To prevent injuries and maximize climbing ability, all climbers need to consume the correct amount of calories from nutritional food sources at the right time. Additionally, a focus on hydration, proper body composition, training, rest, sleep cycles, mental fortitude, and good technique are key components for climbing, regardless of discipline.
Nutritional content and timing can affect climbing potential. Nutritional goals vary by type of climbing and the climbing environment. Sport climbers working on a difficult project will focus on maintaining or reaching a very specific lean body profile and weight, while an alpinist, burning 10,000 calories per day, will be most concerned with consumption of calorie-dense and easily digestible foods. No matter the goal, proper nutrition is obtained from a diet consisting of a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein.
Meals and snacks should consist of foods that are ideally natural, organic, locally grown, and of free-range protein sources. Purchasing local foods increases the likelihood of freshness and maintains more nutritional content. When choosing a protein source, free-range animals that have not been treated with steroids or antibiotics are generally considered a better nutritional choice. A healthy diet for climbers consists of daily calories containing 50% carbohydrates, 25% fats, and 25% protein. This is not always possible, especially during expeditions with limited food sources or when duration or intensity of activity requires greater amounts of calories to meet increased demand.
Preparation and selection of food types is also an important aspect to consider. Baking, broiling, or grilling are preferred preparation techniques, and the removal of skin and trimming of excess fat from animal protein are helpful when attempting to maintain a lean body composition. To maximize and conserve nutritional content, food should not be overcooked. When considering carbohydrates, products made of whole grains contain more vitamins, minerals, and fiber than processed alternatives. For climbers concerned about maintaining a specific body composition, sauces, dressings, condiments, and other sides such as butter, sour cream, or cheese can add unnecessary calories that they may wish to avoid. For alpinists, these items help create high-calorie meals that are more appealing and edible and assist in maintenance of weight and energy. Again, nutritional goals must coincide with the demands and needs of climbing goals. Many foods can sabotage nutritional diets for climbers and include refined sugars and trans fats, two items readily found in most processed or fast foods. Junk foods filled with simple sugars provide “empty calories” that can trigger a rapid sugar spike followed by a crash and craving for more. These are generally not beneficial to performance and should be avoided.
Protein is necessary for growth, maintenance, and repair of cells. It is also used to produce enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, and hemoglobin, which are all vital for normal bodily functions. Protein contains four calories per gram and is broken down into amino acids used by the body. Climbers require a minimum of 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight, and during intense periods of training this amount can increase to 1.2 to 1.4 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. Protein requirements can be met with a proper diet and must be timed appropriately. There are differing views pertaining to the appropriate protein needs, and climbers must select the one that is most appropriate to their climbing goals. Currently, there are no peer-reviewed studies of high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets that indicate performance enhancement for an athlete (House 2014). Nutritional protein sources include eggs, low-fat dairy, seafood, lean, skinless poultry, and limited amounts of lean red meat.
For vegetarians and vegans, meeting the required daily protein requirements is more challenging, but with knowledge and planning, a healthy diet is possible. There are many professional climbers who are vegetarian or vegan, such as Alex Honnold and Steph Davis. It is important to ensure adequate daily intake of vitamins A, B-12, C, iron, and zinc, as these can be lacking in a vegetarian diet. Vitamin B-12 is best obtained in a sublingual liquid form. Seeds, nuts, legumes, beans, and soy products are all excellent sources of protein that can be included within a vegetarian or vegan climber’s diet.
Carbohydrates are used for energy and are the preferred fuel for the brain, nervous system, and musculature. Each gram contains four calories and is divided into simple or complex carbohydrates, which are broken down into fuel through a process known as glycolysis. This can occur with or without oxygen and is processed twice as fast as energy derived from fats. The body stores carbohydrates in the liver and muscles in the form of glycogen. For a normal eater, this glycogen reserve (or store) is enough to complete an hour of moderate to high intensity climbing.
Individuals require a minimum of one gram of carbohydrate per pound of body weight daily to avoid ketosis (the use of fat as an alternative energy source), which is a less efficient method of fueling the body. Low-carbohydrate diets can lead to depleted glycogen stores and reduced performance in exercise lasting longer than 30 minutes.
Refined simple carbohydrates include table sugar, candy, chocolate, soft drinks, white breads, cakes, and jelly, and are heavily processed. These carbohydrates enter the bloodstream quickly, raising and then dropping blood sugar levels, which can lead to food cravings, fatigue, nausea, and headaches. They are helpful for a quick energy boost, to counteract hypoglycemia, and to improve morale. Honey and some fruits are healthy, natural sources of simple carbohydrates and can be consumed for quick energy with nutritional value and are preferable to processed carbohydrates. Combining simple carbohydrates with fats or protein can prevent the drop in blood glucose levels and its associated effects.
Complex carbohydrates are found in whole grains, pasta, cereals, beans, fruits, and vegetables. These carbohydrates enter the bloodstream more slowly than simple carbohydrates, and are not followed by a dramatic drop in blood sugar levels, thus providing a longer-lasting source of energy. Fiber is included in complex carbohydrates and delays digestion, prolonging the feeling of being satisfied. Complex carbohydrates should take preference over simple carbohydrates and comprise a larger portion of the daily total of carbohydrates consumed.
