The Royal Air Force

In many ways, the Westland Wapiti epitomized the RAF of the 1920s and 1930s. While experimental aircraft captured the public imagination with high speeds, great altitudes and long ranges, the bulk of RAF squadrons patrolled the skies of the Empire in obsolescent biplanes of mediocre performance. (Flintham)

One of the main outcomes of the Cairo Conference, which was convened in March 1921 to decide British policy in the Middle East, was the adoption of the concept of ‘Air Control.’ This idea proposed that most of the British Mandates in the Middle East could be policed effectively by a relatively small number of RAF aircraft instead of a large number of army troops. By using the speed, range and firepower of the aeroplane, the size of army garrisons which were being employed for the task could be reduced considerably. At a time when both the Admiralty and the War Office were questioning the need for a separate air service, the policy of Air Control provided the RAF with justification for its continued independence. It also suited the Treasury, which was impoverished after a costly war.

The main principle of Air Control, as opposed to air support of army operations, was that of minimum force. Often the mere presence of an aeroplane ‒ at a time when such machines were still a novelty outside Europe ‒ might be enough to dissuade potential troublemakers; at other times an energetic ‘beat up’ or, more properly a ‘show of force,’ might also be effective without having to resort to the use of weapons. If guns or bombs had to be used, it would only be after warnings had been given, usually by leaflet, so that the population had the chance to vacate the area. Suitable targets were then attacked, such as fortified buildings or agricultural infrastructure, for example stock pens or irrigation systems. The theory was that troublemakers’ energy could be diverted from insurrection towards repair work. Thus, the routine of Air Control was one of regular and often monotonous patrols over difficult country, but occasional flash-points brought the need for more active intervention.

Over the next year, the RAF formally assumed full responsibility for the security of Mesopotamia/Iraq, Transjordan, Aden and Palestine and at the end of 1922 more than two-thirds of the RAF’s front-line units were based overseas. This figure is slightly distorted because of the units deployed to Turkey in response to the Çanakkale crisis, but there were just four-and-a-half squadrons in the ‘Inland Area’ of the UK: 2, 24, 29 and 100 Squadrons, plus a flight of 56 Squadron. The remaining five UK-based units comprised the ‘Coastal Area,’ which included 203 and 205 Squadrons at Leuchars where they made up the air component for aircraft carriers, two flying boat squadrons (3 Squadron at Gosport and 230 Squadron at Calshot) and a single torpedo bomber unit, 210 Squadron, at Gosport. The remaining strength of the RAF was based in the Middle East or India. Of these, two squadrons were in Egypt (47 Squadron at Helwan and 216 Squadron at Heliopolis), one in Malta (267 Squadron at Kalafrana) and one in Palestine (14 Squadron at Ramleh) which also covered Transjordan. Eight squadrons were based in Iraq and a further six in India.

The crew of a Rolls-Royce 1920 Pattern Mk1 armoured car relaxing in the Iraq desert. The armoured car companies were an integral part of the system of Air Control in Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq. The vehicle was built using a Silver Ghost chassis, and was armed with a water-cooled Vickers .303in machine gun. The type remained in service long into World War II. (Pitchfork)

Although Air Control reduced the call on army manpower, there was still a need for ground troops to support the aircraft. A number of army battalions were retained in theatre for this purpose, but much of the work was carried out by locally recruited levies (for example in Transjordan, aircraft worked closely with the Transjordan Field Force and the Arab Legion). Additionally, the newly-formed RAF Armoured Car Companies (ACC), equipped with Rolls-Royce armoured cars, provided another mobile and powerful supporting force. Based at Amman, with a section at Ramleh, 2 ACC covered Palestine and Transjordan, while 3, 4, 5 and 6 ACCs were based in Iraq.

Meanwhile, in India the campaign in Waziristan against the Mashuds continued into 1923, reaching its conclusion in the autumn. On 23 and 24 September, 31 Squadron was reinforced by heavy bombers from Risalpur and all aircraft carried out intensive bombing of the village of Zazhe Oba and surrounding settlements. The targets were switched to the villages of the Ghuri Khel tribe on 25 September and operations against these continued until 5 October. After a further ‘show of force’ flypast on 21 October, the tribal leaders indicated that they would cease fighting and an uneasy truce in Waziristan started on 28 October 1923.

A Fairey IIID of 267 Squadron, which was part of the air contingent on HMS Ark Royal in the early 1920s. During the 1920s and early 1930s, the aircraft embarked on Royal Navy (RN) aircraft carriers, and their associated flying and technical personnel, were provided by the Fleet Air Arm of the RAF. This arrangement remained in place until 1937, when control of the FAA was transferred to the Admiralty. (Flintham)

After an attempted raid into northern Iraq by the Turkish army was foiled in the late summer of 1922, a second concentration of Turkish troops was reported in early 1923. A strong force, including air support, was dispatched to deal with them, and after bombing attacks by Vickers Vernons of 45 Squadron, the Turks withdrew once more. However, with the sizeable British contingent in the northwest of the country, the Kurdish leader Sheikh Mahmoud Barzanji now saw the opportunity to start an insurrection against British rule. The swift response to Mahmoud included the airlift by a combined force of Vernon aircraft from 45 and 70 Squadrons of two companies of Indian infantry from Kingarban to Kirkuk between 21 and 28 February 1923. The villages between Kirkuk and Mahmoud’s capital Sulaymaniyah were then bombed over the next days. Meanwhile, the columns which had originally intended to fight the Turks returned to Kurdistan, along with the Sopwith Snipes of 1 Squadron and DH9A aircraft of 30 and 55 Squadrons. While these latter squadrons kept up reconnaissance and offensive action against Kurdish dissidents, the bomber/transport units were kept busy ferrying supplies and personnel to the frontline and evacuating the sick and wounded from it. This campaign was the first time that the RAF carried out a mass airlift of troops and the first large-scale systematic resupply operation by air. By May 1923, 6,000 troops had converged on Sulaymaniyah and Mahmoud fled into Persia.

However, Sheikh Mahmoud reappeared in Sulaymaniyah in May the following year and declared a jihad or holy war against the British. RAF aircraft were once again swiftly deployed to the area: 6, 8 and 30 Squadrons flew to Kirkuk, while 45, 55 and 70 Squadrons were detached to Kingarban. After due warning, the RAF bombed Sulaymaniyah on 27 and 28 May 1924 and then continued to harass Mahmoud’s supporters until the army reoccupied Sulaymaniyah and restored peace two months later.

