The Royal Air Force

The Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II fifth generation multi-role fighter will provide the RAF with a deep interdiction capability when the Tornado GR4 is withdrawn from service. (Crown Copyright)

After a period of nearly 20 years in which Iraq had dominated the operational life of the RAF, the UK operations in the country wound down in early 2009. The last Tornado GR4 mission over Iraq was flown by a 13 Squadron crew in May 2009. A small contingent of Puma HC1 helicopters of 1563 Flight was retained in Baghdad to support Foreign and Commonwealth Office personnel and in addition, small detachments of Merlin helicopters remained in Kuwait and Hercules at Basra to provide transport in and out of Iraq. However, all of these elements had left the country by July 2009. By then the operational focus had switched decisively to Afghanistan. In 2009, the larger part of the RAF’s support helicopter force, ISTAR assets and the Joint Force Harrier were all committed to Operation Herrick in Afghanistan.

Meanwhile, the Falkland Islands, which had themselves been the operational focus nearly three decades previously, received a major upgrade in defensive capability. Four Typhoon FGR4 aircraft from 11 Squadron flew from RAF Coningsby to Mount Pleasant airfield via Ascension Island, arriving on 18 September 2009, to re-equip 1435 Flight. Also based in the Falklands were 1312 Flight, operating a Hercules and a VC10 K4 tanker and 1564 Flight, equipped with Chinook HC2s for air mobility and a Sea King HAR3 for search and rescue.

An infra-red decoy flare is ejected from the BOZ-107 pod on a Tornado GR4 over Afghanistan. The aircraft is also armed with 500lb Paveway IV Laser-Guided Bombs (LGB) and MBDA Brimstone Dual-Mode Seeker (DMS) missiles. (Stradling)

The early summer of 2009 in Afghanistan saw the launch of Operation Panchai Palang, a Coalition land offensive to drive out the Taliban from areas of Helmand Province. In the hours before dawn of 19 June, ten Chinooks of 1310 Flight inserted 350 troops of 3rd Battalion Royal Scots into positions behind the Taliban defensive lines at Babaji, to the northwest of Lashkar Gar. The assault was supported by over-watch by Reapers from 39 Squadron and Harriers flown by pilots from 4 Squadron.

The release of Tornado GR4s and Merlins from Iraq meant that these aircraft could then be deployed to Afghanistan. Eight Tornados from 12 Squadron had arrived at Kandahar on 16 June 2009 and they formally took over from the Harrier detachment on 24 June. Like the Harrier detachment, the Tornado detachment was manned in turn by personnel from the UK squadrons on temporary four-month tours: 31 Squadron took over the detachment in October 2009, handing over sequentially to 9 then 2, 13 and 14 Squadrons during the course of the next year. Missions over Afghanistan were flown in pairs, by aircraft equipped with the Litening III targeting pod and armed with the new 500lb Paveway IV laser-guided bomb (PW IV LGB) and the MBDA-built Brimstone dual-mode seeker (DMS) missile. With their smaller warheads and their consequent lower footprint of collateral damage, both of these weapons were better suited to counter-insurgency operations than the previous generation of weapons used over Iraq. Many Tornado sorties were flown in direct support of ground forces, frequently providing armed over-watch for convoys in transit or troops on foot patrol; reconnaissance sorties were also flown routinely, using the Raptor reconnaissance pod. Most sorties were supported by AAR, giving typical sortie lengths of between three and five hours. Two VC10 tankers from 101 Squadron relieved the TriStar tankers of 216 Squadron at Seeb, Muscat, in 2009 to support operations over Afghanistan. However, Tornado crews could also expect to use USAF KC-10 and KC-135 Stratotanker tankers. Indeed, the VC10s often refuelled USN and French Air Force aircraft.

The tasking for the Tornado Force remained at similar levels to the Harrier Force, around 6,000 hours a year. Like the Harriers, Tornados were kept at 30min readiness for GCAS, although if scrambled they would expect to be airborne in half that time. Tornados were also often re-tasked from other sorties to respond to calls for support from Troops in Contact (TIC) incidents or to cover ISAF convoys which had been involved in roadside IED incidents. If Coalition ground forces were engaged by Taliban groups, often a Show of Presence flypast would deter the enemy, but if necessary this tactic could be escalated into the more intimidating Show of Force (SoF). Capable of supersonic speeds and generating a vast amount of noise in reheat, a Tornado SoF could be particularly effective, especially at night using the aircraft’s unique TFR capability to get to low level when other types could not do so. As a last resort, weapons could also be used and each detachment might expect to see one or two ‘kinetic’ events each month. Although the number of precision-guided weapons expended by the RAF over Afghanistan remained almost constant at about ten per month from 2007 to 2013, the Tornados dropped considerably less munitions than the Harriers. The difference was made up by the Reapers of 39 Squadron, which accounted for over three-quarters of the weapons expended.

A Harrier GR9 over the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan. The Harrier force handed responsibility for the operational commitment over Afghanistan to the Tornado force in 2009. (Crown Copyright)

A Tornado GR4 is accompanied by a Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler electronic warfare aircraft over Afghanistan on that country’s election day, 20 August 2009

The number of hours flown by Reapers over Afghanistan doubled over the period 2009 to 2010 to over 10,000hr per year, as more aircraft were deployed into the theatre. By September 2010 there were enough aircraft at Kandahar to fly multiple sorties simultaneously over Afghanistan. Along with Raptor reconnaissance data, the Reapers were a vitally important part of the RAF’s Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance (ISTAR) capability in the region. Crucial ISTAR assets were the Nimrod R1 of 51 Squadron and the Raytheon Sentinel R1 of 5 Squadron operating from Seeb. The Sentinel used its Synthetic Aperture Radar and Moving Target Indicator systems to monitor ground movement in large areas of Afghanistan. One of the main objects of the surveillance operations was to establish a picture of normal activity in the country, so that abnormal activity could then be detected. Another ISTAR platform that made its debut in Afghanistan in 2009 was the Raytheon Shadow R1, which was operated by a flight from 5 Squadron based at Kandahar. Shadow carried much of the surveillance equipment which had previously been used by the Nimrod MR2 over Afghanistan.

