Above: Inonotus dryadeus. Right: Inonotus obliquus (photo credits 1.83)
A Polish study of forty-eight patients with third and fourth stage malignancies found chaga injections, along with cobalt salts, decreased tumor size in ten patients (Piaskowski 1957).
Water extracts have been found to inhibit human cervix cancer cells at the rate of ten micrograms per milliliter (Burczyk et al. 1996).
A follow-up study by J. Rzymowska (1998) in the same journal two years later confirmed chaga’s ability to inhibit human cervical tumor cells HeLa S3, as well as cause a decrease of cell protein amount and mitiotic index value.
Jarosz et al. (1990) found an extract exerts anti-mitotic effect on HeLa cells, mostly in the M, G1, and G2 phases, while at the same time increasing catalase activity.
The water extracts decreased activity of LDH, HBDH, MDH, and GGT and increased activity of catalase.
Water extracts show activity on melanoma B16-F10 cells via cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and induced cell differentiation. Down-regulation of pRb, p53, and p27 expression levels have been noted (Youn et al. 2009).
Chaga shows activity against non-small cell lung carcinoma and cervical cancer cells (Tepkeeva et al. 2009). A mixture of the fungi with elecampane, greater celandine, and horsetail was particularly cytotoxic.
Methanol extracts (80 percent) of the fruiting body show strong cytotoxic activity against various cancer cell lines including A549, PA-1, U937, and HL60, without affecting normal cells.
A 1997 study showed that betulinic acid is active at a lower pH, similar to the interior pH of tumor tissue. A follow-up study, in the same year, indicated that betulinic acid induces apoptosis in tumors.
Jun-En Sun et al. (2008) found dry matter of culture broth exhibits both hypoglycemic and anti-lipidemic activity.
The wild and cultivated mycelium differ greatly in chemical makeup. Wei-Fa Zheng et al. (2007) found mycelium of wild samples were composed of 45 percent lanosterol and 25 percent inotodiol and ten other sterols. Lab-cultured mycelium was 82 percent ergosterol, but when supplemented with silver nitrate became 56 percent lanosterol.
Studies by Kahlos et al. (1996) indicate the black thin external surface of I. obliquus exhibits 100 percent inhibition against the human influenza viruses A and B, and the horse influenza virus A.
The antiviral activity is believed due to the content of betulin, hispolon, hispidin, lupeol, and mycosterols.
Water-soluble lignins from chaga inhibited HIV protease, with an IC 50 value of 2.5 micrograms per milliliter (Ichimura et al. 1998).
Takashi Mizuno (1999) found protein-containing polysaccharides with antitumor and hypoglycemic activity.
Gandodelan A-B lowers blood sugar levels by 60 to 89 percent in only seven hours. Ethyl acetate extracts show significant hyperglycemic and anti-lipidemic activity in diabetic mice (Lu, X. et al. 2010).
These include beta-glucan, heteroglucan, and their protein complexes. Pashinskii et al. (1998) looked at the anti-ulcer, adaptogenic, and antitumor activities of the mushroom.
Research by Ohtomo et al. (2001) suggests this fungi has strong immune-modulating activity, regulates cytokine and interleukin responses, and stimulates both NK cell and macrophage growth.
They found a dry extract stronger and quicker at protecting gastrointestinal tissue than some well-known drugs. It was more active in blocking the formation of ulcers in response to reserpine, enhanced the physical endurance toward hypoxia, inhibited metastasis, and improved the physical capacity for work.
The mycelium contains novel peptides. Hyun et al. identified a peptide that showed high platelet aggregation inhibition (Hyun, K. W. et al. 2006).
Methanol extracts were used for in vivo and in vitro studies of its anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effect, probably due to inhibition of iNOS and COX-2 expression via the down-regulation of NF-kappaB binding activity (Park, Y.-M. et al. 2005).
Ho Gyoung Kim et al. (2007) suggest that chaga as a 70 percent ethanol extract may have clinical application for the management of inflammatory diseases based on inhibition of NF-kappaB through the phosphatydl inositol 3-kinase, Akt/lkB pathway and inhibition of JNK activation.
According to Gorbunova et al. (2005) chaga activates the circulation of brain tissue elements and increases bioelectric activity in the cortex of the brain.
Yeunhwa Gu et al. (2005) reported the protective effect of chaga against radiation and in vivo antitumor effects. The authors make the point that the present approaches to tumors are surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, or what I like to call the slash, burn, and poison approach. They suggest immunotherapy as a fourth therapeutic modality in the future. The first three do take a toll on the body and weaken immune function, and life expectancy could be greatly increased by exploring the potential of this and other medicinal mushrooms.
Bisko et al. found copper ions, pyrocatechol, and tyrosine stimulated the production of melanin in submerged chaga (Bisko et al. 2005). This melanin complex shows high antioxidant and genoprotective effects.
Melanin may play a key role in immune-stimulating function in herbs such as echinacea and ginseng, according to work by Dr. David Pasco at the University of Mississippi. He has found melanin, in mouse spleen studies, to be twenty times more potent than their polysaccharides.
Chaga sulphur soap is marketed in Korea with claims of anti-aging and moisturizing properties.
Ayoub et al. (2009) found fifty-eight compounds representing 86 percent of the essential oil were found.
Non-terpenoids, mainly oxygenated aliphatic substances with fatty acids, dominate (48 percent).
Sesquiterpenes were dominant, with eighteen of them representing 32.5 percent of hydrodistillate. Beta selinene (16.4 percent) was found, as well as cis- and trans-bergamotene, alpha santalene, beta-sesquifenchene, santalene, photosantalol, and beta- and gamma-eudesmol.
Chaga essence is associated with emotional constrictions, where belief systems have sapped an individual’s energy and vitality. This may be due to rigid religious doctrine or lasting impressions from early childhood indoctrination. The essence will help promote a more flexible approach to personal and spiritual rewards. It may help ease the suffering that sometimes accompanies perceived betrayals or guilt associated with moving away from old patterns.
When used in conjunction with cancer therapy, it may be useful when emotional rigidity is playing a negative role in immune response.
—PRAIRIE DEVA
Paul Stamets mentions a Quebec arborist that crushed chaga into powder and made a paste that was applied directly to blight caused by Cryphonectria parasitica on beech. Over two years, the wounds healed and it became blight resistant. There may be other opportunities to utilize tree fungus species as a means of “inoculating” or protecting other tree species, including commercial fire orchards.
Decoction: to make chaga medicine, remove the inner orange-brown layers, either cutting them into strips or shredding and crumbling them. Use one tablespoon for each three liters of boiling water and let soak for four hours. Pour off this liquid and save the wet powder. Pour a cup of water that has been heated and then cooled to fifty degrees Celsius over the fungus and leave at room temperature for two days. Drink up to three cups daily, thirty minutes before meals. This recipe is courtesy of Sherri Anderson, a Cree healer from Flying Dust First Nation.
A Russian recipe is somewhat different. Pour two and a half liters of boiling water over five hundred grams of dry chaga. Cover and let stand at room temperature for four days. Filter and refrigerate. Take the chaga and grind to mush. Add two liters of fifty degree Celsius water and let stand for forty-eight hours. Strain through cheesecloth and combine the two liquids. Drink two hundred milliliters four times per day before meals. This recipe should last four days.
Either recipe is good, but if the final product has 20 to 25 percent alcohol it will last indefinitely. Otherwise it must be prepared every three to four days. Since betulin and betulinic acid are concentrated in “oxidized black coating,” my suggestion is to combine one part of a 95 percent alcohol extraction of this part of the fungi with two parts of the decoction made using the first recipe above.