The south of the country was marginally more stable, but it was plagued by raids by the Akhwan, a savage religious militia controlled by Ibn Saud, the ruler of the Nejd region. In September 1923, raids in the region of Ad Diwaniyah were seen off by a mixed force of Snipe fighters of 1 Squadron and DH9As bombers of 8 Squadron working with a company of armoured cars. The following month, a revolt at As Samawah was quickly contained by the Vernons of 45 and 70 Squadrons and DH9As of 84 Squadron. Over the next year, a series of small rebellions in the region were also quelled by air control.

Two DH9A aircraft of 14 Squadron, which was dual-based at Ramleh, Palestine and Amman, Transjordan. Aircraft from the squadron and armoured cars from 2 Armoured Car Company (ACC) prevented an invasion of Transjordan by a large force of Akwhan in August 1924. Note the spare wheel carried just forward of the wing on both aircraft, in case of damage when landing in remote areas of desert. (Flintham)

The Akhwan were also active in northwest Arabia and in July 1924 a force of some 5,000 Akhwan were reported massing on the border with Transjordan. They entered the country on 12 August and headed towards Amman. The next morning the Akhwan were stopped and then routed by the combined force of DH9As from 14 Squadron operating from Amman (reinforced later in the day by a section of Bristol F2bs from Ramleh) and the armoured cars of 2 ACC.

Trouble broke out in Mohmand country to the north of the Khyber Pass in May 1924, with a revolt by the Abdur Rahman Khel tribe. Between 25 and 28 May, Bristol F2bs aircraft of 5 and 28 Squadrons bombed the fortified towers in villages in the Spli Toi valley. In July a larger force, comprising the Bristol F2bs of 5 Squadron and a flight from 28 Squadron, plus two flights of DH9As provided by 27 and 60 Squadrons, was placed under command of Wing Commander (Wg Cdr) A.A. Walser MC, DFC. Bombing operations started against three villages in the Mohmand area, dropping larger 112lb and 230lb bombs, which were more effective against buildings than the usual 20lb weapons. Poor weather limited operations and on 28 July three Bristol F2bs crashed after flying into thunder clouds. Nevertheless, the revolt was, at least temporarily, suppressed.

A Bristol F2b aircraft returning from a raid on the Jelal Khel during ‘Pink’s War’ on the northwest frontier of India in 1925. The type was used by 5, 20 and 31 Squadrons during the short campaign, while 27 and 60 Squadron operated the DH9A. The successful demonstration by Wg Cdr R.C.M. Pink that air power could secure the submission of dissident tribes in remote areas caused the Indian Army to re-think its attitude to the potential of the aeroplane. (Jarrett)

After a comparatively quiet year in Waziristan, trouble broke out once more in early 1925, agitated again by the Abdur Rahman Khel tribe who had refused to accept the government’s terms the previous year. This time it was decided to put down the rebellion by use of aircraft operating independently of ground troops. To achieve this, Wg Cdr R.C.M. Pink CBE was given command of a force comprising eight DH9As from 27 and 60 Squadrons, operating from Miranshah fort, and Bristol F2bs from 5 and 20 Squadrons based at Tank. Operations started on 25 February with leaflet-dropping to warn the rebels that their villages would be bombed if they did not surrender. Unsurprisingly, the rebels did not take this opportunity to do so and bombing operations started on 9 March. Targets were systematically attacked during the rest of the month and an air blockade prevented rebel gangs from moving freely within the area. At the end of March the DH9A units were redeployed to Miranshah to make way for a flight of Bristol F2bs from 31 Squadron, which started flying night-bombing sorties from Tank on 4 April. The bombing programme continued by day and night through the remainder of April, until the rebel leaders capitulated on 1 May 1925. The short campaign was successful and caused remarkably few casualties on both sides: a handful of rebels were killed or wounded. The RAF lost just one aircraft to ground fire, although sadly the crew, Flying Officer (Fg Off) N.C. Hayter-Hames and Fg Off E.J. Dashwood, were both killed.

Despite his defeat the previous year, Sheikh Mahmoud made a third appearance in northern Iraq at Sulaymaniyah in the spring of 1925. Two villages that had given support to Mahmoud’s insurgents were bombed by aircraft of 6 and 30 Squadrons on 17 April 1925. Operations continued into the summer months, culminating in a five-day battle between government forces and about 900 insurgents to the northeast of Sulaymaniyah, which started on 20 June. Heavy air support, mainly delivered by 6 Squadron, helped to rout the rebels and Mahmoud escaped once more into Persia. The RAF then carried out follow-up operations during the next month to destroy a number of villages that had supported Mahmoud. However, despite these punitive raids, Mahmoud still enjoyed some popularity and he attempted yet another insurrection during the spring of 1926. This time 30 Squadron provided most of the firepower in another long engagement between 17 and 19 June, which once again ended in defeat for the rebels.

During the mid-1920s, the RAF in the UK underwent a modest expansion of front-line squadrons. While the operational squadrons overseas soldiered on with wartime aircraft types, such as the Bristol F2b and the DH9A, the home units enjoyed more modern equipment such as the Armstrong-Whitworth Siskin and Gloster Gamecock fighter aircraft and the Fairey Fox bomber. One innovation in 1924 was the formation of the Auxiliary Air Force (AAF) and the Special Reserve (SR), which were envisaged as a reserve force akin to the Territorial Army (TA). In the event of mobilization, the regionally-based reserve units would provide a basis for any expansion of the RAF’s front-line strength. The AAF units were, with the exception of the adjutant who was a regular officer, manned entirely by reservists and in many ways, they were as much a social club as they were a flying and fighting force. The SR units were slightly different, in that their manning was made up of roughly half regulars (including the Commanding Officer) and half reservists. The first AAF squadrons to form in 1925 were 600 (City of London) and 601 (County of London), followed by 602 (City of Glasgow) and 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadrons. All of these units were equipped with the DH9A. The SR squadrons also started to form the same year, commencing with 502 (Ulster) Squadron equipped with Vickers Vimys.

Arguably, the main role of the RAF at home was to provide the training, supply and administrative support for the operational units abroad. The RAF College and the RAF Apprentice School, which had been established at Cranwell and Halton respectively, provided the new service with a core of high quality officers and technical personnel. Additionally, the RAF Pageants (later renamed RAF Displays) held annually at Hendon served an important role in generating public support for an independent RAF.