A Raytheon (Beechcraft) Shadow R1 of 14 Squadron at Kandahar. Equipped with a Hughes Wescam MX-15 electro-optical/infra-red sensor and an electronic surveillance suite, the Shadow provided ISTAR for army units.

The first Merlin helicopters were transported to Afghanistan by Globemaster transports of 99 Squadron in mid-November 2009. At Camp Bastion, six Merlins of 1419 Flight crewed by personnel from 28 and 78 Squadrons on temporary four-month tours of duty joined the Joint Helicopter Force Afghanistan which also included eight Chinooks of 1310 Flight (crewed by 7, 18 and 27 Squadrons), as well as RN Westland Sea King HC4s, AAC Apaches and Westland Lynx AH7s (and later AH9As). The prime tasks of the support helicopters remained those of re-supplying the forward deployed troops at FOBs and Patrol Bases and of providing air mobility for Coalition ground troops during ‘deliberate operations.’ At Camp Bastion, two Chinooks continued to be held at immediate readiness to respond to casualty incidents as part of the Incident Response Team (IRT). On operational troop movements or IRT scrambles, the Chinooks and Merlins might also be escorted by Apaches. By late 2010, the Chinooks in theatre had all been modified to the Chinook HC3 standard. Chinooks were armed with two M134 Miniguns, one in each front side window, and an M60D machine gun on the ramp.

Further support to the air efforts over Afghanistan were the Sentrys of 8 Squadron, based at Seeb, and the Hercules C4/5 detachments (manned by personnel from 24 and 30 Squadrons) at Kandahar and Camp Bastion. The Hercules were used to transport freight and personnel within theatre. Although the Globemasters, which accounted for around 40 return flights between the UK and Afghanistan each month, were authorized to land at Camp Bastion, there were still around 24 TriStar flights per month which landed at Kandahar. Much of the freight and many of the passengers from these flights would then have to be transported the 100 miles to Camp Bastion. In order to relieve the task of the Chinooks, the Hercules C4/5s were also used for low-level supply drops, carried out at night, to resupply FOBs and Patrol Bases which were inaccessible by heavy vehicles because of Taliban activity.

The workhorse of the RAF tactical transport fleet, a Lockheed C-130J Hercules C4 takes off from Camp Bastion in Afghanistan. Amongst the improvements made to this model over the C-130K were more powerful Rolls-Royce (Allison) AE 2100-D3 turbo-prop engines and a two-pilot ‘all glass’ flight deck. (Crown Copyright)

With 24-hour operations by five different helicopter types as well as Hercules and Globemaster movements and refuelling stops by Shadows, the airfield at Camp Bastion was extremely busy. The airfield had originally been intended to accommodate around 12 aircraft movements a week, but by mid-2010 the actual figure was already running at over 3,000 movements a week. At 3,000ft above sea level, with ambient temperatures around 40ºC, it was also close to the operating limits of many aircraft types. Conditions were also very difficult at helicopter landing sites in Helmand, which might vary from purpose-built sites with tarmac or matting surfaces to open areas of desert which created dust clouds obscuring all visual references, to confined spaces surrounded by tall trees. Added to this, the helicopters might be landing in the midst of a firefight. In the summer of 2010, Chinook pilot Flt Lt I.A. Fortune of 27 Squadron won the DFC after he continued to fly his damaged aircraft after being wounded in the head during a MERT extraction.

In August two more Tornados were added to the detachment in Kandahar, bringing the total to ten aircraft, in readiness for increased tasking during the Afghan national elections. When 2 Squadron returned to RAF Marham at the end of July, they had flown approximately 500 operational sorties, of which around 100 were GCAS scrambles.

A Battle Group operation by Coalition forces started on 13 February 2010. The aim of Operation Moshtarak was to wrest control of the town of Marja, southwest of Lashkar Gar in Helmand Province, from the Taliban. The initial troop insertion was carried out by four Chinooks from 1310 Flight, which delivered over 600 soldiers into Taliban-held territory in just over two hours. Over the next few days, Tornados carried out over-watch of the operation, using their Litening pods to assist troops on the ground to locate groups of insurgents. Using the Litening pod, Tornados were also able to track and follow suspicious persons or vehicles, often for prolonged periods of time, and to guide friendly forces to intercept them, or to engage them using PW IV LGB or Brimstone missiles. The operation continued for the next few months. Another large-scale ground operation, this time led by the Afghan National Army (ANA) to reassert government control over western Kandahar Province commenced in April 2010. Much of the work of the Tornado detachment in the summer of 2010 was in support of this Operation Hamkari and the number of ‘kinetic’ events increased towards the end of the year.

Six Agusta-Westland Merlin HC3 helicopters were deployed to Afghanistan to complement the Chinook force in 2009. The type could carry up to 24 fully-equipped troops. (Crown Copyright)

Typical of smaller-scale ground operations carried out over the autumn and winter months was Operation Zamary Kargha, which commenced at dawn on 15 November when two Chinooks inserted troops from 5th Battalion Royal Scots and Afghan National Police (ANP) close to the village of Hoorzai in Helmand Province. With the elements of surprise and mobility, the combined army and ANP force were quickly able to drive the Taliban out of the area. At the end of November 2010, 1419 Flight celebrated its first anniversary of their deployment in Afghanistan, in which time the Merlins had carried nearly 40,000 troops and over 750 tons of freight including artillery pieces, land rovers and light strike vehicles.

The airfields at both Kandahar and Camp Bastion were protected by elements of the RAF Regiment as well as other Coalition force protection units. Early 2011 saw 34 Squadron RAF Regt responsible for the security of Camp Bastion and 15 Squadron RAF Regt for Kandahar. Later in the year, 58 and 51 Squadrons RAF Regt would also serve in Afghanistan.