Artificial sweeteners are not considered simple or complex carbohydrates, as they function and are metabolized differently. Many sweeteners are much sweeter than regular table sugar and should be consumed in moderation.
Fat is essential because the body cannot produce it and cannot function without it. It keeps skin and hair healthy, aids in the absorption of vitamins A, D, E, and K, insulates the body, is essential for brain development, helps control inflammation, assists in blood clotting, and is a source of energy. Fat contains nine calories per gram. In conditioned athletes, fat supplies most of the fuel for low-intensity activities over a long duration. Fat is categorized as saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and trans fatty acids (trans fats). Fat is necessary in a healthy diet; the best sources are monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Saturated fat should be limited, and hydrogenated (trans) fats should be avoided. Daily fat requirements can be met through a varied diet.
Saturated fats are found in animal sources and dairy products, and are required to build certain hormones. Intake should be limited due to their influence on blood cholesterol levels, arterial plaque formation, and development of heart disease. Monounsaturated fats are found in olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, nuts, and avocados, and are good sources of fat—they should comprise the majority of fat calories. These fats are known to reduce blood cholesterol levels, heart disease, and stroke risk (Kris-Etherton 1999). Polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly omega-3, are important for nutrition and can be found in fish, some nuts (walnuts, among others), flaxseed, fish oil, cod liver oil, and vegetable oils such as flaxseed, sunflower, canola, and soybean oils. These fats have been associated with improvement of a variety of disease processes such as heart health, cancer, and other conditions (GISSI 1999, Koralek 2006, Leaf 2007). Trans fats, commonly found in processed and fast foods and often labeled as hydrogenated oil, should be limited to less than two grams daily or, if possible, avoided.
Alcohol contains seven calories per gram. While some health benefits of moderate alcohol intake have been proposed, alcohol calories are usually considered otherwise non-nutritional. Daily consumption of more than one alcoholic drink for women or two for men has negative effects on health. Alcohol has been shown to reduce sleep quality, decrease testosterone levels for men, increase cortisol levels, suppress the immune system, and enhance appetite. A standard portion consists of 12 ounces (oz.) of regular beer (5% alcohol), 8 to 9 oz. of malt liquor, 5 oz. of wine (12% alcohol), or 1.5 oz. (40% alcohol) of distilled spirits.
Consuming caffeine by drinking a regular cup of coffee or tea can have health benefits when consumed in moderation, meaning no more than three cups daily. Caffeine is a known antioxidant and has been linked to a reduced risk of diabetes, heart disease, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and cancer (Butt 2011). Moderate caffeine consumption (3 to 6 mg per kilogram of body weight) has no diuretic effect.
The best source of vitamins and minerals is real food. While consuming supplements is unnecessary when consuming a complete and balanced diet, this is not always realistic, especially at altitude or during lengthy expeditions when food sources can be limited in scope. In situations where resources are limited or a balanced diet is difficult to attain, taking a daily multivitamin can be helpful. Vitamins C and E are recommended for mountaineers at altitude. Choose a vitamin that is United States Pharmacopeia (USP)-approved.
Creatine is a natural substance occurring in meat and fish, but can also be purchased as a supplement. It can be useful for short, explosive strength, and many bodybuilders rely on creatine to improve their workout. The primary negative aspect of creatine for climbers is the associated weight gain from water retention.
Iron is essential, and climbers need to ensure adequate intake. Iron is used in the formation of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying component of the red blood cells. Women are at higher risk of being iron deficient, due to menstruation, as are vegetarians and vegans, due to dietary restrictions. A feeling of being tired or weak is a sign of iron deficiency. The best method to confirm an iron deficiency is by having your blood tested. Eating red meat a few times a week or consuming fortified foods (breads and cereals), leafy greens, or cooking with an iron skillet are excellent methods to meet iron requirements. Overconsumption of iron is not beneficial and can affect calcium and zinc absorption. Menstruating women can include 15 mg of iron from a multivitamin in their diets, but other climbers should not rely on vitamins unless a lab result indicates a low iron level.
Protein powder is an alternative and convenient source of protein. Daily requirements can be supplemented with powders, especially during high-intensity training periods or strength training. Protein intake can be increased to 1.5 to 2 grams per kilogram of body weight daily to support recovery during these activities. There are different kinds of proteins, and choosing the most appropriate depends on the timing of consumption.
Whey protein is a protein isolated from the liquid by-product of cheese production, and is available in isolate or concentrated form. The isolate is at least 90% protein and in the purest form contains little fat, lactose, or cholesterol. Non-isolate whey protein is cheaper, has less protein (usually 89% or less, and sometimes as low as 29%), is usually of lower quality, and contains higher amounts of fat and lactose. Whey is considered a fast protein source with rapid muscle absorption, peaking between 60 and 90 minutes after ingestion. It is excellent as a recovery beverage and aids muscle repair and synthesis.
Casein is derived from cow’s milk and is a slower-digesting protein that can result in elevated levels seven hours after ingestion. Less of the casein protein is oxidized or wasted, and it produces a greater overall protein balance compared to whey, making it an ideal nighttime protein source.
Soy protein isolate or concentrate is a vegan-friendly protein source. It is digested more gradually than whey protein and consumption should be timed similarly to casein protein.