In 1925, de Havilland DH9As of 47 Squadron carried out a long-range flight from Helwan, Egypt to Kano, Nigeria. This remarkable flight over inhospitable terrain was the first of a number of long-range expeditionary flights mounted by the RAF in the 1920s. (Jarrett)

Other events that caught the public imagination were the record-breaking long-distance flights carried out in the late 1920s. Despite their publicity value, the real purpose of these flights was to extend the reach of RAF as technology improved: the ability of aircraft to deploy swiftly to anywhere in the Empire was a fundamental principle of air power. The first notable flight was by a section of three DH9As of 47 Squadron which were flown from Helwan to Kano, Nigeria (and back) between 27 October and 19 November 1925. The flight was a remarkable achievement because much of the 5,200 miles flown was over inhospitable and largely uncharted jungle. The following year, Wg Cdr C.W.H. Pulford OBE led a specially formed flight of four Fairey IIID aircraft from Cairo on 1 March 1926 towards Cape Town. The aircraft routed via Wadi Halfa, Khartoum, Malakal, Mongalla, Kisumu, Tabora, Abercorn, N’dola, Livingstone, Buluwayo, Pretoria and Bloemfontein, reaching Cape Town on 12 April. At each of the stopping points, the crews attended diplomatic functions and participated in exercises with local troops. The ‘Cairo to the Cape Flight’ became an annual event for regular squadrons from Middle East Command and was subsequently carried out by 47 Squadron in 1927 and 1928, by 45 Squadron in 1929 and 14 Squadron in 1930.

In July 1926, two Supermarine Southampton flying boats flew from Plymouth to Aboukir, opening the way for a much longer ‘cruise’ the following year. In October 1927, four Southampton II flying boats left Felixstowe for Australia; routing via Karachi and Singapore, the aircraft reached Perth on 7 June 1928. Over the next months, the flight flew anti-clockwise around Australia, before leaving for Singapore. From Singapore, the aircraft carried out another cruise to Hong Kong and back, eventually returning to Seletar, Singapore in December 1928. The unit then remained at Seletar where it was re-designated as 205 Squadron.

A serious attempt to set world records was made with the procurement in December 1928 of a Fairey Long-Range Monoplane. On 24 Apr 1929, Squadron Leader (Sqn Ldr) A.G. Jones-Williams MC and Flight Lieutenant (Flt Lt) N.H. Jenkins OBE, DFC, DSM took-off from Cranwell and flew to Karachi, covering 4,130 miles in 50 hours 38 minutes of non-stop flying. Although they had sufficient fuel for another 6 hours when they reached Karachi, it was late in the day and they did not have sufficient fuel to make the next landing site. In the knowledge of being the first to fly non-stop from the UK to India, they abandoned the record attempt and landed at Karachi, rather than face a crash landing in unfamiliar terrain in the dark. Unfortunately, the same crew was killed the following year when they flew into the Atlas Mountains during another record attempt (Cranwell to Cape Town).

A year after the formation, personnel of 602 (City of Glasgow) Squadron, Royal Auxiliary Air Force (RAuxAF) were photographed in front of a DH9A at Renfrew in 1926. The unit was amongst the first RAuxAF units to form; eventually 17 squadrons would be formed, taking the numbers 600 to 616. Special reserve squadrons were numbered 500 to 504. (Pitchfork)

Another event which caught the public imagination in the late 1920s was the Schneider Trophy air race. The trophy, awarded to the fastest pilot to fly around a closed course, was contested by teams from Italy, France, the USA and the UK and would be kept permanently by any team which won the competition on three consecutive occasions. Prior to 1926, the RAF had depended on the largesse of the aircraft manufacturers to provide suitable aircraft: in that year, there was no British entry, but the Treasury was persuaded to fund future RAF participation under the auspices of the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment (MAEE) at Felixstowe. As a result, the RAF was able to field a strong team which won the 1927 Schneider Trophy, which was held in Venice. The fastest time over the course was achieved by Flt Lt S.N. Webster, flying a Supermarine S5 seaplane. The competition in the following year was cancelled due to the death of Jacques Schneider, the founder of the competition. However in 1929, at Calshot, the RAF won the competition for a second consecutive time. This time the winner was Fg Off H.R.D. Waghorn in a Supermarine S6.

The Fairey Long Range Monoplane which was flown for an attempt on the world long-distance record with a flight from London to Karachi in April 1929. Powered by a Napier Lion XIA engine, the aircraft had a fuel capacity of over 1,000gal and cruised at 110mph. Unfortunately, the aircraft crashed in Tunisia during another record attempt later in 1929. However, a second aircraft captured the record by flying non-stop from Cranwell to Walvis Bay in 1933. (Pitchfork)

Probably best known as the type flown by Alcock and Brown to cross the Atlantic, the Vickers Vimy served in Egypt with 216 Squadron during the 1920s. (Jarrett)

A Supermarine S5 seaplane at Calshot Spit, near Southampton on 7 June 1927, being prepared for trials prior to the Schneider Trophy race to be held in Venice, Italy that year. (Central Press/Hulton Archive/Getty)

Meanwhile, the events in the rest of the world kept the front-line units busy. In Waziristan, Mohmand insurgents attacked clans loyal to the Indian government in June 1927. As a result, 5 and 20 Squadrons carried out bombing raids against a number of villages in Mohmand country on 6 and 7 June. These attacks killed around 40 rebels, but quickly suppressed the insurgency.

Violence erupted in Shanghai in early 1927 when the Chinese Nationalist Party carried out a purge of Communists in the city. The Shanghai Defence Force (SDF) was formed from army and naval units which were hastily deployed to China to protect the lives and property of British citizens there. The Bristol F2b aircraft of 2 Squadron were despatched to Shanghai to provide air support, arriving on 1 June. Flying from the racecourse, which was very small and poorly-suited to air operations, 2 Squadron flew photo-reconnaissance sorties over the next three months, mainly to provide the SDF with up-to-date maps. The squadron left Shanghai in early September.

In late 1927, the Akhwan were again threatening trouble on the border region of Iraq, when a large force of some 5,000 Akhwan led by Faisal ed Dowish were reported to be in the area. A series of violent raids started on 5 November when the 21 occupants of a police post at Busaira were slaughtered. Two sections of armoured cars and a flight from 84 Squadron were deployed forward to Abu Ghar in the desert to the west of Basra in an attempt to contain the insurgents, but more raids continued through December, including an incursion into Kuwait. As a response to the continued Akhwan threat, a mixed force of aircraft and armoured cars, known as Akforce, established its headquarters at Ur on 8 January 1928. The unit’s fighting strength comprised nine DH9A aircraft from 84 Squadron plus two sections of armoured cars from 1 ACC deployed to As Sulman and a further nine DH9As from 55 Squadron and two sections of cars at Busaiya. For the bombing and transport support, 70 Squadron equipped with Vickers Vernon and Victoria was also based at Ur. Akforce operations began on 11 January, with leaflet-dropping to warn the Akhwan to move back at least four days’ march away from the frontier region. A flight of DH9As from 30 Squadron was also deployed forward to reassure tribes to the west of Najaf that they would be protected.