Troops of 40 Commando RM prepare to board a Chinook HC3 during operations in Afghanistan in 2012. The type was the workhorse of the RAF tactical helicopter force in Afghanistan and ground operations were heavily dependent on the type for air mobility. (Crown Copyright)

The district of Nahri Saraj, to the west of the Musa Qala river and almost halfway between Kandahar and Camp Bastion, had the reputation as the most violent corner of Afghanistan. On 26 May 2011, a force of 22 aircraft, including RAF Chinooks and Merlins as well as US Marine Corps aircraft, delivered a large force of ANA and Coalition troops into the village of Loy Mandeh at the opening of Operation Omid Haft, to take back the region from the Taliban. The operation was supported by over-watch from Reapers of 39 Squadron as well as the Tornados from 617 Squadron, which had carried out much of the preparatory reconnaissance work using the Raptor pods. Ground operations in the region continued into the summer, and in late July two Chinooks inserted 3 Commando Brigade Reconnaissance Force (BRF) into Nahri Saraj to destroy a Taliban bomb-making factory. The helicopters landed under small arms fire to deliver the troops, who were able to destroy the factory successfully.

The start of a revolution in Libya triggered an operation to evacuate British and other foreign citizens from the country in February 2011. Three Hercules C4/5 transports from 47 Squadron deployed to Valetta, Malta on 22 February, from where they were tasked with the rescue of personnel from remote desert airstrips amongst the oilfields in central Libya. Over the next few days two Sentrys from 8 Squadron and a Nimrod R1 from 51 Squadron arrived at Akrotiri to support the operation. These were followed by Sentinels of 5 Squadron. The Hercules collected some 429 people during sorties on 26 and 27 February and evacuated them to Malta. The airlift was not without incident: one aircraft was damaged by small arms fire shortly after take-off from a desert strip.

A Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4 armed with LGBs at dusk during an operational sortie over Libya in 2011. Operation Ellamy was the first occasion that Typhoons were used in the air-to-ground role dropping LGBs. (Beevers)

In early March operations over Libya were expanded after a UN Resolution authorized the enforcement of a No-Fly Zone over Libya, ostensibly to protect civilians from attack by the Gaddafi regime. Control over this operation was granted to NATO and UK involvement, which included both naval and air forces, was nicknamed Operation Ellamy. The RAF contribution to the air contingent which established the NFZ on 19 March 2011 was ten Typhoon FGR4 aircraft from RAF Coningsby. The aircraft and personnel, drawn mainly from 11 Squadron but augmented by both 3 and 29 Squadrons, deployed at short notice to Gioia del Colle on 20 March; a pair of Typhoons were flying operational Combat Air Patrols (CAPs) within the NFZ the next day. Four Tornado GR4 aircraft from 9 Squadron also deployed to Gioia to carry out reconnaissance and attack missions. Offensive operations over Libya had started on 19 March when Coalition forces, including four Tornados from 9 Squadron armed with Storm Shadow long-range missiles, attacked the Libyan air defence installations. The Tornados operated from their home base at RAF Marham and completed a 3,000-mile round trip, supported by VC10 and TriStar AAR tankers of 101 and 216 Squadrons, during the mission. A second Storm Shadow mission by four Tornados from 13 Squadron was aborted shortly before weapon release for fear of hitting civilians in the target area.

Four more Tornados launched from Marham on 22 March and after flying an armed reconnaissance mission over Libya, they recovered to Gioia del Colle to join the Tornado detachment there. Meanwhile, an extensive airlift by RAF Hercules and Globemasters was under way between the UK and various Mediterranean bases to position personnel and stores for both air and naval operations.

While the Typhoons flew CAPs to enforce the NFZ, the Tornados flew armed reconnaissance sorties; both aircraft types worked closely with the ISTAR aircraft in theatre. As the operation progressed the Sentrys and VC10 tankers moved from RAF Akrotiri to Trapani in Sicily to reduce their transit flying time and maximize their time on station; the Sentinels moved to join the fast jet aircraft at Gioia del Colle. During operational missions, overall command and control was provided by the Sentry, which directly controlled the air defence aircraft. For offensive missions, the Sentinel played a central role in directing the attack aircraft. The Sentinel would check in with the Sentry for details of the day’s areas of interest and would then examine those areas with its Synthetic Aperture Radar and identify any potential targets, such as armoured vehicles or SAM systems. The positions of these were passed back to the Sentry, which in turn transmitted target details to the Tornados as they transited to the operational area. The Tornados could then use their own Litening pod sensors to locate and identify targets and then engage them using PW IV LGB or Brimstone Dual Mode Seeker (DMS) missiles. Using this mode of operation, Tornados used Brimstone missiles to destroy three armoured vehicles near Misrata and two more further to the east in Ajdabiya on 25 March. Tornados accounted for a further 22 tanks, armoured vehicles and artillery pieces in the same locations over the next two days. Another long-range mission was launched from Marham on the morning of 28 March, to destroy ammunition bunkers in the Sabha area in the southern Libyan Desert. The aircraft, armed with Storm Shadow missiles, were refuelled by TriStar tankers during the mission.

Over the next few days the Tornados targeted armoured vehicles, including main battle tanks, as well as SAM systems. In this phase of the operation, the Sentinel’s Moving Target Indicator system proved to be a particularly valuable asset: it enabled the Sentinel to identify vehicle movement and to data-link the information to Typhoons on CAP, who in turn could pass the information to Tornados in the operating area. The focus of operations shifted to Sirte on 2 April and tanks and a number of armoured vehicles in the vicinity were destroyed by Tornados over the next few days, using PW IV LGBs and Brimstone DMS. The number of Tornados at Gioia del Colle was increased to 12 on 6 April, but the most notable increase in ground-attack capability was the switch to offensive operations by the Typhoons. The first operational mission by a mixed formation of Tornados and Typhoons was flown on 7 April.

Armed reconnaissance missions continued over both Misrata and Ajdabiya during the first half of April; on 8 April five tanks were destroyed. During the week, a further four Tornados were deployed to Gioia del Colle bringing the RAF contingent there to a combined strength of 22 Tornados and Typhoons. Mixed-type patrols continued and on 18 April a Tornado and a Typhoon attacked a rocket launcher and an artillery piece near Misrata. At the beginning of May personnel from 2 Squadron took over the Tornado GR4 detachment from 9 Squadron. A similar changeover of the Typhoon detachment from 11 Squadron to 3 Squadron took place a month later. On 6 May two Tornados attacked a concentration of FROG-7 and SCUD ballistic missile systems near Sirte, destroying about 20 FROG launchers and damaging a number of SCUD launchers. On the same day, Tornados also accounted for one tank, two armoured vehicles and a rocket launcher. The first Typhoon self-designated laser attack took place on 12 May when a Typhoon dropped an Enhanced Paveway (EPW) II LGB on self-propelled guns near Sirte. Further attacks took place over the following days, including bombing a command bunker near Tarhuna by Tornados and Typhoons on 17 May.