Recent work suggests optimal antioxidant benefit is obtained from a 70 percent ethanol extract.
Steam treatment increases phenolics and antioxidant activity (Ju et al. 2010).
Extract: two hundred fifty to five hundred milligrams of an eight-to-one extract two to three times per day. Many powdered extracts are now standardized to a minimum 0.15 percent inotodiol.
Chaga is apparently non-toxic and without side effects. Some sources, however, suggest stopping intravenous glucose or penicillin-3 during chaga therapy.
Polyporus tomentosus
Onnia tomentosa
Coltrichia tomentosa
(TOMENTOSUS ROOT ROT)
(WOOLLY VELVET POLYPORE)
Inonotus cuticularis
P. cuticularis
(CUTICULAR POLYPORE)
I. radiatus
Mensularia radiata
Xanthochrous radiatus
(RADIATED POLYPORE)
(ALDERWOOD POLYPORE)
(ALDER BRACKET)
Woolly velvet polypore is frequently found infesting the root systems of spruce or pine forests. They are polypores and yet this one is found on the ground. Careful eyes will find it attached to roots and wood buried underground.
The related I. cuticularis is found on willow, cottonwoods, and other hardwood trees throughout the region. It is woolly and matted with a nearly smooth cap. In folklore, it was considered a panacea for nearly every condition.
It has been used medicinally for gastric disturbances, hemorrhage, leprosy, and offensive body and foot odor.
In traditional Chinese medicine, the mushroom is considered sweet. It smoothes vital energy, strengthens the mind and spirit, and removes harmful wind conditions.
Research by Ito et al. (1973) in Japan indicated that this fungus contains a substance with B-cell-stimulating activity.
Studies have I. cuticularis inhibits Ehrlich carcinoma by 100 percent and sarcoma 180 by 90 percent, suggesting anticancer potential (Ohtsuka et al. 1973).
The related I. radiatus also displays antitumor activity (Kahlos, et al. 1989).
Separate studies by Hervey (1947) and Robbins et al. (1945) showed activity against Staphylococcus aureus.
It may be found on either birch or alder, and yields pure lupenone, ergosterol peroxide, and other sterols. Water extracts were inactive or only slightly active against Walker 256 and MCF-7, but ethanol extracts killed up to 50 percent of the cells in five days, suggesting moderate activity.
Ergosterol peroxide, when isolated, was 100 percent effective against the cell lines.
One study found this mycelium and Trametes versicolor both degraded humulones and lupulones from spent hops in only thirty-six hours when exposed to light and in four days in the dark.
The polypore is dried and used as a source of brownish-orange dye for wool without mordant.
Polyporus hispidus
(BRISTLY POLYPORE)
(SHAGGY BRACKET)
Hispidus is Latin meaning “rough” or “bristly.” This is derived from hircine and, in turn, hircus meaning “goat.” Bristly polypore was once used as a drastic purgative in Germany.
Hispidin and hispolon.
The fungi produce styrylpyrones (hispidin) and derivatives of caffeic acid (hispolon) as pigments. Work by Pilgrim (1997) suggested these compounds might be a valuable source of new drugs.
Sure enough, later work by Awadh Ali et al. (2005) found antiviral activity from both hispolon and hispidin. They found ethanol extracts from both fruiting bodies and mycelium to possess considerable activity against influenza virus types A and B.
Hispolon and hispidin were found to inhibit the chemiluminescence response of human mononuclear blood cells and the mitogen-induced proliferation of spleen lymphocytes (Ali et al. 1996).
W. Chen et al. (2006) found hispolon inhibits human epidermoid KB cells with an IC50 of 4.62 micrograms per milliliter. It appears to activate caspase-3 and induce apoptosis via mitochnodria-mediated pathways.
One study found hispolon active against gastric cancer cells causing massive ROS accumulation in them; as well as potentiating cytotoxic effect of chemotherapeutic drugs.
Heng-Yuan Chang et al. (2011) found that hispolon reduces pain and inflammation through suppression of TNF-alpha and nitric oxide.
Hispidin is closely related, chemically speaking, to the kavanins in kava kava and the longistylines in the balche tree from southern Mexico.
A fine brown dye is obtained from the conk for coloring silk, cotton, and wool, and formerly used by cabinet-makers and joiners for certain woods. It was used traditionally by leather dressers for skins, giving a fawn-chestnut color.
(MILK WHITE TOOTHED POLYPORE)
This white leathery species is widely found on various hardwood trees, including birch and aspen.
Irpex lacteus (photo credits 1.84)
It contains proteinase that makes an acceptable rennet substitute for curdling milk (Kobayashi, H. et al. 1983).
It shows activity against a number of bacteria and fungi including Candida albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, Bacillus cereus, E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and S. typhimurium (Rosa et al. 2003).
Earlier work by Hayashi et al. (1981) identified the nematicidal compound 5-pentyl-2furaldehyde.
Silberborth et al. (2000) identified a number of irpexans while screening for new inhibitors of AP-1 and NFkappaB pathways that play roles in cancer and inflammation.
One member, 14-acetoxy-15-dihydroxyirpexan, inhibits the phorbol ester-induced expression of dependent reporter gene with IC50 values of five to six micrograms per milliliter.
It has been implicated in at least one case of pulmonary abscess in an immune compromised child in Austria (Buzina et al. 2005).
Polyporus resinosum
Lasiochlaena anisea
(LATE FALL POLYPORE)
(RESINOUS POLYPORE)
Late fall polypore is yet another bracket fungus showing medicinal benefit. It is dark brown and velvety, exuding an amber colored fluid when young. The flesh is spongy, with an anise scent.
The polypore is found growing on hardwood and coniferous stumps and logs late in the season. It may, at first glance, appear as a plump artist’s conk (G. applanatum), and the white pore surface does brown when touched. The young caps are edible and quite tasty when cooked. It has a white spore print.
Native tribes of the boreal forest, including the Dene, decoct it for a half hour to treat coughs. About one third of a cup is considered a dose.
In studies conducted in China, the mushroom’s inhibition rate against sarcoma 180 is 70 percent, and against Ehrlich carcinoma reaches 80 percent.
A beta galactosyl-specific lectin was the first lectin ever isolated from fungi (Kawagishi et al. 1995).
Early work identified moderate activity against Staphylococcus aureus (Robbins 1945).
The fungus decolorizes both Orange G and Remazol Brilliant Blue R, the former due to laccase, suggesting use in mycofiltration of chemical dye plant waters and industries that utilize these pigments.
(see Pholiota mutabilis)
(ORANGE LACCARIA)
(COMMON LACCARIA)
(THE DECEIVER)
L. amethystina
(PURPLE LACCARIA)
(AMETHYST DECEIVER)
L. amethysteo-occidentalis
(WESTERN AMETHYST LACCARIA)
L. bicolor
(TWO COLORED LACCARIA)
Laccaria is from the Persian laccata meaning “painted” or “lacquered.” Laccaria is called “the deceiver” in various languages because of its wide variety of shapes, colors, and sizes.
Bicolor is from the Latin, distinguishing the tan cap and purple stem. Amethystina refers to the color of amethyst.
Orange Laccaria likes to fruit in cooler weather in bogs, woods, and meadows.
Laccaria amethystina (photo credits 1.85)
Raman et al. (1993), from India, have found that furnishing L. laccata with tryptophan will produce high amounts of indole 3-acetic acid in an industrial fermentation tank. Laccaria respond well to palmitate and oleate lipids for mycelial growth.
Two-colored Laccaria is often found in pine forests. An article in the journal Nature (April 5, 2001) found white pine has a mutually beneficial relationship with this mushroom. The mushroom grows among the roots, and preys upon springtails, a small insect, by exuding a toxin that paralyzes them. Like cordyceps, it grows inside them while they are still alive.