Two DH9A aircraft of 30 Squadron over southern Iraq. During operations in early 1928 by Akforce against the Akhwan in southern Iraq, these aircraft were deployed forward to provide reassurance to the inhabitants living in an area west of An Najaf that they would be protected. (Flintham)

On 14 October 1927, four Supermarine Southampton II flying boats (S1149 to S1152) carried out a 27,000-mile far east cruise. This aircraft was captained by Flt Lt C.G. Wigglesworth AFC. The expedition, led by Gp Capt H.M Cave-Browne-Cave DSO, DFC, spent two years flying from Felixstowe to Singapore via Australia and Hong Kong. (Flintham)

Unfortunately, and despite some encouragement from ‘warning bombs,’ the leaflets had little effect and on 27 January the Akhwan carried out another major raid into Kuwait. One group of the insurgents was located and attacked by 55 Squadron aircraft two days later; the next day two formations each of six aircraft searched the area for the remainder of the Akhwan force. A large raiding party was found first by aircraft of 84 Squadron, who relayed the position by radio to the 55 Squadron patrol. Both formations attacked the insurgents, but one DH9A was shot down during the engagement. Intelligence sources then reported another imminent raid on Kuwait in mid-February, but poor weather between 16 and 18 February hindered aerial reconnaissance. The raid finally took place on 19 February 1928. On the same day, Akforce aircraft located the main Akhwan headquarters and bombed it; shortly afterwards the main body of Akhwan was located and during the day it was attacked by three waves of aircraft. Another DH9A was lost during this action.

A Vickers Victoria V over northern India. Eight of these aircraft, from 70 and 216 Squadrons, carried out the evacuation of nearly 600 British and other nationals from Kabul during the winter of 1928/29. Powered by two Napier Lion XI engines, the aircraft could carry 22 passengers. It was superseded in service by the Vickers Valentia, although many were, in fact, re-engined Victorias. (Flintham)

On 24 February three Victoria bombers and 12 DH9As attacked enemy positions at Es Safa and another nearby encampment. Five days later Akforce was reinforced by the arrival of 30 Squadron at Shaibah. However, the crisis was almost over: a political settlement was reached with Ibn Saud, the king of the Nejd, and the Akhwan withdrew. Between January and March 1928, Akforce aircraft had flown more than 7,000 hours.

During the Palestine Uprising of August 1929, four DH9A aircraft of 14 Squadron were sent from Amman to Ramleh to aid the ground forces. The aircraft carried out daily patrols of the hostile areas and intervened in several incidents where the police or army were unable to control gangs looting shops and buildings. (14 Squadron Association)

In preparation for the assumption of Air Control of Aden and its hinterland, 8 Squadron was moved to Aden in February 1927. This substitution of garrison troops by a single squadron of aircraft generated a cost saving of 30 percent of the annual budget for the garrison. Later in the year, their ageing DH9A aircraft were replaced with the Fairey IIIF and these were soon in action against Yemeni insurgents. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the Imam of Yemen laid claim to the whole of southwest Arabia. His claim was backed by a well-trained army of 6,000 Zaidi troops, commanded by Turkish officers and NCOs, which invaded the British Protectorate and occupied the town of Dhala. The British garrison in Aden had insufficient troops to be able to expel the invaders and a long stalemate ensued. Matters came to a head in February 1928 when two sheikhs, who had treaties with Britain, were abducted and the British authorities were forced to take action. After due warning, the Zaidi headquarters at Qataba was bombed on 21 February and again on each of the next two days. Air operations continued over the next five months, and although little damage was done and few casualties were caused, the Zaidis were forced onto the defensive. The squadron’s aircraft also carried out attacks on the fort at Dhala to assist the Emir of Dhala in the re-occupation his town during July; by mid-August the Zaidis had been ejected from areas under British protection and the Imam agreed to stop further incursions.

In January 1929, trouble broke out among the Subehi tribe in the southwest corner of the Arabian Peninsula: in fact, it was an annual event, but this time warnings were dropped and the villages were bombed. The grain and animals owned by the tribe were kept in a zariba – a compound surrounded by entangled dry thorn bushes – which proved to be extremely vulnerable to incendiary bombs. A three-month long bombing campaign by 8 Squadron to destroy these zariba was enough to persuade the Subehi to submit to government authority.

Amongst the reinforcements rushed to Palestine during the 1929 Uprising was 208 Squadron from Egypt, one of the last front-line units to operate the Bristol F2. Other units included 45 Squadron, also from Egypt, and armoured cars from Iraq. Troops of the South Wales Borderers were flown in from Cairo by Vickers Victoria transports of 216 Squadron. (Pitchfork)

An uprising in Afghanistan by rebels opposed to the introduction of liberal ‘western’ customs into Afghan life by King Amanullah in late 1928 left many expatriate civilians trapped at the British legation in Kabul between the opposing sides. Plans were made to evacuate them, and four Victoria aircraft from 70 Squadron (based at Hinaidi in Iraq) were despatched to India, a distance of some 2,500 miles. The first Victoria flew from Risalpur to Kabul on 23 December 1928, accompanied by three DH9As from 60 Squadron, which were carrying luggage. Over the next few days RAF aircraft transported 71 women and children from Kabul through the mountains of the Himalayan foothills to Peshawar, before winter weather temporarily halted operations. When flights started again on 30 December, the pilots reported 4in of snow on the ground at Kabul and intensely cold weather conditions in the mountains. Despite these hardships the evacuation continued, as weather conditions and rebel activity permitted, through the next two months. There was a lucky escape from disaster on 29 January, when a Victoria flown by Flt Lt R. Ivelaw-Chapman and Fg Off Davies suffered an engine failure en-route to Kabul, but the pilots skilfully managed a forced landing onto a small plateau which ended in a 2,000ft precipice. By early February there were eight Victorias, from both 70 and 216 Squadrons, involved in the operation. The airlift was completed on 25 February 1929, by which time 586 individuals of 11 different nationalities had been flown from Kabul to India. The operation was the first ever large-scale airlift.