Branched chain amino acids (BCAAs) are protein supplements primarily composed of leucine products that have the nine essential amino acids for muscle proteins. These supplements stimulate protein synthesis, are fast acting, and can be useful when consumed within an hour after training. Glucosamine and chondroitin are supplements that have been advertised to relieve joint pain. However, current research of these claims is inconclusive.
Calories are important for daily bodily function, weight maintenance, and activity. The number of calories consumed by a climber should be based upon their ideal weight and activity intensity. A climber working bouldering problems in a climbing gym will require far less calories on a daily basis to maintain a healthy body composition than an alpinist traversing a desolate ridgeline in freezing conditions. The body mass index (BMI) scale is the standard formula to determine ideal weight.
FIGURE 3–1. BODY MASS INDEX
BMI |
Classification |
Below 18.5 |
Underweight |
18.5–24.9 |
Normal |
25–30 |
Overweight |
Above 30 |
Obese |
(Soles 2008) |
|
However, this scale is not well-suited for climbers. No specific weight is optimal for every climber at a specific height. Ideal weight is the weight at which a person’s body performs at its climbing best, whether on rock, ice, or snow. Individual climbers can realistically and accurately calculate their ideal body weight by paying close attention to performance at particular weights and body composition. A better, more rock climber-focused approximation of weight uses the following calculation:
FIGURE 3–2. BMI SCALE ADAPTED FOR CLIMBERS
Men |
106 lbs. + 6 lbs. per each inch over 5 ft. |
Women |
100 lbs. + 6 lbs. per each inch over 5 ft. |
(Allow 10% range to compensate for bone structure and density) |
|
(Soles 2008) |
|
To achieve performance goals, climbers should not be fixated on weight, but rather on body composition, and in particular on percentage of body fat. Current research illustrates that body fat percentage can have a dramatic effect on performance (Sheel 2004). Striving for a body fat in the range of 6–13% (for men) and 14–20% (for women) can optimize climbing performance. Individual climbers must determine their best ideal weight and body composition to maximize performance in their climbing environment. The “ideal” may vary greatly between a sport climber and a high-altitude mountaineer.
Body fat can be calculated using a variety of techniques. Regardless of the method, consistency is key, and assessing the trend over weeks and months is more accurate and useful than doing so at any given point in time. There are many ways to alter body composition and achieve an ideal fat percentage. Fad or excessively low-calorie diets are not recommended. These promote unhealthy and unsustainable dieting tactics and include diets that advertise more than a couple of pounds of weight loss in a week. In many cases, the majority of rapid weight loss comes from water, muscle, glycogen, and lean muscle mass and not fat. This is the exact opposite of the desired outcome. Lost muscle and rigid calorie restrictions lead to a reduced resting metabolic rate (RMR), triggering the body to use calories more efficiently and storing fat more readily. This makes it even more difficult to lose body fat and is counterproductive.
A baseline calorie intake of eight calories per pound provides enough fuel for daily bodily function without using muscle as an energy source. This is a minimum baseline and is most appropriate for a completely sedentary individual. It is not applicable for a climber who utilizes much more energy on a daily basis. Figure 3-3 shows a more accurate representation of calorie requirements for the climber or alpinist.
If weight loss is the goal, focusing on a realistic reduction in calories, increased cardiovascular training, and improved RMR from increased muscle mass or through high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is key. On average, a climber must burn 3,500 calories to lose 1 pound of weight. Limiting carbohydrates so that the body dips into stored fat as the source of energy can be a good short-term weight loss strategy but should not be a long-term method, as ketosis is not a healthy way for the body to obtain energy. Rigid calorie restriction is not a realistic fat reduction method. Consumption of a balanced nutritional diet comprising less calories than those burned during exercise in conjunction with strength training and HIIT training to reduce RMR is the best method to reduce weight (House 2014).
FIGURE 3–3. CALORIE REQUIREMENTS FOR CLIMBERS
Activity level |
Exercise per day |
Calorie requirement per lb. per day |
Low |
None |
14–15 |
Moderate |
45–60 minutes moderate intensity |
16–20 |
High |
60–120 minutes moderate intensity |
21–25 |
Extreme |
>120 minutes moderate intensity |
25–30 |
(Soles 2008) |
||
If focusing on body composition rather than weight loss, daily calories should not be reduced. Resistance training along with aerobic exercises including HIIT sessions should be incorporated into a training routine. Resistance training can increase RMR, decrease body fat, increase strength-to-weight ratio, and aid in climbing performance. Once an ideal body composition is achieved, maintenance exercises should be incorporated regularly.
Consuming the right nutrients at appropriate times enables a climber to stay stronger longer and recover more quickly. There are a few important points for climbers to consider. After ingesting carbohydrates or protein, a hormone known as insulin is secreted. Insulin aids in the conversion of glucose into energy, signaling the body to build new protein structures, and controls how glycogen and fats are stored in the muscles and liver. During exercise, insulin output is suppressed, allowing the body to retrieve fat or glycogen for fuel. Not consuming a simple carbohydrate immediately before high-intensity exercise puts digestion temporarily on hold, stimulating fat oxidation as the fuel-producing pathway and thus decreasing stored fat. This can be beneficial for weight reduction or to improve the body’s ability to utilize fat stores more easily. Low-intensity exercise lasting more than one hour requires a limited amount of carbohydrates to derive fuel from fat calories. Consuming a small snack that contains complex carbohydrates and a small amount of fat is the best choice prior to low-intensity exercise (e.g., fruit and nut mix).