Springtails are one of the earth’s most plentiful insects, numbering up to a hundred thousand per cubic meter of soil. The nitrogen obtained by the fungus, is then bartered with the pines to get the carbon it needs to synthesize enzymes. This research found that other fungi did not affect springtails in this manner. And when white pine seedlings were grown in controlled environments, without the fungi, they did not grow as well.
In isotope studies, the nitrogen from the insect was traced via the fungi to the trees, and it was discovered that up to one quarter of the nitrogen in the needles originated in the springtails.
Until now, scientists have depicted mushrooms as rather benign, deriving nitrogen from decaying matter and making it available in a passive manner. If predatory relationships such as this turn out to be common, scientists will have to rethink food webs in forest ecosystems. “If this phenomena proves to be widespread, it changes everything,” says Klironomos.
The genome, or full DNA mapping of this species is now complete. It shows SSPs or small proteins that connect the fungus and trees in some manner.
Both orange Laccaria and amethyst deceiver are excellent, but strongly flavored edibles. They are especially delicious as accompaniments to meat or as an omelet filling.
Purple Laccaria is a bio-accumulator of arsenic, up to 146.9 milligrams per kilogram according to Velter, and therefore should not be considered a safe edible. Some people enjoy the subtle, gentle flavor, but there are lots of better tasting and safer mushrooms.
The inhibition rate of L. laccata against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma is 60 to 70 percent (Ohtsuka et al. 1973).
Laccarin shows phosphodiesterase inhibitory activity (Matsuda et al. 1996).
Purple Laccaria (L. amethystina) is relatively rich in lipids, and in particular phosphatydl serine. This compound plays a major role in myelin sheath and brain synapse health.
It is rich in oleic acid at over 32 percent. Inhibition rates are 70 to 80 percent against the two cancer cell lines mentioned above (Ohtsuka et al. 1973).
Amethyst deceiver (L. amethystea) essence helps us in our inner transformation by bringing hidden inner “poisons” to the surface, then reducing their impact on mind, body, and soul. It opens the third eye chakra, thereby helping us manage the final breakthrough to new, more positive, self-awareness.
—KORTE PHI
Laccaria amethystina (photo credits 1.86)
Laccaria species were the most frequently observed ectomycorrhiza associated with pine and poplar in reclaimed oil sands in northern Alberta (Bois et al. 2005). Mycoremediation of this huge industrial site is going to be a major challenge, but a considerable improvement on the present approach of sprinkling brome and native grass seeds and hoping for the best. Suncor, Syncrude, Shell, and other corporations could invest in fungal remediation research and lead the rest of the world by example.
Laccaria bicolor and L. laccata show a very high tolerance to creosote (Richter et al. 2003).
Lactarius volemus
(WEEPING MILK CAP)
(ORANGE BROWN MILK CAP)
L. camphoratus
L. fragilis var. rubidus
Lactifluus camphoratus
(SPICY MILK CAP)
(CANDY CAP)
(AROMATIC MILK CAP)
L. uvidus
(PURPLE STAINING MILK CAP)
(MOIST LACTARIUS)
L. deliciosus
L. deliciosus var deterrimus
L. deterrimus
(DELICIOUS MILK CAP)
(SAFFRON MILK CAP)
L. torminosus
(WOOLY MILK CAP)
(PINK FRINGED MILK CAP)
(BEARDED MILK CAP)
L. atroviridus
(BLACK GREEN MILK CAP)
L. glyciosmus
(COCONUT MILK CAP)
L. aquifluus L. helvus
(WATERDROP MILK CAP)
(BURNT SUGAR MILKY)
L. fumosus
(SMOKY MILK CAP)
L. rufus
(RED HOT MILK CAP)
L. vellereus
(DEADLY MILK CAP)
Lactarius is from the Latin lac meaning “milk.” Torminosus is Latin meaning “full of sharpness,” “causing pain,” or “suffering from colic.” Uvidus means “moist,” camphoratus is “spicy,” glyciosmus means “sweet scent,” and volemus is Latin for a type of large pear. Milk cap refers to the lactating nature. Aquifluus means “watery.”
They are closely related to the Russula (see below) and are noted for their waxy gills and cleanly snapping brittle flesh.
They are generally sharp and biting when sampled. The French call them eau boiront or “water drinkers,” and poivres or “peppers” due to the pungency of their milk. The pungent and peppery components are due to sesquiterpenes released when the fungi are damaged.
Many Lactarius and Russula are considered more unpleasant than seriously poisonous, and most are edible when cooked with several changes of water.
A general rule of thumb is that those with orange or red milk are edible if cooked.
L. camphoratus, also known as curry scented milk cap, has a sweet taste that will later turn bitter. The caps smell like camphor to some authors when fresh, and to others like wood-lice. When dry, it is more like curry leaf or ground chicory root.
It exudes white milk but is considered edible. The dried mushroom powder is often used in cakes and cookies, or curry dishes.
Spicy milk cap (L. camphoratus) has a distinct fenugreek, maple syrup odor, even when dried. Some individual mushrooms have a coumarin-like odor more similar to sweet clover, celery, or even beef bouillon. It can be used to flavor cake icing, giving a burnt sugar, or even walnut flavor to confections.
Clockwise from above:Lactarius rufus; Lactariuspeckii; Lactarius corrugis;Lactarius deliciosa. (photo credits 1.87)
This same scent is shared by the northern boreal and bog-oriented L. helvus (L. aquifluus), but this species has clear latex. See below.
The related L. atroviridus, generally found under oak in eastern Canada, contains powerful mutagenic compounds.
The Northern L. glyciosmus is found near birch and alders. It has a distinct scent, somewhere between coconut and bergamot.
Moist Lactarius (L. uvidus) is not a recommended edible due to gastrointestinal disturbance.
Delicious milk cap is a safe edible mushroom found in pine or spruce forests. It is bright orange, with the same color latex, and a green discoloration. The popularity of this edible mushroom is told by its appearance on postal stamps from ten different countries. Some authors believe L. deterrimus is a variation, while others think it is a separate variety. It has paler gills and the stem is not pitted, but both are edible. It is widely picked and sold commercially in Finland. In my region it is associated with pine, but if you find a species in douglas fir country, it may be the closely related L. rubrilacteus, with dark red latex. Both are tasty.
Despite the name, it is not considered that delicious by some mycophiles! Linnaeus may well have confused it with the southern European bleeding milk cap (L. sanguifluus). Personally, I like the sweet, nutty flavor, which is enhanced by cooking it in butter.
In Poland, a piece of bacon is wrapped around the fresh cap and placed in a hot oven until cooked. Yum!
Wooly milk cap is a powerful purgative when eaten raw, but when parboiled may be considered edible. It is widespread and common, especially under birch, and noted for its white, peppery milk. The toxins are unidentified, but are destroyed by heat. I would be cautious!
Muhlmann et al. (2006) found this ectomycorrhizal fungus associates with bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), as well as spruce.
Waterdrop milk cap (L. helvus) is found in wet parts of the boreal forest. It has clear, colorless latex and smells like maple syrup or fenugreek.
It contains two unusual compounds, 13-methylene-L-(+)-norvaline, and 2 methylenecycloheptene-1,3-diglycine.
Smoky milk cap (L. fumosus) has a turnip-like odor.
Red hot milk cap is commonly found in sandy areas under pine.
Lactarius species have been used for their medicinal benefit in a number of cultures. Saffron milk cap (or the related bleeding milk cap) is depicted on a two-thousand-year-old Roman fresco.