The Libyan naval base at Al Khums, near Misrata was attacked two days later. Tornados hit two corvettes in the harbour and also bombed a facility in the dockyards used for constructing inflatable fast attack craft. In a further series of airstrikes on 24 and 25 May Tornados and Typhoons attacked a coastal radar station at Brega, near Ajdibiya, and four heavy armoured vehicles near Zlitan, near Misrata. A Tornado and a Typhoon between them dropped five Paveway IVs and four EPW IIs respectively on point targets within a vehicle depot a Tiji, to the southwest of Tripoli.

At the beginning of June, the Nimrod R1 Elint aircraft of 51 Squadron were withdrawn from service. These aircraft, which had flown almost 350 hours in support of operations over Libya, were replaced in the RAF inventory three years later by the Boeing RC-135W Airseeker (also known by the US designation ‘Rivet Joint’). Although the pace of operations slowed somewhat from early June, they did not cease completely. On 10 August six Tornados carried out another long-range Storm Shadow strike from Marham, to attack Libyan command and control bunkers. Eight days later, Tornados operating from Gioia del Colle sunk a patrol craft transporting troops from the Az Zuwar oil refinery to the west of Tripoli. The following day the responsibility for manning the Tornado detachment at Gioia del Colle passed once more to 9 Squadron.

The RAF replaced the ageing BAe Nimrod R1 Elint aircraft with the Boeing RC-135W Airseeker (also known as ‘Rivet Joint’) in 2011. Despite its antiquated airframe, the RC-125W is equipped with state-of-the-art electronic intelligence gathering equipment. (Crown Copyright)

On the morning of 25 August, Tornados located and destroyed a long-range SAM system near Al Watiya on the Tunisian border and that afternoon a joint force of Tornados and Typhoons attacked a command and control facility near Tripoli airport. That night a formation of Tornados flew from Marham to fire Storm Shadow missiles at a large headquarters bunker in Sirte; once again they were supported by AAR on this long-range mission. Another Storm Shadow mission was flown from Marham on 14 September by Tornados supported by TriStar tankers. This time the targets were vehicle depots and buildings near Sabha in the southern desert, which were being used by pro-Gaddafi mercenaries. The Storm Shadow strike was co-ordinated with another attack by Gioia-based Tornados which fired some two dozen Brimstone DMS missiles at a formation of tanks and armoured vehicles near Sabha. Just over a week later, on the morning of 23 September, Tornados dropped 16 Paveway IV LGBs on point targets within a barracks and ammunition storage facility. The following day a formation of Tornados destroyed a radar installation and control bunkers in Sirte with LGBs.

As Operation Ellamy wound down, the Typhoons returned to RAF Coningsby on 26 September, leaving a force of 16 Tornados at Gioia del Colle. The NATO operation itself ended on 31 October 2011, by which time RAF aircraft had flown over 3,000 sorties over Libya, of which two-thirds were strike sorties. The Tornados returned to Marham on 1 November.

A Boeing C-17 Globemaster of 99 Squadron at Évreux airbase, France during UK support for French operations in Mali. (Knight)

The fallout from the Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) carried out by the government in 2010 included the withdrawal of the Harrier Force later in that year and the disbandment of two Tornado GR4 units, 13 and 14 Squadrons. With the disbandment in March 2011 of 111 Squadron, the last Tornado F3 unit, responsibility for the UK air defence rested solely with the Typhoon FGR4 units 3, 6 and 11 Squadrons. As part of the security arrangements for the Olympic Games in London in 2012, four Typhoons from 11 Squadron were redeployed to RAF Northolt on 9 July to mount QRA for the duration of the Games. Additionally, a Sentry from 8 Squadron provided command and control for air defence contingency operations during the Games. The Typhoons returned to Coningsby in mid-August.

In January 2013, French forces started a campaign against Islamist insurgents in northern Mali, many of whom had moved into the country after the civil war in Libya. A number of NATO countries offered assistance to the French, including the UK. Two Globemasters from 99 Squadron deployed to Évreux, from where they provided a heavy airlift capability, carrying large armoured vehicles to the Mali capital, Bamoko. The Globemasters continued to fly into Bamoko until 21 April, when they returned to Brize Norton. Meanwhile a Sentinel from 5 Squadron and had deployed to Dakar in Senegal on 25 January. Over the next six months, the Sentinel flew 66 sorties in support of French operations.

Islamist terrorists were also active in Syria, which, like many of the Mediterranean dictatorships at that time, was engulfed in a civil war. Because of the proximity of Syria to Cyprus, Operation Luminous, comprising measures to defend the Sovereign Base Areas, was initiated in August 2013. Six Typhoons from 11 Squadron and a Sentry from 8 Squadron deployed to Akrotiri on 29 August. After a ten-week detachment during which the Typhoons flew over 220 sorties, including working with HMS Dragon, a Type 45 destroyer, the aircraft returned to the UK in mid-November. In August, 1312 Flight in the Falklands had been re-equipped with a TriStar tanker, which in turn was replaced by an Airbus Voyager K3 in February 2014.