Consuming carbohydrates before exercise stimulates the release of insulin into the bloodstream, thus turning off fat oxidation. This reduces the use of fat as a primary fuel source and relies on glucose from dietary intake or from glucose stored as glycogen in the body to fuel the exercise. If carbohydrates are not replaced, energy reserves are depleted and the climber “bonks.”
Dividing daily intake into three regular meals, with snacks or grazing every few hours from food sources that contain a balance of carbohydrates, protein, and a small amount of healthy fat is the best way to properly nourish the body. Consuming foods that have a positive impact on energy level and performance is important. Adequate meal sizes and grazing on healthy snacks throughout the day prevents an overfull stomach, can be conducive to exercise, maintains energy levels, and prevents overeating.
Starting the day by eating a breakfast that is rich in carbohydrates, protein, and some fat reduces calories consumed over the remainder of the day. If a climber has not eaten a meal within two hours, consuming a simple carbohydrate 20 minutes prior to a session prevents depletion of glycogen stores. Eating during a climbing session helps to provide constant energy and consuming calories after climbing aids recovery.
Consuming 40 to 65 grams of carbohydrates per hour while climbing at moderate intensity will provide adequate energy, preserve glycogen stores, and extend muscle endurance. During more intense climbing, consumed carbohydrate totals may need to be doubled or even tripled to keep up with demand. The best method to avoid depletion of reserves is to ingest some food at least a half hour before feeling tired, and consuming small snacks every 15 to 20 minutes. Keeping the snacks small prevents blood from being diverted from muscles to the intestines for digestion. This should amount to 100 to 280 calories per hour, depending on the intensity of climbing. Gels and bars are convenient options; however, real food such as honey or fruit can be just as effective and easily digested. When consuming energy bars or gels, be sure to drink plain water, as these draw water from the blood to the digestive tract. This can be even more pronounced by consuming extra carbohydrates and sodium from sports drinks.
Consuming protein along with carbohydrates reduces muscle damage and can delay fatigue. After a hard climbing session, and ideally within an hour, a climber should consume 125 calories of a 4:1 carbohydrate-to-protein ratio for every 30 minutes of climbing to support recovery.
Climbing in an alpine environment can make eating anything challenging, but it is essential for the mountaineer to consume adequate calories. Adding 30 to 35 calories per pound per day is a good baseline to consider when planning diets. In the mountains, especially in cold temperatures (0°C and below), basic energy requirements increase by about 1000 calories daily. Above 23,000 feet (7,000 meters), ingesting energy strictly from non-processed carbohydrates is the best fueling option and easier to digest. Eating every 1 to 2 hours is ideal, and choosing foods that are appetizing to alpinists is important.
Water is essential, and has a significant and often-ignored effect on climbing performance. The standard recommendation of eight glasses of water per day is not a logical hydration technique, nor is relying on urine color alone. Urine becomes darker from an increased concentration of urochrome, a pigment produced from the breakdown of hemoglobin. Additionally, certain vitamins or foods can turn urine a bright yellow or orange color regardless of hydration status. Proper hydration can be determined by normal urination patterns and drinking accordingly can help prevent dehydration. The best recommendation is to drink water like you would place trad gear: early and when needed. Drinking 5 to 7 milliliters (mL) of water per kilogram (0.17 to 0.24 oz. per 2.2 lb.) of body weight in the four hours prior to climbing promotes hydration. During climbing sessions, continue sipping water throughout the day, and take into account overly hot and humid weather. Following fixed hydration regimens based on arbitrary hydration goals during hot or high-exertion exercise can lead to exercise-associated hyponatremia (EAH, discussed in Chapter 13). EAH has become increasingly common in the outdoor sports world, possibly due to recommendations to drink based on a fixed regimen or copiously and not based on thirst. The Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines recommend that drinking frequency should be based on perceived thirst (Bennett 2014). In addition, drinking excess amounts of water without any sodium content or food can also cause hyponatremia. Climbers participating in long multi-pitch, big wall, or alpine days and consuming only plain water are particularly at risk. See Chapter 13 for a more complete discussion of hyponatremia.
Quickly drinking large amounts of water to make up for lost fluids and time is not an effective method for hydration, as only 800 to 1000 mL (27 to 34 oz.) of fluid can be absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract within an hour. Additionally, having a stomach full of fluid can cause discomfort and increase the difficulty of climbing. Cold fluids are absorbed more rapidly than warm beverages.
Water loss from sweat varies according to gender, work intensity, temperature, and humidity. This type of water loss should be considered when packing water for a climbing trip. Men tend to sweat more than women, although women have more sweat glands. Men are generally composed of around 60–65% water while women are 50–55% water, so even a small deficit has a significant effect on performance.
Losing a liter of fluid in an hour is typical, but losing up to three liters is not unheard of in extreme climbing conditions. A climber must drink enough fluids to prevent a 2% total body weight of fluid loss during activity to stay healthy. It is important for alpinists in cold weather and at altitude to factor in the fluid lost from increased respiration in dry conditions. This can easily add up to 1.5 liters to the normal water loss totals, and high winds can increase this amount. A minimum of three liters of water per person per day should be taken for each climber in cool weather and at least another liter during sunny conditions or heavy exercise days. Melting snow is always an option but the extra weight of a stove and fuel may not be worth the effort compared to carrying the extra fluid.