Lactaroviolin is said to be active against Koch’s bacillus (TB), and is anti-rheumatic in a manner similar to cartizon, according to a Latvian website. The French physician Dufresnoi, practicing at the beginning of the nineteenth century, reported curing more than thirty cases of tuberculosis using an electuary of Lactarius deliciosus, rose petals, spermaceti, washed sulphur, and a syrup of yarrow. A colleague powdered the dried mushroom and mixed it with honey for the same purpose. Dosage was less than a teaspoon at one time.
Some Lactarius fungi, prepared into a tincture, have been used for tuberculosis.
L. vellereus is used in Tendon Easing Pills in traditional Chinese medicine.
L. deliciosus: 5-methylcytosine; tryptamine; tryptophan; melatonin; indole and indoacetic acid; lectins high in glycogen including lactaroviolin, lactarazulene, lactarovidlin, and lactarofulvene; 37 international units per hundred grams of thiamine; up to 690 micrograms per hundred grams of riboflavin; trehalase; and 300 micrograms per hundred grams of manganese.
L. volemus: lactariamide A-B and cerbroside D.
L. uvidus: uvidin A and drimenol.
L. camphoratus: 12-hydroxy-caryophyllene-4,5-oxide.
L. helvus: 13-methylene-L-(+)-norvaline and 2 methylenecycloheptene-1,3-diglycine.
L. vellereus: three novel lactones, lactariolide, and subvellerolactone A and C.
L. piperatus: marasmane sesquiterpenoids, as well as lactarorufin and furosardonin, blennin A and D, and isolactarorufin.
L. rufus: lactarinic acid.
Weeping milk cap has been shown to contain substances exhibiting tumor inhibition, as well as the novel compounds lactariamide A and B and cerebroside D. It has a distinct fishy odor. Weeping milk cap has been found to inhibit sarcoma 180 by 80 percent and Ehrlich carcinoma by 90 percent.
Lactarius deterrimus
Lactarovidlin is a sesquiterpene aldehyde with moderate cytotoxic activity. It contains a stearic acid ester of sesquiterpene with similar activity, and deterrol, an alcohol with weak antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. All three components have been found to be weakly mutagenic.
Lactaroviolin was found to inhibit tubercle bacilli at concentration of one to 16,000.
Dulger et al. (2002a) found the delicious milk cap active against a number of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria including E. coli, Proteus vulgaris, and Mycobacterium smegmatis. Weak inhibition was also noted against S. aureus, Bacillus cereus, and B. megaterium.
Puttaraju et al. (2006) found this mushroom rated very high among twenty-three tested for antioxidant activity. This was confirmed by Sarikurkcu et al. (2008).
One isolated red-violet pigment, lactaroviolin, has been found mildly antibiotic.
Moist Lactarius (L. uvidus) contains fatty acid esters of uvidin A and drimenol that show cytotoxic and insect antifeedant activity. Both of these compounds have been used for the semi-synthesis of biologically active compounds like cinnamodial, cinnamosmolide, and pereniporin A.
Spicy milk cap (L. camphoratus) contains anti-carcinogenic substances. Its inhibition against both sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma is 70 percent.
The sesquiterpene 12-hydroxy-caryophyllene-4,5-oxide has been isolated from ethanol extracts. This molecule contributes to the spicy taste of black pepper and cloves.
H. Wang and T. B. Ng (2007) found a hot-water extract of L. camphoratus inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase activity by 53.5 percent.
New compounds isolated from the related L. violascens and L. rubrocinctus are two protilludans and four marasmane sesquiterpenes.
Methanol extracts of L. vellereus show anti-mutagenic activity, and inhibit in vitro binding of lipopolysaccharides to the C14 receptor on immune cells. This suggests the possibility in development of drugs to address septic shock (Mlinaric et al. 2004).
This fungus and the related L. subvellereus inhibit sarcoma 180 by 70 percent and Ehrlich carcinoma by 60 percent. Jing Zhang and X. Z. Feng (1997) have found that ethyl acetate extracts are cytotoxic and possess antitumor activity.
Three novel lactones, lactariolide and subvellerolactone A and C, have been isolated and identified. Extracts of L. vellereus show activity against Fusarium species (Guler et al. 2009).
L. vellereus contains velleral and isovelleral, which possess antifungal and antibacterial activity, and an unstable sesquiterpene (velutinal) that reacts enzymatically upon injury. These compounds, including isovelleral and velleral, have strong antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and fungi (Candida utilis) that activates within five minutes of mincing the mushroom.
Isovelleral induces calcium uptake or inhibits RTX binding. It appears to influence vanilloid receptors associated with pain control, and the dopamine D1 receptor of the central nervous system. It may prove of some medicinal benefit as an isolated drug.
Inhibition rates of 60 percent against Ehrlich carcinoma and sarcoma 180 cancer cell lines have been found (Ohtsuka et al. 1973).
Mlinaric et al. (2004) found methanol extracts protect against quinoline-induced DNA damage in human-derived cells. The mushroom can be considered a natural source of anti-mutagens with potential application in cancer prevention.
Lactarius sesquiterpenoid alcohols show antiviral activity. One study assessed T and B cell proliferation, interleukin 2, TNF alpha, and interferon gamma in vitro. One compound, isolactarorufin 8-epi, significantly inhibited T lymphocyte proliferation and synthesis of all tested cytokines. Two N-acetyl-phenylisoserinates showed antiviral, cytotoxic, anti-proliferative, and immunotropic properties in vitro. Two compounds inhibit herpes simplex 1 virus growth.
The related L. badiosanguineus inhibits thrombin by 31 percent (Doljak et al. 2001). L. latsudake contains phospholipase A2 inhibitors.
Peppery milk cap (L. piperatus) contains a number of marasmane sesquiterpenoids, as well as lactarorufin and furosardonin, blennin A and D, and isolactarorufin. It contains natural liquid rubber latex. Hot-water extracts have been found to inhibit Lewis pulmonary adenoma in white mice with an inhibition rate of 80 percent against sarcoma 180 and 70 percent against Ehrlich carcinoma.
Methanol extracts show activity against E. coli, Proteus vulgaris, and Mycobacterium smegmatis.
Younger fruiting bodies are more potent (Barros et al. 2007b).
The related L. hygrophoroides shows inhibition against the two cancer cell lines of 70 Percent (Ohtsuka et al. 1973).
Waterdrop milk cap (L. helvus) has been steam distilled and yields 0.04 percent essential oil composed of 25.6 percent capric acid, 15.8 percent 3-amino-4,5-di-methyl-2(5H)-furanone, and 1.4 percent sotolon. The latter compound is responsible for the fenugreek odor of the mushroom. Sotolon is widely used as a flavoring agent in artificial maple syrup, curry, sherry, old sake, and tobacco. It is found in soy sauce, sugar molasses, and even barley malt for beer.
Acetone and ether extracts of smoky milk cap (L. fumosus) have potent insecticidal activity.
Red hot milk cap contains rufuslactone, an antifungal that exhibits great activity against other plant fungi and may be useful in crop protection and greenhouse production. Rufuslactone is particularly aggressive against Alternaria brassicae.
Prepare fresh at a ratio of 1:3 with 90 percent alcohol.
Hobbs suggests preparing the tincture immediately after grinding in a blender to destroy enzymes that might break down active ingredients. Good tip. Use caution.
Take ten to twenty-five drops of tincture twice a day.
L. conifericola
L. gilbertsonii
Polyporus sulphureus
Tyromyces sulphureus
(CHICKEN OF THE WOODS)
(SULPHUR SHELF)
Laetiporus is Latin meaning “a wealth of pores.” Sulphureus means “a sulphur or bright yellow color,” or may allude to the fungi’s fragrance.