A Typhoon of 6 Squadron intercepts a Tupolev Tu-95MS Bear-H bomber aircraft of the Russian Federation Air Force in September 2014. After a long absence following the end of the Cold War, Russian long-range aircraft began to probe the UKADR again. (Crown Copyright)

Air activity over Afghanistan over the period 2012 to 2014 had fallen into something of a routine. During the period, UK operations started to wind down slowly as more of the security functions were passed to the ANSF. The tasking for the various RAF contingents was in support of the various ground operations, many of which were led by the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF). For the Tornado Force, this meant generally Raptor reconnaissance missions with occasional SoFs or providing over-watch to search for IEDs ahead of convoys. Although Tornado GCAS sorties were launched, many of them achieved their aims by an SoF rather than having to deliver weapons. For the Support Helicopter Force, this meant ‘deliberate operations,’ of which there might be about 20 per month as well as IRT sorties, often under fire, and supply and movement sorties. The ISTAR aircraft continued their surveillance to identify any unusual activities and to monitor developments among the insurgents. The RAF Regiment was also closely involved in operations and in February 2012, 2 Squadron RAF Regt successfully carried out a joint assault with the US Marines against a Taliban bomb-making factory and heroin facility. The Reapers of 39 Squadron continued their surveillance missions and carried out an increasing proportion of the air task. In 2014 Reapers were flying 15,000hr a year as opposed to just 5,000 hours by Tornados. Although Reapers carried out a number of strikes with Hellfire missiles, the rate of weapon expenditure had dropped considerably by 2014. There was a small victory in the campaign against the Taliban’s drugs trade on 12 August 2012 when a Reaper tracked a suspicious vehicle until it could be intercepted by USMC and ANSF. A large quantity of heroin and opium was discovered hidden in the vehicle. Two more heroin-transporting vehicles were also intercepted in the same mission.

A General Atomics MQ-9A Reaper Remotely Piloted Air System (RPAS) of 39 Squadron. These ‘drones’ played an increasingly important role during operations over Afghanistan, and in the last years of the campaign, the majority of ‘kinetic events’ were carried out by unmanned, rather than manned aircraft. (Crown Copyright)

As a result of the decrease in the number of UK ground forces in Afghanistan, the tasking for the Joint Helicopter Force had reduced by about a third in the three years since 2013. The Merlins of 1419 Flight were withdrawn from Afghanistan in June 2013 and on their return to the UK both 28 and 78 Squadrons were disbanded and the helicopters were transferred to the FAA for use by the Commando Helicopter Force. The last Tornados, flown by crews from 31 Squadron departed from Kandahar on 10 November 2014. The Chinooks of 1319 Flight had also been reduced to just three airframes and on 1 April 2015 they, too, were withdrawn and were replaced in theatre by the Puma HC2 helicopters of 33 Squadron. In subsequent operations over Afghanistan, nicknamed Operation Toral, the Pumas were used to transport personnel and troops around the country. The tasking peaked between April and May 2016 because of a major changeover of personnel deployed to Afghanistan. In that short period, the Pumas moved nearly 2,000 passengers and four tons of freight.

While more spectacular operations took place overseas, the RAF Search and Rescue (SAR) force was always ready, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year, to aid those in distress at sea or in remote areas. The Westland Sea King HAR3 equipped 22 and 202 Squadrons until the SAR role was contracted out to civilian operators in 2015. (Crown Copyright)

After a ten-year break, RAF aircraft were once again assigned to NATO’s Baltic Air Policing operation. In March 2014, an RAF Sentry joined the NATO AWACS force operating in Polish and Romanian airspace to provide reassurance to the easternmost countries of the Alliance. Two months later, four Typhoons of 3 Squadron deployed for a four-month tour of duty to Šiauliai in Lithuania where they joined a Polish MiG-29A unit. The NATO force also included Danish F-16 Fighting Falcons based at Ämari in Estonia and French Mirage 2000s at Malbork, Poland. During an operational scramble in mid-June, the Typhoons intercepted a formation of Tupolev Tu-22 Backfire bombers and Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker escorts. Later, two more Typhoons escorted a large formation of Su-27 Flanker and Sukhoi Su-34 Fullback aircraft over the Baltic.

The following summer the pattern was repeated by four Typhoons of 6 Squadron, which deployed on 1 May 2015, this time to Ämari. The detachment was kept busy by Russian aircraft which operated without any communication with Air Traffic Control centres and without displaying any identifying transponder codes. The squadron’s fourth QRA launch was on 8 June, when an Ilyushin Il-20M Coot surveillance aircraft was intercepted and shadowed, before the Typhoons were re-tasked to intercept a further contact which proved to be an Antonov An-26 Curl transport aircraft. During their four months in Estonia, the 6 Squadron Typhoons were scrambled on 17 occasions to intercept over 40 Russian aircraft.

A Russian Air Force Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker with a Typhoon FGR4 of 3 Squadron over the Baltic Sea in June 2014. Typhoons had been launched to intercept a large group of Russian aircraft which included a Tupolev Tu-22 Backfire bomber, four Su-27 fighters, one Beriev A-50 Mainstay early warning aircraft and an Antonov An-26 Curl transport. (Crown Copyright)

In the third consecutive summer deployment, four Tornado FGR4s of 2 Squadron detached to Ämari on 28 April 2016. On this occasion, they shared responsibility for the operation with four F-16AM Fighting Falcons of the Portuguese Air Force based at Šiauliai. The first operational scramble was on 11 May, when An-26 Curl, Antonov An-12 Cub and Ilyushin Il-76 Candid aircraft were intercepted and shadowed. The next launch, five days later, intercepted two Su-27 Flanker fighters escorting an Il-20 Coot-A reconnaissance aircraft, which were flying to the north of Estonia; during this sortie, two more Su-27s were detected and the Typhoons also intercepted them. By the end of August 2016, the Typhoons had been involved in 21 QRA launches, which had resulted in the interception of 42 Russian aircraft. Four German Air Force Typhoons took over from the RAF detachment on 31 August.

A Raytheon Sentinel R1 Airborne Stand-Off Radar (ASTOR) aircraft of 5 Squadron departs from RAF Waddington to participate in operations over West Africa in 2014. (Crown Copyright)

After the Islamist terror group Boko Haram kidnapped 200 girls from a school at Chibok in Nigeria in April 2014 the UK government decided to assist Nigeria in its fight against the terrorists. A Sentinel from 5 Squadron was despatched to Accra in Ghana, along with a Shadow R1 from 14 Squadron. Over the following two months the Sentinel carried out surveillance of areas of Nigeria, feeding its information into a UK-manned Intelligence Fusion Cell in the Nigerian capital Abuja. Following the departure of the Sentinel, three Tornados from 2 Squadron deployed to the French military airfield at N’Djamena, Chad in late August 2014. From here the aircraft spent two months flying further reconnaissance sorties over Nigeria.