Palestinian resentment at the increasing Jewish immigration throughout the 1920s escalated into lawlessness and violence in August 1929. A section of four DH9As from 14 Squadron were immediately dispatched to Ramleh on 23 August to carry out a reconnaissance of Jerusalem and the next day a battalion of the South Wales Borderers was flown in from Cairo in Vickers Victoria transports of 216 Squadron. More troops followed by train a day later. Over the following days naval ships arrived, including HMS Courageous, which brought a battalion of the South Staffordshire Regiment from Malta as well as its complement of Fairey Flycatcher aircraft. The RAF also reinforced Palestine with Bristol F2bs from 208 Squadron, DH9As and Fairey IIIFs from 45 Squadron (both normally based in Egypt) and armoured cars from Iraq.

Aircraft carried out numerous patrols each day to reconnoitre the hotspots around Palestine and to check the border crossing points along the Jordan Valley for possible insurgents. On 26 August, four DH9As from 14 Squadron based at Ramleh came across a looting party of 50 Arabs confronting the police at Haifa. The aircraft opened fire, killing two of the gang and dispersing the rest. Similar direct interventions by aircraft occurred over the next few days.

By now the RAF presence in Palestine had been considerably reinforced and on Friday 30 August a show of force was mounted over the Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem, where a large crowd gathered daily for mid-day prayers. Eight DH9As from 14 Squadron, four Fairey IIIFs from 45 Squadron, a Bristol F2b from 208 Squadron and three Fairey Flycatchers from HMS Courageous arrived over Jerusalem at low level to dramatic effect just as the crowd emerged from the Mosque. There was another large demonstration flight by nine DH9As from 14 and 45 Squadrons accompanied by six Fairey Flycatchers for the benefit of the residents of Semakh, Tiberius, Safed and Metula two days later. By the beginning of September, the British authorities were beginning to regain control within Palestine, although it was another fortnight before the disturbances had completely died down.

In northern Iraq, Sheikh Mahmoud made a last attempt to incite a Kurdish uprising in September 1930. He was countered by units of the recently-formed Iraqi army, supported by Westland Wapiti IIA aircraft of 30 and 55 Squadrons, operating from Mosul and Kirkuk respectively. In the last two weeks of September the Wapitis bombed rebel positions, including the village of Surdash. Anti-insurgency operations continued over the winter months, reinforced by more Wapitis from 84 Squadron and Victorias of 70 Squadron, and culminating in a sustained bombing campaign against all villages which had harboured supporters of Mahmoud. As a result, Mahmoud lost his popular support and he eventually surrendered to an RAF force in May 1931. However, his place as a thorn in the side of the government of Iraq was soon filled by Sheikh Ahmad Barzan, who had been leading a low-level insurrection in central Kurdistan since the late 1920s. Operations against Ahmad by the Iraqi army started in December 1931. Once again, the army was supported by Wapitis of 30 Squadron, this time operating from Diana, to the northeast of Erbil. On 9 December, the Iraqi column met strong resistance near Barzan and was forced back. Warning notices were dropped on Barzan, which was then bombed, although no serious damage was done. Ground operations re-started in March 1932, but once again they met with determined resistance. When Kurdish rebels ambushed the column on 3 April, the five Wapitis of ‘C’ Flight 30 Squadron carried out continuous attacks on the rebels throughout the day until they were driven off at dusk. For the rest of the month, and on through May, bombing attacks were carried out by the aircraft of 30, 55 and 70 Squadrons. In early June 1932, Sheikh Ahmad crossed the border into Turkey, where he surrendered to the Turkish authorities.

During the 1920s, air control had been largely successful in pacifying large areas of the Middle East. Major rebellions had been defused and the concept of international borders in an area which, in the days of the Ottoman Empire, had no borders, was successfully introduced. However, the old traditions of inter-tribal raiding proved hard to eradicate, and by 1930 much of the work of the RAF squadrons in Palestine, Iraq and Aden was in policing these local tribal disputes. The British Mandate for Iraq ended in October 1932, but RAF units remained in the newly-independent country to ensure its security in the short term.

A Westland Wapiti IIA of 30 Squadron, based at Mosul. Known to service personnel as the ‘What-A-Pity,’ the type replaced the DH9A in Iraq and India in the late 1920s, but continued in service until the late 1930s. It also equipped many of the RAuxAF squadrons in the UK. The Wapiti was designed to re-use many of the parts of the DH9A, including the wings, thus reducing the need for spares. (Flintham)

In May 1930, troubled flared once more in Mohmand country, this time incited by the Hadji of Turangzai who started a rumour that the British Raj no longer existed. As a result, Bristol F2b aircraft of 5 and 20 Squadrons, DH9As of 27 and 60 Squadrons and the Wapitis of 11 and 39 Squadrons were involved in virtually continuous operations through the summer. On 12 May 1930 aircraft of 27 and 60 Squadrons dispersed a large rebel group which had laid siege to the fort at Datta Khel. Daily bombing operations over the next two months enforced a curfew on much of the region to stop mass gatherings and there was a large formation demonstration flight on 27 May 1930 to show that the Raj was still very much in existence. The majority of the Mohmand rebels submitted to the government in mid-July, although operations in Waziristan continued through August. In September 1930, the garrison at Chitral was replaced. Chitral was an independent principality, an untypically peaceful state within a troubled region, protected by troops of the Indian army. The garrison was replaced every two years and the relief column had to travel through the wilds of Waziristan in order to reach the principality. The tribes of Waziristan saw the column as ‘fair game’ for ambushes and sniping, so the column often had to fight all the way to Chitral and back. Aircraft played a vital role in the operation, being used to reconnoitre the road ahead of the column and also engage snipers or rebel bands. Along the road, picquet (picket) posts signalled to the aircraft using two long strips of white canvas. The strips were placed side by side if the road area was clear; if there were enemy present, the strips were laid in a ‘V’ with the apex indicating the direction of the threat. If the picquet post came under attack, the strips were laid as a ‘T’ pointing in the direction of the attackers. During September 1930, the Wapitis of 11 and 39 Squadrons supported the Chitral relief column. Apart from forward reconnaissance and close air support for the column, the aircraft were also used to drop supplies to the troops during the march.

In early June 1930, the aircraft of 39 and 60 Squadrons had been called in to help to disperse a large lashkar of ‘Red Shirts’ which was heading towards Peshawar to take part in anti-British demonstrations. The Red Shirts were members of the non-violent civil protest organization ‘Khudai Khidmatgan,’ which was attracting much support in northwest India. Much of 1931 and early 1932 was spent monitoring the movements of Red Shirt groups; however, the more traditional violent uprisings also continued in Mohmand country in the spring and summer of 1932. Aircraft of 5, 20, 27, 39 and 60 Squadrons were all involved in bombing operations over Waziristan during this time. In September, the Chitral relief column was supported by Hawker Harts of 11 and Wapitis of 60 Squadrons. The following year the major effort of the 27 and 60 Squadrons was directed against the Khan of Kotkai, who started agitating trouble in Afghanistan in March. When the village of Kotkai was eventually identified (it had been wrongly plotted on the maps) it was bombed by Wapitis of 27 and 60 Squadrons and the Harts of 11 and 39 Squadrons. The Khan’s rebellion was suppressed in August.