A climber can boost their performance and reach their full potential with proper training. Training should be focused, well-planned, and designed to meet the individual needs of the climber. Determining climbing goals and making them specific and measurable, both in the long and short term, form the foundation for a training program. It is important to be realistic, and climbers must remember that achieving one’s highest fitness level multiple times a year for more than a few weeks at a time is unrealistic. Every training routine should begin by identifying goals and weaknesses. To optimize ability, create a plan that develops base fitness and incorporates skill development, strength, power, and power endurance. Technical climbing is made up of physical, mental, and technical abilities and can be enhanced through gym and outdoor climbing.
Fitness tests should be completed early in the process to determine a base fitness level and form a measure to compare any improvements. Figure 3-4 shows an example of a basic fitness test published by Steve House and Scott Johnston in their text Training for the New Alpinism (House 2014). It is easily reproducible and can be used to monitor progress.
FIGURE 3–4. BASIC FITNESS TEST
Basic fitness test |
Poor |
Good |
Excellent |
Box step, 1000´ with 20% of body weight in pack |
40–60+ min. |
20–40 min. |
<20 min. |
Dips in 60 sec. |
<10 |
10–30 |
>30 |
Sit-ups in 60 sec. |
<30 |
30–50 |
>50 |
Pull-ups in 60 sec. |
<15 |
15–25 |
>25 |
Box jumps in 60 sec. |
<30 |
30–40 |
>45 |
Push-ups in 60 sec. |
<15 |
15–40 |
>40 |
(House 2014) |
|||
It is important to keep a training log, and there are many examples available on the Internet. Climbing multi-pitch, single pitch, traditional, sport, alpine, mountaineering, ice, or bouldering impacts the training style and regimen, as each discipline requires different levels of strength, power, aerobic ability, and muscular endurance of different muscle groups. Conditioning the proper muscles for the particular climbing discipline through aerobic conditioning and strength training allows the climber to handle different levels and intensities of climbing that improve muscular efficiency and optimize climbing performance. Muscle pump, resulting from occluded blood flow, limited fuel, altered pH, and waste removal is often the limiting factor in elite climbing performance (Giles 2006). Through training, energy pathways utilized by the body while climbing can be sustained longer by the muscles and delay muscle pump. Training both cardiovascular fitness and strength can improve aerobic and anaerobic thresholds. Increased mitochondrial density raises the exertion level at which the climber can rely primarily on fat as a fuel source and preserve the glycogen stores, thus improving muscle endurance.
Aerobic conditioning helps a climber increase cardiac output, oxygen uptake, blood flow within muscles, breathing efficiency, and buffering capacity. This improves aerobic endurance. Aerobic fitness improves overall stamina and assists in weight control. With improved aerobic fitness, the body develops a higher anaerobic threshold, allowing harder climbing for longer periods with faster recovery. This improves the body’s ability to use fat as the primary energy source, sparing the use of the limited glycogen reserves in the muscles and liver. Energy derived from the fat reserves is nearly infinite. This is extremely beneficial to alpinists, as fat can provide a vast source of energy to sustain moderate power outputs for hours on long climbing days. Other benefits include better overall heart health, a slower resting heart rate and improved pump volume, new capillary growth in muscles, increased muscle mitochondria, and increased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. It allows for better temperature regulation, delivery of oxygen and nutrients, and removal of waste. With improved circulation, body temperature is more appropriately regulated, and in cooler temperatures, extremities are perfused better, remain warmer, and the risk of frostnip or frostbite is reduced. Aerobic exercise also enhances ligament and tendon repair, a particular concern for climbers, as injuries are common to these structures.
For aerobic training to be effective, the climber must be able to calculate a maximum heart rate and a resting heart rate to set a baseline for determining proper training zones. Resting heart rate (RHR) can be calculated by counting how many times the heart beats for one minute while resting. To identify a maximum heart rate (MHR), a commonly used calculation is to subtract a person’s age from 220. While this is a useful tool for the average population, climbers can calculate a more accurate number by using the following test.
To accurately calculate MHR:
1. Warm up for 15 minutes. Progressively increase intensity to moderate breathing/sweating.
2. Run hard for two minutes at a 6–10º incline with no rest.
3. For last 20 seconds (of two minutes), run as fast as possible.
4. Immediately check heart rate for a more precise MHR. (House 2014)
Training zones are defined as percentages of maximum heart rate ranging from Zone 1 to Zone 5. Climbers can also use other methods such as how they feel or breathing effort to calculate aerobic intensity. Figure 3-5 shows an example of various zones to aim for while training (House 2014).