By early 2014 a terrorist organization known as Islamic State in the Levant (ISIL) had driven Iraqi government forces out of a number of cities in western Iraq. The group had already taken advantage of the chaos of the Syrian civil war to assume control of much of the northeastern region of that country. Many of the inhabitants of Iraqi towns and cities were displaced by the brutal ISIL regime, in particular, the Yazidi population in the Sinjar area. On 9 August, two Hercules dropped humanitarian aid to Yazidi refugees on Mount Sinjar. Six Tornados of 2 Squadron were then deployed to Akrotiri to assist with further drops. The Tornados were to use their Litening targeting pods to direct the Hercules to safe drop zones on the mountain. The Tornados were, in turn, supported by an Airbus Voyager tanker. Four Chinooks were also deployed to the theatre in case evacuation of refugees was necessary. Two more aid drops were carried out by Hercules on Mount Sinjar on 13 and 14 August, after which the Tornados were tasked for reconnaissance missions over northeastern Iraq, using the Raptor pod. Ten such missions were flown to gather intelligence about ISIL forces between 13 and 16 August. Meanwhile further ISTAR assets had deployed into the theatre, including Sentrys from 8 Squadron, Airseekers from 51 Squadron, Sentinels from 5 Squadron and Shadows from 14 Squadron.

The Hercules flew two more sorties to deliver relief supplies over Amerli (to the west of Kirkuk) on 30 and 31 August. From mid-September, the Tornados started to fly regular reconnaissance sorties over Iraq. Operating from Akrotiri and equipped with the Raptor pod, the aircraft, supported by the Voyager, flew in pairs, routing into western Iraq via Israel and Jordan. The British government authorized the use of weapons over Iraq in late September and the RAF’s offensive force at Akrotiri was augmented by two more Tornados. The aircraft were armed initially with Paveway IV LGBs and later with MBDA Brimstone DMS missiles; the first weapons were dropped by Tornados on 30 September. Throughout the next six months the Tornados operated in support of the Iraqi army in the area of Ramadi and also Kurdish Peshmerga forces fighting in northern Iraq. Two Reaper UAVs were also deployed into theatre for surveillance and close air support tasks: the first live weapons drop from a Reaper was on 10 November when a Hellfire missile was fired to prevent an ISIL group from laying IEDs. Along with offensive operations over Iraq, surveillance sorties were also flown by both Tornados and Reapers over Syria. As with previous operations over Iraq and Afghanistan, each Tornado GR4 squadron took its turn to provide personnel for a four to six-week detachment at Akrotiri.

A Tornado GR4 based at RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus, on an operational sortie over Iraq. The aircraft flew in support of ground forces, including the Iraqi Army, Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) and Kurdish Peshmerga, fighting the ISIL terrorist organization. (Crown Copyright)

A Typhoon FGR4 on an operational sortie over Iraq. Operating with Tornado GR4s and Reaper drones, the Typhoons were heavily involved in the battle for Mosul between 2015 and 2017. (Beevers)

Typical targets attacked by Tornados and Reapers in Iraq included ISIL APCs, vehicles, artillery and mortar teams. The aircraft also disabled earthmoving equipment where it was being used to build improvised fortifications in ISIL-held areas. Both aircraft types typically expended live weapons on about ten sorties per month. In early April 2015, intensive sorties were flown against ISIL forces preparing to attack Kurdish positions to the southwest of Mosul. The aircraft also flew over-watch missions ahead of advancing Kurdish troops to clear the area of IEDs and ambushes. Over the summer months the focus of Iraqi army operations in Anbar Province progressed from Bayji to Tal Afar and Fallujah. These ground offensives relied heavily on Coalition air support including RAF Tornados and Reapers. A good illustration of the diversity of tasks carried out by RAF aircraft over Iraq was on 23 July 2015. On that day, two Tornados on a CAS mission in support of Peshmerga forces near Sinjar used a Paveway IV LGB to destroy a building close to the frontline, from which a sniper was engaging Kurdish forces. The aircraft were then called on to neutralize a mortar position, which they did using another Paveway IV. Further south, a Reaper destroyed an ISIL supply vehicle using a Hellfire missile, before providing surveillance for Coalition aircraft conducting an airstrike on ISIL positions. Meanwhile another Reaper operating over western Iraq identified a building from which ISIL forces were firing on Iraqi army troops; another Coalition aircraft was tasked to destroy the building. The Reaper then neutralized a nearby heavy machine-gun position using a Hellfire missile.

An Airbus A330 Multi-Role Tanker Transport (MRTT) Voyager KC2 tanker refuels two Tornado GR4s during an operational sortie over Iraq in March 2015. The RAF fleet comprises nine aircraft in the ‘core fleet’ in daily use by 10 and 101 Squadrons and another five aircraft operated by the Air Tanker Consortium in the ‘surge fleet’ which can be called into service if there is a surge in tasking. (USAF)

Surveillance and CAS missions by Tornados and Reapers continued over northern and western Iraq through the summer and a large number of weapons were expended. On 15 September, a Reaper identified a cache of ISIL weapons stockpiles on the banks of the Euphrates and destroyed one stockpile, coincidentally destroying in the same blast a small boat which was being used to transport the weapons. The Reaper then remained on station and directed other Coalition aircraft onto the remaining targets. Exactly two months later, a Reaper supported an attack by French aircraft against a terrorist facility near Raqqa in Syria. A typical day’s work over Iraq in the autumn of 2015 is illustrated by operations on 25 November: in the morning, a pair of Tornados carried out attacks against three groups of ISIL fighters near Mosul using Paveway IV LGBs; they also destroyed an ISIL vehicle with a Brimstone, before moving westwards to neutralize a heavy machine-gun post near Sinjar with a further Paveway IV. That night, a second pair of Tornados then continued to support Kurdish forces in the Sinjar area, including destroying another heavy machine-gun position. Meanwhile a Reaper carried out an attack on a building within a terrorist-held compound near Mosul, destroying it with a GBU-12 LGB.