After successful participation in the Schneider Trophy in 1927 and 1929, Britain was poised to win the trophy in perpetuity. There was no competition in 1930, because more time was needed to enable competitors to develop their aircraft. Unfortunately, this coincided with the withdrawal of Air Ministry funding for the project, but RAF participation was saved by the generous gift of £100,000 by Lady Lucy Houston, DBE. Neither the Italians nor the French were ready for the competition in 1931, leaving the RAF to win by default. Nevertheless, the RAF took the competition seriously and the winning Supermarine S6B flown by Flt Lt J.N. Boothman completed the course at a record average speed of 340mph. Two weeks later the speed record was broken again, also in a S6B, this time flown by Flt Lt G.H. Stainforth, who achieved an average speed of 407mph.

A formation of Vickers Wellesley bombers from the Long Range Development Unit (LRDU) which flew non-stop from Ismailia, Egypt to Darwin, Australia in 1938. (Charles E. Brown/RAF Museum/Getty)

Supermarine S6B (serial number S1595) was flown by Flt Lt J.N. Boothman when he won the Schneider Trophy Race on 12 September 1931, flying at an average speed of 340mph; the same aircraft was flown on 29 September by Flt Lt G.H. Stainforth to achieve the World Speed Record of 407.5mph. (Hudson/Topical Press Agency/Getty)

Bristol Bulldog II fighters from 17 Squadron. The type formed the bulk of the RAF fighter strength throughout the 1930s. During the Abyssinian crisis, the Bulldog-equipped 3 Squadron was deployed to Port Sudan. (Museum of Flight/CORBIS/Getty)

A formation of Supermarine Scapa flying boats of 204 Squadron, based at Alexandria in 1936. The aircraft was originally known as the Southampton IV and was powered by two Rolls-Royce Kestrel engines. (Charles E. Brown/RAF Museum/Getty)

Research into high-altitude flight also resulted in the setting of world records later in the decade. Flying from Cranwell in September 1936, Sqn Ldr F.R. Swain set a record of 49,967ft in a Bristol 138 experimental aircraft. This record was broken by the Italians the following year, but just a month later, in June 1937, another Bristol 138 flight by Flt Lt M.J. Adam set a new record of 53,937ft.

Long-distance records were also achieved by RAF aircraft. Following the flights with the Fairey Long-Range Monoplane in the late 1920s, the RAF established the Long-Range Development Unit (LRDU) at Upper Heyford, Oxfordshire in 1938. In November of that year, three Vickers-Armstrong Wellesley light-bomber aircraft of the LRDU, led by Sqn Ldr R. Kellett, set off from Ismailia, in Egypt, to fly the 7,162 miles to Darwin in Australia. One Wellesley was forced to land at Koepang, West Timor (although it had by that stage already exceeded the extant record), but the other two aircraft landed at Darwin after 48 hours of non-stop flying time.

An international crisis, provoked by a border dispute between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland in 1934, culminated in the invasion of Abyssinia by Italian troops in October 1935. The British government chose not to intervene directly, but a substantial naval task force, including the aircraft carriers HMS Glorious and HMS Courageous and their combined complement of nine squadrons, had sailed for the Mediterranean in August. Although Abyssinia was surrounded by British-administered territories, the only RAF presence in the region was provided by 8 Squadron equipped with Vickers Vincents at Aden and 47 Squadron equipped with the Fairey Gordon in Sudan. In order to protect British interests, the RAF presence in the Middle East and Africa was boosted by the rapid deployment of 13 UK-based squadrons into the theatre. Aden was reinforced by the Hawker Hart bombers of 12 Squadron and the Hawker Demon fighters of 41 Squadron, while the Bristol Bulldog fighters of 3 Squadron were sent further up the Red Sea coast to protect Port Sudan, where they were joined by 47 Squadron. Malta, which enjoyed a strategically close proximity to Italy, was reinforced with Vickers Vildebeest torpedo bombers from 22 Squadron to support the fleet and was protected by the Hawker Demon fighters of 74 Squadron. Both 35 and 207 Squadrons, flying the Fairey Gordon, were sent to Ed Damar, near Atbara, Sudan to provide a striking force and the Hawker Harts of 33 and 142 Squadrons were sent to Mersa Matruh, close to the Egyptian border with the Italian colony of Cyrenaica. The air defence of Egypt was also augmented by 29 Squadron flying the Hawker Demon at Al Amiriyah, near Alexandria. Meanwhile the flying boats of 204 Squadron (equipped with the Supermarine Scapa), 210 Squadron (Short Rangoon) and 230 Squadron (Short Singapore III) were deployed to Aboukir, Gibraltar and Alexandria respectively. Additionally, three new Short Singapore III flying boats which were being delivered to 203 Squadron at Basra were diverted to reinforce Aden. Most of the units remained at their deployed locations for the next year before returning to their home bases. The exception was 33 Squadron, which had detached aircraft for operations in Palestine during 1936 and remained in Egypt after the crisis settled. Although the RAF had not been called upon to fight, the service had demonstrated the ability to deploy rapidly if needed to reinforce British interests around the world.

A Vickers Vildebeest of 36 Squadron, based in Singapore. The standard torpedo bomber of the RAF during the 1930s, the type remained in service in the Far East until 1942. (Flintham)

On 31 May 1935, a major earthquake shook Quetta, which was the home of 5 and 31 Squadrons. There were casualties amongst RAF personnel, including some deaths, and the aircraft of both units were also severely damaged. The other RAF squadrons in India provided aid to Quetta, including flying in medical personnel and supplies. In July, the Hadji of Turangzai was active again in Mohmand country. Heavy fighting ensued when Indian army troops were despatched to quell the insurrection, supported by the aircraft from 11, 27, 39 and 60 Squadrons. Aircraft were used to break up rebel lashkars, particularly those who were attempting to destroy the newly-completed Gandab road. From 9 July until 26 September air blockades were used to isolate rebels and limit their movement. These blockades consisted of a continuous relay of aircraft, operating either singly or in pairs, each flying consecutive two-hour patrols. The tribes eventually submitted in late October, after air blockades prevented them from carrying out any agricultural activities.

