder and pillage, not on building cities, writing law codes, and creating works of art.
A. patricians
B. plebeians
C. barbarians
D. Gauls
3. The medieval kingdom of Ghana, located in ________________, was known for its long-distance trade network of precious metals and spices.
A. West Africa
B. Persia
C. Arabia
D. the Indus Valley
4. ________________, defined as pride in one’s country’s ethnic and cultural heritage, was a major force driving political change in 19th-century Europe.
A. Communism
B. Liberalism
C. Socialism
D. Nationalism
5. ________________ was a medieval system that bound together people of different social classes with oaths of loyalty and mutual responsibilities and duties.
A. Slavery
B. Feudalism
C. Colonialism
D. Monarchy
Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
6. The thinkers of the 18th-century Enlightenment taught that people do not have to accept existing conditions and can create new institutions to their own liking. Which of the following is true in regard to this idea?
A. Few people thought it was important.
B. Europeans used it to justify their empires.
C. It was popular with European kings.
D. It inspired the American and French Revolutions.
Question 7 is based on the following passage.
We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I can say: It is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival.
—Excerpt from a speech by Prime Minister Winston Churchill to the British Parliament early in World War II
7. Which of the following can be inferred from the speech?
A. Churchill wanted the British to know that they faced a long and difficult war.
B. Churchill wanted Parliament to realize that Britain faced defeat.
C. Many people in Britain did not think the war was worth fighting.
D. Churchill thought that the war would soon be over.
8. The colonial power that ruled India until 1947 was
A. Spain.
B. France.
C. Great Britain.
D. Portugal.
9. Which of the following is true in regard to the European Union (EU)?
A. EU nations have never shared a common currency.
B. EU nations cooperate on matters of domestic policy.
C. EU nations all obey a single central government.
D. EU nations joined together in order to conquer other countries.
Question 10 is based on the following graph.
10. According to the graph, every OPEC country produces at least 2 million barrels of oil per day EXCEPT
A. Algeria and Angola.
B. Nigeria and Liberia.
C. Iran and Saudi Arabia.
D. Qatar, Ecuador, and Angola.
Answers are on page 830.