More than forty compounds are responsible for its odor and taste, including 1-octen-3one, 1-octen-3-ol, 3-methyl butanoic acid, phenyl ethanol and phenylacetic acid (Wu, S. et al. 2005a).
It smells strongly of rotten eggs, but tastes like chicken if eaten when young. Jack Czernacki, a noted chef, writes, “Eating an unfit chicken mushroom is like trying to digest a piece of wood. It never softens and it leaves your mouth feeling dried out and exhausted.” I have to agree.
This bright lemon to orange-colored fungus is found on the trunks and stems of conifers. When found on birch and other hardwoods they are known as L. gilbertsonii.
They can be quite large, with one weighing in at more than a hundred pounds found near New Forest, Hampshire, England.
A recent find, in 1998 at Kew Green, Surrey, has been estimated to weigh 697 pounds and is still growing! As of 2003, it measured more than sixteen feet in circumference. A humongous fungus indeed!
At present, the mushroom is not commercially harvested or marketed and available to health consumers wishing to take advantage of its antifungal, antibacterial, and antitumor properties.
In parts of central Europe, it was reduced to a powder and added to flour to make bread.
In eastern Russia, sulphur shelf has a long history of folkloric use as a natural antibiotic and weak disinfectant.
Chicken of the woods is helpful in regulating the health of the human body, improving and defending the body against illness, if taken regularly.
It has been traditionally dried and powdered as a snuff.
N-phenetyl-hexadecanamide; laetiporic acids A-C; various lanostanoid triterpenes including 3-oxosulfurenic acid, acetyl eburicoic acid, fucomannogalactans, laminaran (beta-glucan), masutakeside (benzofuran glycoside), and masutakic acid A (a C10 acetylenic acid); egonol; demethoxyegonol; egonol glucoside and egonol gentiobioside; and dehydrotrametenolic acid.
Also contains beauvericin, a mycotoxin produced by hypocrealean ascomycetes in grain.
Water extracts of the fruiting body inhibit Ehrlich carcinoma in white mice, suggesting antitumor activity.
Eburicoic acid produced by the sporophore may be used to synthesize steroids that play an important role in human health.
A useful tool for studying the structures of heterosaccharide chains has been isolated from this mushroom in a highly purified form.
One study suggests inhibition of thrombin formation. In fact, it showed a forty-four-fold inhibition over controls.
Sulphur shelf is unique in that it has the advantage of being almost free of alpha-man-nosidase activity.
Lovy et al. (1999) looked at the mushroom and demonstrated activity against human T4 leukemia cells, as well as Plasmodium falciparum. Another study found the mycelium strongly antagonistic to Staphylococcus aureus and moderately effective against Bacillus subtilis.
Further work has noted mushroom cultures destroy E. coli upon contact.
The mycelium shows strong activity against Serratia marcescens, which is a major source of urinary tract infection in those suffering cystic fibrosis, as well as cuts and burns. This bacterium also causes septicemia and respiratory disease, especially in immune-compromised patients.
Above: Laetiporus sulphureus. Right and below: Laetiporus conifericola. (photo credits 1.89)
Submerged cultures show a wide range of antibacterial activity against both gram-negative and gram-positive organisms. This includes methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), a growing concern related to previous overuse of antibiotics. Maximal antimicrobial activity was reached after one week of growth (Ershova et al. 2003).
Dehydrotrametenolic acid acts as an insulin sensitizer in glucose tolerance tests and reduces high blood sugar in mice with non-insulin-dependent diabetes (Sato, M. et al. 2002).
Kazuko Yoshikawa et al. (2001) found some compounds in L. sulphureus var. miniatus cytotoxic against Kato III cells.
Work in Slovenia by Slane et al. (2004) found chicken of the woods exhibited lipase-inhibitory activity of 83 percent.
Lanostanoid triterpenes have been found to induce apoptosis in HL-60 human myeloid leukemia cells (Leon et al. 2004).
Extracts were found active against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors (Mlinaric et al. 2005).
Beauvericin has shown antimicrobial activity.
Chicken of the woods contains alkaloids similar to those found in psychoactive plants like kava kava, as well as sulphurenic acid, trigonel-line, and homarine.
The fruiting body contains 15alpha hydroxytrametenolic acid, as well as sulphurenic acid. Both show dopamine D2 receptor agonist activity.
It has been used to induce strong tryptamine-like hallucination in at least one clinical documented case (Appleton et al. 1988).
It contains twenty-six volatiles such as 3-methyl cinnamaldehyde, 2 phenylethanol, benzaldehyde, and N-phenylethyl formamide.
Wunch et al. (1997) found the extracellular filtrate of this mushroom decolorized 68 percent of polymeric R-478 dye.
Sack et al. (1997) found mineralization of phenanthrene and pyrene compounds. Trametes versicolor was shown to be a better degrader but what else is new!
Sulphur shelf was a source of yellow cloth dyeing in nineteenth-century France.
The older sporophore is burned to drive off mosquitoes and black flies.
(NORTHERN ROUGH STEM)
(REDCAP)
L. insigne
(ASPEN ROUGH STEM)
L. ochraceum
(OCHRE ROUGH STEM)
L. aurantiacum
(ORANGE BOLETE)
L. scabrum
(BIRCH BOLETE)
Clockwise from above: Leccinum fibrillosum; Leccinum insigne; Leccinum boreale; Leccinum holopus; Leccinum ochraceum. (photo credits 1.90)
The foray was planned to find Leccinum
Through poplar we walked just to find ’em
The mushrooms we brought back
Were cooked up, turned black
But so delicious we again went to find some.
—RDR
Northern rough stem or redcap has been chosen as Alberta’s provincial mushroom. Starting in 2003, the Edmonton Mycological Society began a series of consultations and nominations for a fungal emblem. After due process, three mushrooms were selected for the final vote: redcap, oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus), and comb’s tooth (Hericium ramosum). All were worthy nominees, but I am pleased that the regional and distinct redcap was the overall winner. The process for official designation is now underway, and Alberta will soon be the first province in Canada with an official mushroom.
The Leccinum genus was a popular substitute for the edible bolete by eastern European immigrants. The Boletus contain pulvinic acids that turn the flesh blue upon exposure to oxygen, while the caffeic and gallic acids in Leccinum turn a black color. My Polish in-laws, Joe and Olga Szott, grew up near Daysland and in their younger years lived on redcaps summer after summer. When I find a large patch, I send a big box to them by Greyhound, for they really do enjoy the mushroom. They refer to them as kozoki.
There can be individual sensitivity to the cooked mushroom, or development of gastrointestinal distress after consumption over extended periods of time. Some find it best to avoid alcohol when consuming them.
Consumption of even well cooked orange cap found under poplar in Colorado has led to some stomach distress, so caution is advised.
As agriculture has become more intense, and the widespread use of fungicides and pesticides more prevalent, their populations have diminished.
Martin Osis notes that L. boreale slowly turns light pink to purple-gray after cutting, and has no green tinge. Aspen rough stem (L. insigne) has a green tinge around the base of the stalk, and quickly turns mauve or gray upon cutting.
Orange bolete: 314 milligrams of potassium, thirty milligrams of calcium, and nine milligrams of magnesium per hundred grams.
L. scabrum: 740 micrograms manganese per hundred grams.
Gzogian et al. (2005) found high activity of trypsin inhibitors detected in L. aurantiacum.