The early 1930s saw streamlined and more powerful aircraft entering service. The Hawker Hart, powered by a Rolls-Royce Kestrel engine, could outperform most fighters of the day. Apart from being the standard day-bomber used by the RAF home squadrons, the type also equipped overseas units, including 11 Squadron (here), based at Risalpur in northwest India. (Flintham)

Unfortunately, as the influence of the Hadji of Turangzai waned in late 1935, that of another rebel leader, the Faqir of Ipi, steadily increased. Support for the Faqir grew through 1936 amongst the Tori Khel tribe of the lower Khaisora valley and in November 1936 two columns of troops were sent into the region to restore order. The bulk of the RAF’s task to support the columns fell to 5 and 27 Squadrons flying the Westland Wapiti, while 20 Squadron equipped with Hawker Audax light bombers oversaw the biennial relief of Chitral. However, all of the squadrons in India became involved, in one way or another, in the Waziristan operations and on 31 December 1936, the Wapitis of 60 Squadron were tasked to destroy the fort at Arsal Kot. The fort was a challenging target, not least because of its small size of just 132yds by 66yds; however, the formation led by Flt Lt Cannon with Corporal (Cpl) Cronin scored several direct hits with 230lb bombs which destroyed the top two-thirds of the fortified tower, rendering the whole building unusable. The operations in Waziristan against the Faqir of Ipi, which continued into 1937 and on through most of that year, were notable because of the close co-operation between the army and the RAF. General Sir Robert Archibald Cassels GCB, GCSI, DSO, the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) India commented in his report that ‘continuous pressure of air action by day and night, played an important part in obtaining the surrender of the tribes. It secured the surrender of hostages and kidnapped persons, and on occasion the mere threat of such action proved wholly effective. Columns were invariably accompanied by close-support aircraft whose co-operation was of the highest tactical value. In addition, bomber transport aircraft were used extensively to transport military personnel and stores and for the evacuation of casualties, thereby saving long and trying journeys by ambulance transport. The Tori Khel eventually submitted in September 1937 and other neighbouring tribes followed the next month.

Equipping three squadrons in the UK and three squadrons in the Middle East during the 1930s, the Fairey Gordon was a development of the IIIF. The aircraft is from 14 Squadron and operating over TransJordan. (14 Squadron Association)

During the 1930s the immigration of Jews into Palestine, fuelled by fascist anti-Semitism in Europe, increased exponentially. This was matched by simmering resentment amongst the local Arab population in Palestine against what they saw as an invasion of their land. In April 1936, inter-communal violence broke out, accompanied by a general strike by Arab workers. The army presence in the region was increased to four battalions and the Hawker Hart light bombers of 6 Squadron were sent to Ramleh; meanwhile the Fairey Gordons of ‘C’ Flight of 14 Squadron had deployed to a forward operating base at Jisr El Mejamie, on the Jordan. In the following months, as the insurrection grew, Palestine was reinforced by Hart light bombers of 33 Squadron operating from Gaza and Audaxes of 208 Squadron from Ramleh. Air transport and re-supply was provided by Vickers Valentias of 216 Squadron, which could cover the distance from Egypt to Palestine in 3 hours, as opposed to the alternative 14-hour journey by train. The armoured cars of 2 ACC were also heavily involved in ground operations throughout the Palestine revolt.

Four air contact zones were established, based on the areas of responsibility of the army battalions, within which aircraft were kept at readiness on the ground, and army convoys included mobile wireless vehicles known as ‘Roadex.’ If air support was required, the Roadex would transmit a ‘XX’ call with its callsign and co-ordinates. This would be picked up by the relevant RAF detachment, which would then launch a pair of aircraft to the given co-ordinates. Aircraft flew in pairs to provide each other with cross-cover. Once the aircraft reached the Roadex, further communication was by pre-arranged signals by Very light or Aldiss light. The guerrillas usually knew the country well and made effective use of any available cover, such as olive trees, to conceal themselves from the air. As a result, the aircraft had to fly low (around 500ft above the ground) in order to have any chance of detecting them, and at this altitude crews were frequently subjected to accurate small arms fire. The detachment from 14 Squadron covered the ‘Jordan Air Contact Zone,’ comprising the western part of Transjordan, including Jerusalem, while the other zones were covered by 6, 33 and 208 Squadrons.

Many Vickers Valentia transports were converted from the Vickers Victoria, although this particular aeroplane was originally built as a Valentia. The type, which saw service with 70 and 216 Squadrons in the Middle East and 31 Squadron in India, could carry 22 troops in the transport role, but it also be deployed as a bomber aircraft. (Flintham)

In the days before reliable Radio/Telecommunication (R/T) equipment could be carried in aircraft, the main method of communication between ground forces and aircraft was by written message. Here a Hawker Audax of 208 Squadron picks up a message in 1936. (Pitchfork)

A four-engined Short Singapore III flying boat of 203 Squadron, which was based at Basra. During the Spanish Civil War, the type was used to operate anti-piracy patrols from Malta to protect British shipping in the Mediterranean. (Flintham)

The ‘XX’ calls answered by Harts of 6 Squadron included a major action on the Nablus–Tulkarm road on 3 September, during which an aircraft was shot down. Apart from reacting to ‘XX’ calls from army units, routine patrols were flown, particularly at dawn and dusk. Some night patrols were also flown, dropping flares which had a useful deterrent effect on would-be night raiders. Aircraft were also used to drop leaflets on villages. In October responsibility for the security of Palestine was passed from the Air Ministry to the War Office, which by now had increased the strength of the army in Palestine to eight battalions. Martial Law was also declared that month and violence by small local groups and criminal gangs tailed off. Both 33 and 208 Squadrons returned to Egypt at the end of the year, as did 6 Squadron, although two flights remained as a semi-permanent detachment at Ramleh.

After a relatively quiet start to the year, the rebellion flared again in late 1937. The arrival of insurgent leaders from Syria and Iraq brought with it better organization of the rebellion, which was now made up of larger groups of armed rebels. On 31 January 1938, an army column was pinned down by about 100 rebels near Umm Al Fahm, and five Hawker Hardy light bombers from 6 Squadron carried out bombing and strafing attacks on rebel positions until dusk. On 4 March, another large band of insurgents, this time 400 strong, was located near Yamun, where it was engaged by army troops supported by Hardy light bombers of 6 Squadron. Once again, the RAF reinforced Palestine, this time with Harts from 211 Squadron, which had only recently arrived in Egypt, and Gloster Gladiators from 80 Squadron. By now the tactic of the ‘Air Pin’ had become well-established: a village would be cordoned by aircraft flying continuous patrols around its perimeter. The aircraft would shoot anyone who attempted to leave, while army patrols entered the village to search it. On 15 September aircraft from 6, 80 and 211 Squadrons successfully attacked a 500-strong rebel group near Deir Ghassana.