By late 2015, RAF surveillance platforms, including Airseeker, Reaper and Sentinel, were responsible for approximately 33 percent of the intelligence by the Coalition in Syria, while the Tornado/Raptor combination was responsible for approximately 66 percent of the intelligence gathered by the Coalition in Iraq. RAF Sentry aircraft were integrated into the control structure of the Coalition and on a typical sortie they might also expect to control simultaneously around 40 Coalition aircraft operating over Syria and Iraq. The British government authorized offensive operations over Syria on 1 December 2015 and the first of these was carried out the following day. Tornados attacked six wellheads in the Omar oilfield with Paveway IVs in order to disrupt the ability of ISIL to fund its activities through oil revenue. The following day the RAF’s offensive forces at Akrotiri was further expanded by the deployment of two additional Tornados (bringing the total in theatre to ten) and six Typhoon FGR4s. The number of Reapers in theatre had also been increased previously. A mixed force of Tornados and Typhoons revisited the Omar oilfield on 4 December. On the same day, Tornados and Typhoons flew CAS missions for Iraqi and Kurdish forces and a Reaper also provided CAS for Kurdish forces.

For much of December 2015 and January 2016 the Tornados and Typhoons provided CAS for Iraqi army operations near Ramadi as well as Kurdish Peshmerga fighting near Mosul. On 23 December, a Typhoon patrol dropped eight Paveway IV LGBs on targets in the Mosul area, destroying four buildings and a tunnel, which between them contained ammunition stores, several heavy machine guns and a sniper position. Meanwhile two pairs of Tornados supporting Iraqi troops in action near the centre of Ramadi carried out six attacks on targets in close proximity to friendly forces. Using Paveway IV LGBs, they neutralized three Rocket Propelled Grenade (RPG) teams, a sniper and two groups in close combat with Iraqi troops. That evening a further pair of Tornados destroyed two buildings occupied by ISIL personnel near Mosul.

On 10 January 2016, Tornados were operating in pairs near the self-proclaimed ISIL capital at Raqqa. One section attacked an ISIL command and control centre near Raqqa, while another section attacked a tunnel complex. A third patrol, working in co-ordination with a Reaper, used Brimstone missiles to disable cranes and other heavy engineering equipment being used by ISIL to repair damage to the wellheads in the Omar oilfield. The following day marked the 1,000th sortie flown by Reapers against ISIL since October 2014. In early March a Reaper was amongst Coalition aircraft supporting an offensive by the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) to the southwest of Al Shaddadi, in eastern Syria. Intensive air operations continued throughout early 2016, in the areas around Ramadi, Mosul and in northeastern Syria. Between January and March, Typhoons carried out 104 airstrikes over Iraq and two over Syria, dropping some 252 Paveway IV LGBs while the Tornados mounted 52 airstrikes over Iraq and 15 over Syria, using 147 Paveway IVs and 42 Brimstones. The Reapers were also busy in that period, firing 47 Lockheed Martin AGM-114 Hellfire missiles over both theatres, and dropping five GBU-12 LGBs.

From April, the region between Qayyarah and Hit provided a new focus for the Iraqi army and therefore for RAF CAS operations. As part of a larger Coalition operation on 21 April Tornados dropped 2,000lb Enhanced Paveway (EPW) III LGBs on a tunnel and bunker complex on terraced hills above the River Euphrates. Tornados also used 1,000lb Enhanced Paveway II LGBs to destroy ISIL command centre near Raqqa on 20 May and an Improvised Explosive Device (IED) factory in northern Syria ten days later. The following day was a busy one in which a pair of Tornados destroyed two heavy machine-gun positions that were engaging Iraqi troops advancing near Fallujah; at the same time a Typhoon patrol destroyed an ISIL headquarters building near Mosul, and a Reaper provided targeting information for Coalition aircraft attacking an engineering vehicle which was constructing defences near Qayyarah. The Reaper then engaged two mortar teams with Hellfire missiles. The Typhoons and Reaper then joined the operations over Fallujah and the Typhoons destroyed another heavy machine-gun position. The Reaper monitored ISIL personnel as they loaded weapons into a truck, before destroying the vehicle with a Hellfire missile. Meanwhile, another Reaper supporting Iraqi forces near Hit destroyed an ISIL machine-gun team and a vehicle-mounted anti-tank gun with Hellfire missiles.

A Puma HC2 of 33 Squadron over Afghanistan. This version of the helicopter has more powerful engines and an improved flight management system. In Afghanistan, the Puma HC2s were based in Kabul supporting Operation Toral, the training of Afghan Army troops by NATO forces. (Crown Copyright)

Storm Shadow long-range missiles were first employed against ISIL targets on 26 June 2016 when two Tornados fired four missiles against a former Iraqi military bunker in western Iraq that ISIL was using as a weapons facility. The following day Typhoons and a Reaper worked once again with Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) in eastern Syria. Tornados also dropped EPW IIIs on 31 July while operating as part of a larger Coalition force attacking a Saddam Hussein-era palace complex on the banks of the River Tigris near Mosul which was being used as a major training facility by ISIL. Meanwhile Tornados, Typhoons and Reapers had been engaged in intensive operations over Manbij supporting the SDF in northern Syria as well as Sharqat and Qayyarah in western Iraq and Mosul in northern Iraq. Operations also continued over the Omar oilfield: on 31 August two Tornados attacked tanker vehicles attempting to transport oil from the area. Four Paveway IV LGBs and four Brimstone missiles were fired at the convoy, resulting in the destruction of a number of ISL vehicles.

Most of the air-support effort flown by the RAF during October 2016 was based around Mosul, where Iraqi forces were attempting to isolate the city from the southeast in conjunction with Kurdish forces operating to the north. Tornados, Typhoons and Reapers were all busy on a daily basis working closely with ground forces. In addition, on 31 October two Tornados once again launched Storm Shadow long-range missiles, while participating in a Coalition airstrike against bunkers at a former Iraqi military facility near Haditha. Meanwhile the battle around Mosul continued into the following months. On 11 November Tornados and Reapers worked over Mosul, while Typhoons operated with the SDF north of Raqqa. Typhoons also provided CAS to Iraqi forces as they liberated the ancient Assyrian capital of Nimrud on 14 November. Despite poor weather in December, Tornados were still able to provide precise air support to Iraqi ground forces as they fought their way into Mosul. The aircraft were able to drop Paveway II and IV LGBs through cloud with sufficient accuracy to destroy targets in very close proximity to friendly forces. Eastern Mosul was captured by Iraqi forces on 24 January 2017, but the battle to clear the western half of the city raged through the next few months. RAF aircraft continued to support SDF forces fighting around Raqqa, but the main focus through February and March was the Iraqi army operation in and around Mosul. Tornados, Typhoons and Reapers cut lines of communication to prevent ISIL reinforcements from reaching the battle and also cut roads within the city to stop ISIL from deploying truck bombs. Mortars and snipers were also neutralized both within the city and in outlying areas. Although the major part of the RAF missions in March were in support of operations in Mosul, reconnaissance sorties continued to be flown over Syria and on 18 March an ISIL headquarters building was identified some five miles to the east of Raqqa; this was destroyed by a Tornado which dropped a Paveway IV onto the target.