FIGURE 3–5. TRAINING ZONES
By % of maximum heart rate (MHR) |
Feeling |
Ventilation |
|
Recovery |
<55% |
Very light |
Conversational |
Zone 1 |
55–75% |
Easy breathing |
Nose breathing |
Zone 2 |
75–80% |
Medium |
Deep and steady |
Zone 3 |
80–90% |
Fun hard |
Short sentences |
Zone 4 |
90–95% |
Hard |
No talking |
Zone 5 |
>95% |
Maximum |
N/A |
A climber must elevate their heart rate to at least 70% of their maximum for a minimum of three times a week for thirty minutes or more for aerobic conditioning. The higher the intensity, the more calories burned. HIIT is an efficient training method that increases the excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). This translates into an increased metabolic rate post-workout because the body is consuming fuel to replenish energy stores, repair tissue, and build muscle. This results in greater fat-burning for hours after completing the workout. There are many different forms of interval training. Fartleks (blend of continuous training with interval training) and hill/stair repeats are two excellent examples useful for climbers. Other aerobic activities can include interval training by increasing the speed for a certain number of minutes followed by slowing down for a period and repeating this process. Interval training is very effective but should not be considered a shortcut or complete method of training. This type of training should be limited to one or two sessions a week.
There are many different types of aerobic exercises, and climbers should choose an activity that is enjoyable. Once aerobic conditioning is developed, the climber can progress into a maintenance phase. Hard aerobic training a couple of times per week is adequate. Adding additional aerobic sessions prior to a climbing trip or expedition is all that is needed to improve aerobic conditioning to meet a goal. For alpinists, greater priority and focus on rigorous aerobic training is necessary in comparison to other climbing disciplines, as longer periods of intense activity are required in high altitudes.
Strength training helps climbers to maximize their strength-to-mass ratio, boost power output and speed, increase metabolism, support body composition, strengthen supporting ligaments (fibrous cords attaching bone to bone) and tendons (fibrous cords attaching muscle to bone), improve overall fitness, increase endurance, reduce the risk of injury, and ultimately improve performance. Muscle growth, increased response of the muscle, increased mitochondria, and increased number and size of capillaries transporting blood and nutrients and removing waste from the muscle all occur due to strength training and improve the muscle’s ability to function longer.
Anaerobic metabolism is an energy source used for quick and dynamic muscle contraction during climbing. Unfortunately, this system can only be used for short periods. Through training, anaerobic metabolism can be delayed, preventing “pump,” and allowing the climber to utilize the aerobic energy system. This allows the climber to continue climbing at a high level for sustained periods (Watts 2004).
By controlling the level of intensity during training, the climber controls the energy pathways and muscle fibers being trained. There are various energy systems that can be altered to provide more sustained energy for climbing. Oxidative metabolism (aerobic) requires oxygen and primarily breaks down fat (lipolysis) to produce energy that can last for hours and is most suitable for endurance activities. The lactic acid system, also known as the glycolytic system (lasting up to 60 seconds), and the ATP creatine phosphate system (lasting up to 10 seconds), occur without oxygen (anaerobic) and produce energy from the breakdown of glycogen (glycolysis) stored in the liver and the muscles and creatine phosphate from the muscles, respectively. This is used for climbing activities that require short bursts of energy (e.g., bouldering or sport climbing). However, these systems also produce lactic acid, which increases blood acidity. If lactic acid is not cleared by the body efficiently enough, fatigue sets in (Sheel 2004).
Muscle fibers can be categorized as slow twitch fibers (STF) or fast twitch fibers (FTF), and when trained can be converted from one type to another. It is essential that the climber focus on training at a level that is high enough to achieve FTF stimulation. This requires many hours of consistent training. The FTF are responsible for higher muscle power but the length of time the FTF can be powerful is dependent on the aerobic capacity of the STF.
FIGURE 3–6. TRAINING FOR SPECIFIC MUSCLE FIBERS
Fiber type |
Type |
Mitochondria |
Activity |
Energy source |
Slow twitch fibers (STF) |
Type 1 Low threshold (easily stimulated) |
High density |
Endurance Alpine climbing lasting ≥2 hrs |
Oxidative metabolism Fat is the primary fuel source |
Fast twitch fibers (FTF) |
Type 2a High threshold (not as easily stimulated) |
High density |
Power Like STF but more forceful, lasting only 20 seconds |
Glycolytic metabolism Glycogen is the fuel source; training can convert and aid endurance |
Fast twitch fibers (FTF) |
Type 2b |
Low density |
Best for power Fatigue quickly |
Beneficial for bouldering and sport climbing |
To improve aerobic muscle power, the climber must train for long durations at low intensity (below their aerobic threshold). Ultimately, this will improve the aerobic power of the STF and aerobic threshold. Training at moderate intensities will increase the power of the STF and aerobic capacities of the FTF for higher power. These changes make the muscle more resistant to fatigue and improve mitochondrial function and climbing ability. Linked bouldering or climbing route intervals are helpful training regimens that should be incorporated to accomplish this goal for rock climbers.
Another benefit to strength training is the increase in strength and power through motor neural adaptations that allow the central nervous system to contract the muscle more effectively by recruiting more muscle neurons simultaneously, resulting in a more powerful muscle. This optimizes strength and power with limited hypertrophy, which is important for climbing disciplines like sport climbers who don’t want the extra weight but benefit from the extra strength and power. Body weight, free weights, dumbbells, barbells, and kettlebells are great for strength training. There are many different resistance exercises that train the entire body. Choose exercises that use the upper and lower body muscle groups with a focus on the primary climbing muscles. Core training should be included in any plan. Type of climbing, identified weaknesses, and climbing goals determine the specific muscles that should be included in a training routine.