Two Gloster Gladiators of 605 Squadron over Kent in 1939. Although it had been largely replaced by the Hurricane and Spitfire by the outbreak of World War II, the type continued in service with some front-line units until 1940. (Charles E. Brown/RAF Museum/Getty)

Meanwhile 14 Squadron, now equipped with the Vickers-Armstrong Wellesley light bomber, operated in support of troops of the TJFF and Arab Legion to secure the border crossings into Palestine from Syria and Trans-Jordania. On the night of 12 October 1938 six Wellesleys, two of which were loaded with flares and four with bombs, flew in the light of a full moon against rebel positions to the north of the Sea of Galilee, dropping thirty-two 20lb bombs; during this engagement one of the aircraft was hit by ground fire in four places. The Wellesleys were also used for night patrols to enforce the curfew in the area of Lake Hule, dropping flares, and, on occasions, bombs. Additionally, 14 Squadron carried out daily coastal reconnaissance sorties, searching for ships trying to land either smuggled weapons or illegal immigrants.

After the failure of the Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments in Geneva over the period 1932–34, conflict in Europe looked increasingly possible. In the following years, the Government authorized a number of expansion plans for the RAF, beginning with ‘Scheme A’ in 1934. Scheme A envisaged growth to 960 aircraft employed by 84 squadrons by early 1939; just four years later, ‘Scheme L’ proposed an expansion to nearly 2,400 aircraft operated by 141 squadrons by 1940. The rate of expansion was phenomenal: for example, between July and September 1936 eight new squadrons were formed, bringing the strength of the Metropolitan Air Force (the UK-based units) to 79 squadrons. At that stage, a further 2,500 pilots were needed by April 1937, so civilian flying schools were co-opted into the flying training system. A massive programme of airfield construction was also started, to ensure that the RAF had sufficient airfields suitable for operations with modern aircraft. Reserve forces were to play an important part in the expansion plans too, making up 13 squadrons under Scheme A and 20 under Scheme L. In 1936, the Special Reserve was merged into the AAF and a new RAF Volunteer Reserve (RAFVR) was also formed. Rather than manning specific flying units, as was the case with the AAF, the RAFVR was based at airfields or towns, where it provided a pool of trained pilots who could be posted to front-line units as the need for reinforcements arose.

The last biplane heavy bomber to serve with the RAF, the Handley Page Heyford equipped 11 front-line squadrons from 1933 until 1939. The aircraft had a maximum speed of 142mph and could carry a bomb-load of 1,600lb over 920 miles.

The organization of the Metropolitan Air Force was also consolidated in 1936 into separate Commands with specialized roles. These were Bomber Command, Fighter Command, Coastal Command and Training Command. The following year the Fleet Air Arm, which operated from aircraft carriers, was transferred from the RAF to the RN. In parallel with the expansion of the service, the RAF home commands also began to be re-equipped with more modern aircraft in the late 1930s: biplanes which had served throughout the 1920s and the early 1930s were replaced with monoplanes, although sometimes there was little differential in performance. For example when 38 Squadron based at Mildenhall replaced its ‘stately’ looking Handley Page Heyford with the Fairey Hendon bomber in November 1936 the new monoplane was just over 10mph faster than its predecessor and offered only a slight improvement in range for the same bomb load. Furthermore, many of the operational squadrons of the overseas commands continued to soldier on with obsolescent biplanes.

The Fairey Hendon II night bomber first entered service in 1936, but only equipped 38 Squadron, which had previously operated the Handley Page Heyford. Despite its more streamlined appearance, the type offered little improvement in performance. In 1938, the squadron was re-equipped with the Vickers Wellingtons.

Amongst the units equipped with obsolescent biplanes in 1938 were those in India, where the Westland Wapiti, Hawker Hart and Hawker Audax continued to be used for operations against the Faqir of Ipi. In early 1938, the Fakir had taken refuge amongst the Madda Khel tribe in the Tochi Valley; although this location meant that he was cut off from the rest of Waziristan by high mountain ranges, he nevertheless sought to incite anti-British action and he gathered a rebel force of some 1,000 men to attack the scout post at Datta Khel. Between March and June, 5, 11, 20, 27, 39 and 60 Squadrons were all involved in operations over Madda Khel country, either by directly supporting ground troops, enforcing proscribed areas or carrying out punitive bombing attacks. In May, 5 Squadron was tasked with enforcing the proscribed areas while the combined forces of 11, 39, 27 and 60 Squadrons, some operating from the forward airfield at Miramshah, bombed recalcitrant villages.

In late 1937, another religious agitator had become active in Waziristan: Shami Pir was a Syrian, with pro-Nazi affiliations, but his intention was to overthrow the government of Afghanistan. He set out with a rebel force for Kabul on 20 June, but was discovered by Audax light bombers from 20 Squadron flying an armed reconnaissance patrol. The aircraft attacked and dispersed the insurgents and the immediate threat to Afghanistan was defeated.

In the meantime, the Faqir of Ipi had been evicted by the Madda Khels, but he was able to take up residence in the Kharre district, where he continued his subversive activities. The Wapitis of 27 and 60 Squadrons carried out an intensive six-week bombing campaign against villages hosting the Faqir during July and August. Although the pace of operations slowed in the autumn, RAF aircraft were kept busy in support of ground forces, both against the Faqir of Ipi and in the general policing of the tribal areas.

The Munich Crisis of September 1938 emphasized the real risk of war in Europe. RAF units in all theatres were put onto a war footing: aircraft were camouflaged and where necessary squadrons were dispersed to wartime operating bases. One major policy change in November was the adoption of another Expansion Scheme (‘Scheme M’) under which the number of bomber squadrons was to be increased to 85 and the number of fighter squadrons to 50.

The RAF at the end of the 1930s was a very different service to that of the previous decade. For most of the 1920s and the early 1930s the greater part of a small air force was based overseas, policing the Empire in primitive aircraft. By the late 1930s the scope of the policing work had diminished and much of it had, in both Iraq and India for example, been passed on to local air forces. Against a backdrop of the rise of fascism in Europe, the Abyssinian Crisis, the Spanish Civil War and the Munich Crisis, the focus of a much larger RAF was now at home and preparations were being made for a seemingly inevitable war in Europe.

Indian Army troops prepare to board a Vickers Valentia of 31 Squadron for the relief of Chitral. Air transport enabled the relief force to bypass the attentions of the hostile tribesmen, through whose territories they would otherwise have had to march. (Pitchfork)