Lentinus edodes
Tricholomopsis edodes
Cortinellus edodes
C. shiitake
Armillaria edodes
(SHIITAKE)
As they talk, I dream. I am clearing out my clothes and scrubbing my closet as I have never scrubbed it before. I prepare my agar medium of potato dextrose and malt extract, add a dash of alfalfa and pea rinds, and transfer my sterile spores. In days, beautiful, cottony white mycelia appear in my Petri dish. I am scouring the woods for logs, dragging them home and drilling them with holes. Then I plug them with shiitake spawn, and before I can say Lentinus edodes, trees filled with shiitake are crowding my backyard. I am queen of the shiitake forest.
—FRIEDMAN
Lentinus is from lent meaning “pliable” or “supple” and inus for “resembling,” due to the malleable nature of the fruiting body. Edodes means “edible.” Shiitake is derived from its relationship with the shiia tree, a Japanese evergreen oak, thus “the oak mushroom.”
In China, it is called shaingugu or hsiang ku meaning fragrant mushroom. It is that as well!
The former genus name, Lentinus, led over-zealous bureaucrats to ban the mushroom from cultivation in North America until 1972. See Lentinus lepideus below.
I love eating shiitakes! Other people obviously enjoy them as well, for it is the second most common mushroom consumed in the world after the button (Agaricus). Around 200 AD, the Emperor Chuai was offered, it is believed, shiitake mushrooms by the Kyusuyu, the original aboriginals of Japan.
Shiitake has been cultivated in China since the Song Dynasty in 1100 AD. A woodcutter named Wu San Kwung cut into a log with shiitake and later noticed the mushrooms growing where his ax had struck. This was the beginning of log cultivation, and today his name lives on in festivals and temples throughout the Zhejiang province.
Dried Lentinula edodes
Today, numerous farmers are engaged in shiitake production in China. In 2002, the total production of fresh shiitake topped two million tons. Japan produces more than a billion dollars’ worth annually with some 200,000 people employed in the industry.
The United States currently produces about five million pounds annually.
The spicy smell of shiitake is attributed in large part to the content of 1,2,4-trithiolane.
In Japan, there are two general types of shiitake. Donko is a round, thick-fleshed, partially opened cap, while koshin has thinner flesh and an open cap. The former is more highly prized for medicinal value, due in part to the retention of spores.
Be warned that like other mushrooms, shiitakes should be cooked prior to consumption. One case involving daily consumption over a two-week period led to allergic contact dermatitis (Kopp et al. 2009).
Shiitake does not lose its medicinal benefit when cooked at temperatures up to 392 degrees Fahrenheit (200 degrees Celsius).
Shiitake may be eaten sautéed or dried and reconstituted. It may be made into tea by pouring boiled water over the dried, minced caps or by adding dried powder to water and boiling it over low heat until reduced by half.
Fresh shiitake and button (Agaricus bisporus) mushrooms in glycerine are used in facial masks for their ability to reduce thread veins.
I have not tried growing them in Alberta, but my colleague and fellow researcher Gordon Steinrath has grown shiitake successfully on alder in British Columbia. They can be grown, with lower yields, on birch logs stacked above ground. Logs must be freshly cut and stacked, with mycelium plugs or sawdust spawn sealed with cheese wax. Newer sawdust plug spawn has a Styrofoam backing and is self-sealing. Both work fine. The logs need moisture and should be watered once a week if nature does not provide timely rains. A number of companies in Scotland utilize birch for shiitake cultivation. Oak is their wood of choice.
Considering the importance of the mushroom, it would be worth running some outdoor trials on various hardwood trees. Shiitake can be easily grown indoors, of course, but I love the idea of picking the fruiting bodies from dead and dying trees during a woodlot walk.
Shiitake, as selected strains, may be cultivated on wheat straw, with best results on sterilized straw at 250 degrees Fahrenheit (121 degrees Celsius) (Mata et al. 2001). It also grows well on vineyard prunings, and fits in well with mycotourism in the Pacific Northwest.
The addition of 0.6 percent calcium carbonate to the substrate produced more consistent yields (Royse et al. 2003).
Shiitake grown on a medium contain L-arabinose as a source of carbon and L-asparagine as a source of nitrogen (9.5-12:1) on days fifteen to eighteen of culturing at pH eight to nine was found optimal for production of lectins.
Paul Stamets has shown that shiitake grown and dried indoors contains only 110 international units of vitamin D per hundred grams, but the same strain grown under diffuse light and sun-dried with gills up increased to 46,000 international units. This is an astounding discovery! Mau and Tseng (1998) noted modest two- to three-fold increases in vitamin D2 and ergosterol content after exposure to UVB radiation.
Earlier work found a five- to seven-fold increase in shiitake cultivated outdoors, compared to those grown indoors. Higher D2 levels were found in those harvested on sunny, as compared to cloudy, days.
Shiitake has been used in traditional Chinese and Japanese Kampo medicine for centuries to increase stamina and circulation and help to alleviate arthritis, diabetes, high blood cholesterol, and immune deficiency.
The dried powder and purified polysaccharides help stimulate the immune system.
Twelve different polysaccharides, lentinan, LEM (heteroglucan protein) from mycelia, lignins, KS-2 (alpha mannan peptide) glycoproteins, eritadenine, methyl sulphide, ergosterol, ergocalciferol, 33 percent protein, 47 percent complex carbohydrates, sugars including xylose and arabinose, B12, and thirty-seven enzymes. The molecular structure of lentinan sugars forms a helix that resembles the helix of DNA.
Mycelium: peptide mannans, double stranded RNA, eritadenine, c-AMP modulating endocrines, phyto-hemaglutinine, guanile monophosphate, and ergosterol.
Lentinan is a beta-1, 3-D-glucan that activates the lymphokine activated killer and natural killer cells of the immune system to combat various cancers. It reduces prostaglandins responsible for creating inflammation that would prevent T-cell maturation.
It is medically approved in Japan for the treatment of gastric cancers.
Lentinan is widely used in Japan for breast cancer in women who have had mastectomies without radiation follow-up. When chemotherapy is used, lentinan given prior to treatment prevents further immune system damage.
In one study of sixteen patients with advanced cancer, lentinan was injected directly into tumors. All of the patients died, like the control group, but they lived an average of 129 days, compared to forty-nine days for those given drugs only (Oka 1992).
When shiitake is formed into micelles, it increases lymphocyte proliferation by 40 percent.
Shiitake cultivated on alder logs
An open-label study of sixty-two men with prostate cancer and elevated PSA levels given shiitake extract found no change in their status, suggesting other mushrooms are of greater benefit in this particular disease.
A randomized study of eighty-nine stomach cancer patients showed median survival time of 189 days with chemotherapy and lentinan, compared to only 109 days with chemotherapy alone.
A polysaccharide preparation administered intraperitoneal was found ten times more effective against sarcoma 180 cancer cells than mitocyin C.
Lentinan has been found active against both lung cancer and melanoma.
Work appears to confirm the cytostatic and immune-modulating properties of shiitake, especially around direct inhibition of human breast cancer cells. This work involved water extracts.
One study found lentinan fed to lab mice for seven days before tumor invasion showed a 94.4 percent rate of inhibition.
Lentinan was given to three patients with Mycobacterium tuberculinum resistant to drugs. When given by injection, the levels of opsonin toward the bacilli were so greatly elevated that excretion ceased in one patient, followed by great improvement. Resistance to both tuberculosis and Listeria monocytogenes was noted in this work.
A study looked at lentinan’s effect on twenty-nine bacteria and ten pathogenic fungi. The extracts were 85 percent effective, including 50 percent effective against yeast and mold (Hearst et al. 2009).
A more recent study found intranasal administration of lentinan increased production of alveolar macrophages in the presence of Mycobacterium tuberulinum.
