first century ce. According to E.H. Johnston, ancient fragments of Ashva·ghosha’s Sariputraprakarana belong to “the reign of Kanishka or Huvishka,”¹⁸ which implies that he lived “not later than the time of Kanishka and may have preceded him” (Johnston 1984, Part II: xvi).

If we follow Harry Falk in dating the beginning of the Kanishka era to 127 ce,¹⁹ we can probably agree with Johnston that Ashva·ghosha flourished “between 50 bce and 100 ce.”²⁰ And since ‘Liberation’ was compiled gradually, by adding new texts at its end, it would appear that roughly its first two-thirds had been compiled by the first century ce. The final third was probably completed during the first or second century ce.

Important Teachings in
the First Volume of ‘Liberation’

This first volume of ‘Liberation’ is dominated by two lengthy philosophical tracts: ‘The dialogue between Bhrigu and Bharad·vaja’ (cantos 182–192), and ‘The Dialogue between Manu and Brihas·pati’ (cantos 201–206). The former contains an important cosmogony (182.11–21, 183.8–17) which postulates that world-creation begins with the self-cognition of an unmanifest, nondual deity (called ‘pure consciousness,’ 182.11, or brahman, 182.37). A similar understanding is implied in the dialogue between Manu and Brihas·pati (202.1, 204.10–1), although this text is more interested in the attainment of liberation (moksa) through meditation (dhyana or yoga: 204.5, 205.10–22). Both dialogues probably originated in different but related early Brahminic schools.