For examples of upper and lower body muscle exercises and proper form, consult weight lifting manuals or work with a personal fitness trainer. All resistance training sessions should start with a warm-up. This should last for five to ten minutes and will increase circulation, warm muscles, and lubricate the joints, thus decreasing the risk of injury. Proper form is extremely important. Frequency, intensity, and volume are all factors to consider when designing a training plan, and the muscles used during climbing should be trained in the same way they are going to be used.
At least two days per week should be set aside for resistance training, except during prime climbing season, when only maintenance sessions should be included. Choosing the number of repetitions, sets, and interval times affects how the muscle will transform. Progressive overload and recovery is a great method to increase strength. Depending upon goals, sets and repetitions performed should be altered appropriately.
For rock climbers, it is important to train in a way that improves strength without hypertrophy, as this leads to increased muscle mass and added weight. Improved weight-to-strength ratio and not weight gain is the goal for most climbers. Power is improved from exercises that target FTF, which enhance the ability to produce greater strength and speed. This is very beneficial for sport climbers and boulderers. Endurance is the ability of the muscle to sustain an activity for a certain length of time and is critical for traditional climbers, mountaineers, and alpinists. Figure 3-7 is a review of how to alter the repetitions, sets, rests, and frequency to obtain improved power, strength, and endurance.
For increased power and strength, completing five or six sets is necessary. Rests are important to allow sufficient recovery for a better workout, and during this time energy sources are replenished. A total of three sets per exercise is ideal for muscle development. Adding more sets does not produce superior results and after each set the returns are reduced unless the goal is to improve power.
If time is limited, it is better to do less sets of all the exercises in a routine than to leave some out in favor of more sets. This is the foundation for working on muscle growth. Super-setting—performing two exercises in a row with no rest—is a time-efficient method to work out and increase endurance.
The main focus should always be to reach fatigue. Two to six exercises should be used and include the back, chest, arm, shoulder, leg, and core muscles. Isometric finger strength, often a limiting factor in climbing, can also be trained. Although there is no scientific research supporting the use of a hang board for training, many skilled climbers use these devices. Plyometric training—a form of training emphasizing quick, maximal moves over short periods—is regarded as a good method for improving explosive power because it increases muscle fiber recruitment and aids in muscle fiber contraction. Linking bouldering routes together into a longer routine and campus board sessions improve speed and accuracy for dynamic movement. Many climbers use CrossFit programs as a method to improve fitness. Some studies have indicated a high risk of acute injury from many CrossFit exercises (Weisenthal 2014, Hak 2013). As with all types of training, maintaining proper form is key to injury prevention.
Periodization (breaking training into segments, altering intensity, volume, rest, and frequency over weeks, months, and a year) is linked to improved climbing performance and should be incorporated into training programs. There are many different terms used to define different segments. Each segment builds from the prior and there should always be an included rest segment. A cycle can run from six weeks to four months. The break or recovery segment of at least one to three weeks is absolutely necessary to refresh the body and mind before beginning the next cycle. Periodization routines vary depending upon climbing type and may not work for every climber. The rigid nature of the training can cause overtraining or undertraining and a lack of motivation to continue the program.
FIGURE 3–7. ALTERNATE TRAINING REGIMES FOR SPECIFIC RESULTS
Desired adaptation |
Repetitions with maximum load |
Rest time in minutes |
Sets |
Power |
3–5 (fast) |
3–5 |
1–3 |
Strength |
3–6 |
3–5 |
3–4 |
Strength and high-intensity power endurance |
6–8 |
3–5 |
3–4 |
High-intensity power endurance |
8–12 |
1–3 |
3–4 |
Muscle endurance |
12–20 |
30–60 seconds |
2–4 |
(Soles 2008) |
|||
Research has shown that static stretching prior to a workout decreases the ability of muscles to fire as quickly or forcefully and it does not reduce or prevent injuries (Page 2012). Warming up the muscles (dynamic stretching) with light exercise is more injury preventative than static stretching and should always be done prior to more intense climbing. Static stretching after exercise is encouraged and provides increased flexibility, which is beneficial to climbing performance. A stretch should never be forced and should be performed during exhalation. Relaxing and sinking deeper into the stretch is valuable for improvement. To increase flexibility even more, contract the muscles for a few seconds followed by relaxing, which will allow even more of a stretch and improved flexibility.
Yoga and Pilates are both practices that can increase strength and flexibility for climbers, which can also help prevent injury. Yoga tends to focus more on flexibility, stress release, focused breathing, and mind/body connection, whereas Pilates focuses more on core development and flexibility. Balance should not be overlooked, and practicing on a slackline, wobble board, or balance boards can aid in improving balance.
Training effect |
Growth |
Result |
Maximum muscular recruitment and neural training |
No change in muscle growth or endurance |
Explosive power for short, intense problems |
Maximum muscular recruitment and neural training |
No change in muscle growth or endurance |
Improves strength without adding bulk |
Moderate recruitment |
Moderate muscle growth and power gains |
Can add some mass but increases time muscle can be used |
Maximum muscle growth |
Strength, power, and low-intensity endurance gains |
Good overall training range when combined with aerobic conditioning but can add some muscle mass |
Modest muscle growth |
Minimal strength and power gains |
Great starting point for new resistance program or improving low-strength muscle endurance |
|
||
Rest is a time for the body to recover and get stronger. Sleep is essential for recovery and optimal performance. The amount of sleep needed depends on the individual; seven to eight hours is not necessary for everyone. Quality of rest is the most important factor.