Four Typhoons from 3 Squadron deployed to Mihail Kogălniceanu Air Base near Constanța on the Black Sea coast of Romania on 24 April 2017. These aircraft were part of the NATO Southern Policing Mission, an analogous operation to the Baltic Air Policing Mission, and remained in Romania from May to August. The first operational scramble occurred during July, when two Russian Tupolev Tu-22M3 aircraft approached the Romanian border; however, the Russian aircraft remained in international airspace and the Typhoons did not close to visual range.

In Iraq, the battle for western Mosul continued until early July, with Typhoons, Tornados and Reaper drones providing CAS for the Iraqi army by targetting enemy snipers and mortar teams. The Iraqi army had retaken Mosul by 24 July, but combat operations continued around Tall Afar, Sharqat and Qayyarah through the autumn. Typical targets attacked by Typhoons included a truck carrying armed insurgents across the desert to the northwest of Tikrit on 19 August: despite being driven at high speed, the truck was neutralized by a PW IV.

Meanwhile regular patrols by Typhoons had started over Raqqa in April 2017 and targets in the eastern outskirts of the city were attacked on 21 May in support of SDF ground forces. Over the next six months, RAF aircraft continued to provide daily close air support for the SDF often flying in ‘mixed pairs’ comprising a Tornado and a Typhoon: the aircraft targeted snipers and mortar teams which were engaging friendly forces during house-to-house fighting, as well as buildings being used by terrorists. By 10 August, ISIL had been cut off from the River Euphrates and as the SDF closed in on the city, ISIL elements started to move eastwards along the River Euphrates towards Deir Ez-Zur. RAF aircraft carried out six attacks over Raqqa on 2 September and a week later Reapers were active over Deir Ez-Zur, where teams of terrorists on motorcycles were neutralized using Hellfire missiles.

Throughout the rest of September, Typhoons, Tornados and Reapers operated over Raqqa, as well as northern Iraq. One particularly busy day was 23 September when two pairs of Typhoons and a further two pairs of Tornados each carried out a number of attacks around Hawijah in Iraq: the targets included command posts, weapons stockpiles and also a number of truck bombs which had been placed to block the approach roads into the city. In early October, the focus of operations returned to Raqqa, where the battle for the city was reaching its conclusion: in the final days, the role of RAF aircraft was pivotal, as it had been throughout the long campaign to liberate the city. The SDF announced that they had completely taken the city on 17 October, after a year-long campaign during which time RAF aircraft had engaged 213 targets in and around the city. However, the fighting in Syria continued around Deir Ez-Zur, and Typhoons, Tornados and Reapers continued to be called upon to neutralize ISIL mortar teams, snipers and strongpoints.

In the late summer of 2017, the Caribbean was hit by two devastating Hurricanes, known as Irma and Maria. Hurricane Irma struck the Leeward Islands on 6 September, where it wrought major damage on the British Virgin Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands and Anguilla. Two days later a Globemaster, a Voyager and an Atlas were dispatched from RAF Brize Norton carrying 200 troops from 40 Commando RM, as well as engineers, medical specialists and essential supplies. The aircraft flew to Barbados, which was the nearest suitable runway. Over the next few days, further Globemasters transported three Puma HC2 helicopters to the region. The second hurricane, Maria, struck the Windward Islands on 18 September and once again extensive damage was caused, particularly in Dominica. When HMS Ocean arrived in the area four days later it brought two RAF Chinooks as well as its own complement of helicopters. Meanwhile a shuttle service comprising a Hercules and an Atlas had been set up to distribute supplies such as food, bottled water and shelters from Barbados to the storm-damaged islands. In addition, a Globemaster assisted the French government to transport heavy equipment to Guadeloupe.

After an extended period of cutbacks in the military services, the 2016 Defence White Paper announced a modest expansion of the RAF in the following few years. Arguably the most important facet was the reintroduction of the maritime patrol and anti-submarine role, one of the core roles of the RAF in World War I, World War II and throughout the Cold War. Boeing Poseidon aircraft will take on this role and a cadre of aircrew who have been flying maritime patrol aircraft with the US, Canadian and Australian forces will ensure that the RAF’s maritime capability will continue seamlessly from where it left off. The Tornado, the RAF’s longest serving bomber aircraft, will be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, but much of the surveillance and attack work is likely to be taken on by a growing UAV force, including the General Atomics Protector. The introduction of the Airbus A-400M Atlas aircraft will also give the RAF an enhanced air-transport capability.

In numbers of operational squadrons, the RAF entering its second century is almost the same size as the service that emerged immediately after World War I. Its deployments are similar, too: in 1919 RAF aircraft operated in the Baltic and Black Sea areas to deter Russian aggression and in 1920 they operated in the Middle East to maintain law and order. Indeed, the operational experiences of the last 20 years in Iraq and Afghanistan would have been very familiar to the RAF personnel who served in those regions in the 1920s and 1930s. But there are also many differences: today’s aircraft, whether they be tactical transports, air-to-air refuelling tankers, support helicopters or all-weather fighters, are all immensely more capable than those of a century ago and those who fly, service or support them all benefit from a 100 years of corporate expertise. As it celebrates its centenary, the RAF continues to strive for Per Ardua Ad Astra.

The Airbus A-400M Atlas which will replace the Lockheed C-130 Hercules in RAF service. The aircraft can carry a larger load than a Hercules, and is also capable of operating into a smaller airstrip than the Boeing C-17 Globemaster. (Crown Copyright)