Polysaccharides in the mushroom help enhance production of interferon, which reduces blood vessel overgrowth in conditions such as macular degeneration of the eyes.
A polysaccharide, L-II, isolated from the fruiting body showed significant decrease in sarcoma 180, as well as phagocytosis of macrophage, increased TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma, increased NO production and catalase activity.
Eritadenine (lentinacin) helps lower total cholesterol, triglyceride, and phospholipids levels. In one human study, three hundred milligrams per day of eritadenine for seven days decreased bile cholesterol content in choledochostomy patients, while the total bile acid concentration, especially of deoxycholic acid, was increased.
A diet composed of 5 percent eritadenine decreased blood pressure in hypertensive rats, probably due to water-soluble oligosaccharides and content of tyrosinase.
Enman et al. identified shiitake strains with up to ten times the levels of eritadenine, suggesting the use of dried concentrates for therapeutic benefit in removal of blood cholesterol (Enman et al. 2007). This is in contrast to statin drugs that inhibit biosynethesis of cholesterol in the liver.
Follow-up work found eritadenine in submerged mycelial growth, making commercial propagation viable (Enman et al. 2008).
Both eriadenine and ethanolamine showed marked hypocholesterolemic effects (Shimada, Y. et al. 2003).
Shiitake may be of benefit in treating colitis. Shuvy et al. (2008) looked at the mushroom’s benefit in liver-mediated immune regulation. This mice study found oral ingestion of fruiting body extracts altered NRT lymphocyte distribution and increased intrahepatic CD8 (+)T lymphocyte trapping, leading to alleviation of immune-mediated colitis.
Fractions from shiitake, enoki, matsutake and hen of the woods have shown in lab studies the ability to inhibit conversion of stem cells into adipocytes, suggesting an anti-fat influence (Ohtsuru et al. 2000).
Eritadenine has been found active against the influenza virus in mice.
Macrophage activation by the high molecular weight glycoproteins from the mycelia was found to suppress liver cancer formation (Sugano et al. 1982).
A freeze-dried extract of mycelia was given to an AIDS patient with HIV antibodies. After two months, the T4 cell count doubled and symptoms were alleviated.
Water-soluble extracts inhibit the herpes virus both in vitro and in vivo. Lignins known as EP3 and EPS4 inhibit herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 and western equine encephalitis virus, and partially inhibit the effects of polio, measles, and mumps viruses (Sorimachi et al. 1990).
Cell-free extracts from liquid fermentation of the mycelium inhibited the growth of Candida albicans, Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus megaterium (Hatvani 2001).
Even the mushroom juice inhibits pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms. A study showed the juice of shiitake had pronounced effect on C. albicans, S. aureus, E. coli, and E. faecalis. Both lactobacteria and bifidobacteria, the healthy intestinal bacteria, were unaffected.
In fact, water extracts of L. edodes demonstrate growth-enhancing effects on both L. brevis and B. breve due to the disaccharide sugar, trehalose.
Work by Bae et al. (1997) suggests that the extracts can reduce the harmful effects of bacterial enzymes such as beta glucosidase, beta glucuronidase, and trytophanase, as well as reduce colon cancer formation.
Ethanol extracts of the mycelium possess anti-protozoal activity against Paramecium caudatum. An alcohol extract of the mycelium known as KS-2 has been found to induce the body’s own production of interferon and stimulates macrophages to kill tumor cells.
Another study indicates that lentinan may potentiate resistance to Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Listeria monocytogenes, and Streptococcus pneumoniae (Chihara 1983).
In vitro studies suggest antifungal activity against Trichophyton species (Takazawa et al. 1982).
Sia and Candlish (1999) demonstrated that mushroom extracts enhance production of white blood cells and phagocytosis.
LEM, or Lentinula edodes mycelium, is a protein-bound polysaccharide that has been shown to inhibit HIV infection of cultured human T-cells and potentiate the effect of AZT against viral replication. In a phase II study, 107 HIV-positive patients were treated with didanosin for six weeks. After this time, eighty-eight patients were given two milligrams of lentinan per week intravenously, while the control group was given only the drug. The combined treatment significantly increased CD4+ cells after thirty-eight weeks compared to the control.
Lentinan has been found effective in increasing T-cell production when given at low doses, but at increased amounts, patients show lower T-cell counts.
A lignin-rich fraction from LEM called JLS-18 has been found to possess seventy times the antiviral activity of LEM itself.
EP3 is lignin that shows high activity against HIV in the lab. It reduced replication by 90 percent and completely inhibited the toxic effect of HIV to T-cells. Herpes simplex I and II and western equine encephalitis virus were also completely inhibited. Partial inhibition of mumps, measles, and polio viruses was observed.
In one randomized, controlled trial, 275 patients with advanced or recurrent stomach cancer were given chemotherapy with or without lentinan. The best results were found when the mushroom extract was administered before chemotherapy and in those without prior chemotherapy.
A monosaccharide derived from the mycelium of several Basidiomycete mushrooms, including shiitake, cultivated in a fermentation tank is known as Active Hexose Correlated Compound, or AHCC. After a series of steps and freeze-drying, a product with an exceptionally low molecular weight of five thousand daltons is produced. The active nutrient is acetylated beta-glucan, which enhances the immune system. More than seven hundred hospitals in Japan use it as part of protocols associated with chemotherapy to reduce hospital infections and support against the formation of abnormal cells. More than eighty research studies have been conducted. It appears to stimulate macrophages as well as increasing their numbers. This leads to increased production of cytokines like IL-12 and TNF, LAK and CTL cells directly, and interferon indirectly.
Animal research suggests it may be more effective at enhancing IL-12 levels in Th-1 dominant individuals.
A prospective cohort study with AHCC from February 1992 to January 2002, was conducted on 269 patients with hepatocellular carcinoma with some on placebo and others on the drug. Survival rate was 79 percent for the AHCC group and 51 percent for the control group.
Another study involved 229 patients with gastrointestinal cancer. All patients received chemotherapy and 127 were additionally given AHCC. After twenty-seven months, survival rate for the AHCC group was 66.7 percent and only 35 percent for the control group. After ten months, AHCC survival rate was 89.9 percent and for the control group was 55.9 percent. Other work suggests that a combination of the drug UFT and AHCC enhanced NK cell activity, whereas the drug alone suppressed it (Matsushita et al. 1998).
A recent study at Yale on adults over fifty years of age measured two cytokine levels, interferon and TNF, before and after administrating AHCC orally for sixty days. White blood cell counts were elevated after four weeks and continued for the same period after stopping the supplement.
A study of fourteen human subjects given nine grams of AHCC for two weeks, well above normal doses, showed high tolerance by 85 percent with some bloating, diarrhea, and nausea.
A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of ten humans taking three grams daily for four weeks found improvement in a number of immune markers. These include circulating dendritic cells and clusters of differentiation and allogeneic mixed leukocyte reaction, with no change in NK cell activity and the proliferative response of T-lymphocytes toward mitogen (Terakawa et al. 2008).
It has been found to have positive influence on influenza, avian flu virus (H5N1), West Nile virus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
Ethanol extracts of shiitake significantly decreased cell proliferation of skin carcinoma cells and induced apoptosis but did not affect normal cells. Extracts from the mycelia of maitake, reishi, and hericium showed no such activity (Gu and Belury 2005).
Work by Badalyan and Sisakyan (2007) found mycelium an active anti-protozoal agent against Paramecium candatum. Wound healing also improved.
Shiitake glycoprotein from the submerged mycelium reveals hypoglycemic effect in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Byung-Keun Yang et al. (2002) found the compound lowered blood glucose by 21 percent and increased insulin by 22 percent compared to a control group. It also lowered cholesterol by 25 percent and triglyceride levels by 44 percent.