Climbers should monitor for overtraining. A common sign of overtraining is repeated shortcomings in performance. Keeping a training log and recording energy levels or feelings after a workout can help to identify a pattern of feeling tired or fatigued and is a simple way to monitor if overtraining is occurring. Common symptoms of overtraining include persistent fatigue, irritability, depression, weight loss, absence of menstruation, insomnia, lowered libido, or loss of enthusiasm and motivation.
Every workout should be considered an opportunity to improve climbing ability and should begin with a warm-up. Warming up with easy cardio, climbing a few easy routes, or anything that increases circulation will decrease the flash pump that occurs when starting on a hard route too soon. Training plans should be tailored to climbing discipline and should be routinely altered to challenge the muscles and nervous system and prevent a plateau. Sport climbing and bouldering are mostly power-focused, while traditional climbing requires power and endurance. Training for alpine, mountaineering, and big wall climbing should focus on endurance.
Novice climbers can build their climbing-specific muscles and establish a base of climbing fitness through high climbing volume. It is important to remember that training should not occur while lead climbing, but rather on top rope, in order to focus on climbing on more difficult and challenging terrain. Indoor climbing gyms are ideal to train for sport climbing and bouldering. Climbing is a year-round sport and one of the most efficient places to train is in a gym, where the routes and protection are set and the weather is constant. Training for ice climbing can be accomplished with holds that accept picks and are made for ice tools. Cross-training and including other fun activities can help a climber maintain fitness and prevent overtraining.
Muscular endurance is often a weakness in climbers and commonly overlooked, but will allow a climber to hang on for extended periods using only a fraction of their power. Climbing is the best method to improve endurance, rather than weight training. Climbing laps for up to thirty minutes after warming up is a great way to improve endurance. The key to this type of training is continuous movement. Endurance running and hiking uphill are great methods for alpinists to improve endurance. Adding weight with a backpack can increase difficulty.
Bouldering or using a campus board are useful methods to train for power. These types of workouts should be limited to a few per week. Only experienced climbers with established fitness should incorporate a campus board in their training regimen, to prevent injuries to fingers and wrists.
Power endurance involves combining power and endurance together and should simulate actual climbing situations as much as possible. Training for power and endurance assists in a climber’s ability to on-sight and redpoint more difficult climbs. Choosing a sport route or linking up several difficult boulder problems are methods to accomplish this training. Selecting climbs that are close to the climber’s on-sight ability and taking multiple laps on these routes builds power endurance. After a short rest, the climber should repeat this process. For improvement in redpointing climbs, a climber needs to prevent fatigue through high-intensity interval workouts composed of climbing highly difficult routes on top rope for sustained periods, followed by rest, and continued climbing for multiple iterations.
All climbers reach performance plateaus, and rest periods, rest phases, or tapers should be taken to allow the body to heal and ready the mind for performing in the following peak or performance period. Overtraining is worse than undertraining, and it is important for climbers to listen to their bodies and rest when needed. In-session recovery is also important to maximize a training session. A recent study noted that climbers recover better between attempting routes by climbing a nearby easier route rather than by merely walking at the base of a wall or cliff. Climbers were able to go higher on repeated attempts and the study measured lower lactate levels for those climbing easy routes as a recovery versus merely resting or walking (Valenzuela 2015).
For traditional and big wall climbers, indoor gym training is not as beneficial, as it is not as specific to these disciplines. Outdoor climbing in these environments is more useful, as it builds needed stamina. Recommended training methods include added cardiovascular sessions in preparation for the extra work involved in big wall climbing. Traditional climbing should focus on outdoor skill practice, climbing, increasing base fitness, and strength training.
Bouldering training should focus on strength, power, and dynamic movement. Campus and hang board training is extremely beneficial to the boulderer, and sessions should include low repetitions and longer rests. Supplemental strength training that focuses on the shoulders, upper arms, and core is helpful.
Training for alpine pursuits including ice, mixed climbing, mountaineering, and altitude all require endurance and power endurance. Aerobic fitness is the foundation of alpine climbing. The less technical the climbing goal, the greater the focus on aerobic fitness.
Good technique and mental fortitude remain two of the most important training aspects for improved climbing. Combining physical ability with refined technique is the key to greater climbing ability. Identification of the different types of climbing moves and practicing the use of each in easy terrain is the best method to develop a larger repertoire. With time and application of these moves, a climber will develop the ability to integrate each at the appropriate time. Watching other climbers or reading about technique are great methods to identify various moves.
Mental strength and confidence during climbing is gained through experience and involves factors such as determination, confidence, and the management of stress and emotions. Fear of falling or injury is an ever-present part of climbing, and the importance of an ability to manage this fear cannot be overstated. There are multiple books available that discuss the mental aspects of climbing and can be useful to identify techniques. Some common techniques include breath control, visualization, concentration, and elimination of distractions. Everyone reacts to and controls stress in different ways, and identifying those techniques that are most effective can assist in developing the mental fortitude to climb harder and safer.