Shiitake shows higher anti-complementary activity than krestin from Trametes versicolor, and more potent anti-complementary activity than reishi, cordyceps, and Agaricus campestris.
A use for shiitake has not yet been recorded in the Repertories, but several provings have been conducted in India, New Zealand, and Sweden; these have found that it may be used for heavy and sore neck and shoulders, lack of taking responsibility, being pulled in all directions at once, hiding of identity, and the sensation of separation from self.
Physical symptoms include thirst and upward drawing sensation in brain and genitals. The face feels oily or extremely dry and itchy.
Dose: 30C. Provings were conducted by Chetna Shukla in India, Pratibha Dalvi in New Zealand, and Frans Vermeulen in Sweden on a total of fourteen patients, all but one of them female.
An essential oil may be obtained from the mushroom. It contains lenthionine, a sulphur-based compound that has been found to inhibit platelet aggregation (Shimada, S. et al. 2004).
Shiitake essence is for protection against insecurities and will help to ensure a feeling of security and stabilize inconsistent actions. It is an immune regulator, antiviral, and for liver, colds, and flu.
—SILVERCORD
Shiitake essence is for feeling insecure about changes in life, leading to procrastination and resistance. It is also for discomfort in the feet, ankles, calves, spine, and back. It helps you to become more independent and adaptable.
—PETIT FLEUR
Shiitake secretes enzymes that help break down PCBs, PAHs, and PCPs, all very toxic chemicals. The mycelium has been found to help remove heavy metals and industrial dyes from waterways.
Paul Stamets has used spent sawdust blocks in burlap sacks for mycoremediation. After saturation with toxic effluent and microbial contamination, the burlap sacks often sprout, leading to possibilities for mycofiltration of farm and chemicals waterways.
Spent shiitake compost showed the highest enzyme activity in alpha amylase (229 nanokatals per gram), cellulase (759 nanokatals per gram), and beta glucosidase (767 nanokatals per gram) (Ko, H. G. et al. 2005b).
Oyster mushroom showed the highest laccase activity at 1452 nanokatals per gram, and Flammulina velutipes the highest xylanase activity at 119 nanokatals per gram.
One study suggests that manganese peroxidase is mainly responsible for its ability to decolorize synthetic dyes. Hatvani and Mecs (2003) showed the applicability of shiitake in myco-absorption technologies to remove toxic metals from contaminated effluents and in mycoremediation technologies designed to treat complex wastes contaminated with heavy metals and other xenobiotics.
Charles Lee (2005), an ARS scientist at Albany, California, has determined the structure of Xyn11A, a gene instruction for the formation of xylanase, from shiitake. This work has application for biofuel production.
The spent sawdust culture metabolized pentachlorophenol in soil. This activity was markedly enhanced by adding hydrogen peroxide.
PCP is transformed by substrate culture of fungi (Okeke et al. 1997). In soil, Delor 106 was degraded by 24 percent after six weeks.
Shiitake removed 73 percent of color of effluent in five days without an additional carbon source, and when pre-irradiated for ten minutes in the presence of photocatalyst, ZnO and then fungi treatment, effective decolorization resulted in forty-eight hours (Duran et al. 1994).
The laccase of L. edodes immobilized on chitosan by absorption and cross-linking with glutarldehyde, eliminated total phenols by 67 percent after twenty-four hours (D’Annibale et al. 1999).
Shiitake extracts containing about 10 percent ergosterol are used in the cosmetic industry for cell regeneration, wound healing, and skin firming products.
Wasser and Weis (1999) found a protein fraction of the fruiting bodies prevents infection of plants with tobacco mosaic virus.
Dried powder: six to sixteen grams daily.
Capsule: 400 milligrams three times per day.
Lentinula edodes mycelium (LEM): two to six grams total in three doses.
Lentinan: one to five milligrams injected intravenously or intramuscularly twice weekly. It may decrease metabolism of drugs via the cytochrome P450 system and may act as a vitamin B6 antagonist, in theory. Its safety in pregnancy is unknown as mice studies showed increased spleen weight and weight gain, but normal offspring weight at birth.
Patients on blood thinners should use with caution due to anti-clotting effects of the mushroom. Minor allergies have been noted in advanced cancer patients.
The tougher stems are best decocted and the liquid used in soups, stews, and the like They should not be thrown away as they contain the polysaccharides and other useful compounds. Maximum recovery of polysaccharides is obtained at 10.1 megapascals for seventy minutes at twenty-eight degrees Celsius (82.4 degrees Fahrenheit) (Lo, T. et al. 2007).
Decocting the fresh or dried mushroom for six to eight minutes releases TCA, or thioproline. This is a natural antioxidant found mainly in the liver. Its duty is to neutralize the cancer-making potential of nitrates and nitrites, found in prepared meats like bacon. It also protects against acetominophen, tetracycline, and alcohol toxicity. If the mushrooms are cooked with foods high in cysteine, such as chicken livers, the amount of TCA increases exponentially.
Neolentinus lepideus
(TRAIN WRECKER)
(SCALY LENTINUS)
L. ponderosus
N. ponderosus
(PONDEROSA LENTINUS)
(LARGE LENTINUS)
L. cochleatus
Lentinellus cochleatus
(COCKLESHELL LENTINUS)
(ANISEED COCKLESHELL)
L. ursinus
(BEAR LENTINUS)
L. vulpinus
(FOX LENTINUS)
L. strigosus (see Panellus serotinus)
Lentinus means “pliable,” from the Latin. Lepideus is from the Greek, meaning “scaly.” Neo means “new,” and strigosus means “hairy.” Cochleatus is “cochlea,” a snail-like shape. Ursinus means “bear.” Ponderosus is Latin for “heavy.”
Train wrecker is so named because it grows on dead wood, whether from a windfall, telephone pole, or railway tie. It is commonly found on dead conifers and hardwoods.
They last for a long time, seeming to dry in place rather than decay over time.
It is a chewy, edible mushroom when young, with a distinct anise odor.
Some name confusion comes about from the belief that mushrooms are not able to cause both white and brown rot. For those species that cause brown rot, mycologists created the genus Neolentinus.
Lentinus was the former genus name for the famous shiitake mushroom. The USDA quarantined shiitake for most of the twentieth century based on the mistaken belief that its activity against railroad ties was similar to Lentinus. The ban was lifted in 1972, showing the desperate depths to which bureaucracy, mycophobia, and genus-centricity will sink.
Ponderosa Lentinus is frequently found on ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine in the Rocky Mountains. It has a white spore print, decurrent gills, and a scaly cap.
Lentinus lepideus (photo credits 1.93)
Lentinellus vulpinus.
It has a cinnamon odor similar to matsutake or pine mushroom, but is found on decayed or fallen wood. Lentinus and Lentinellus species are easily identified due to their characteristic saw-toothed gill edges.
This mushroom is collected and prized by various First Nations healers. It is used for tuberculosis and various cancers.
L. lepideus: eburicoic acid, proteoglycan (PG101), and lepidepyrone.
L. cochleatus: deoxylactarorufin A, and blennin A and C.
L. adhaereus: 2-methoxy-5-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone
L. ursinus: isovelleral and lentinellic acid.
Trainwrecker contains eburicoic acid, which may be used in synthesizing steroid drugs and other compounds.
Such steroids play an important role in the regulation of the human body.
Ehrlich carcinoma was reduced by 70 percent in a study of the mushroom’s anticancer activity. Sarcoma 180 was inhibited by only 50 percent, but significant nonetheless (Gregory et al. 1966).
A water-soluble extract of the fungus, PG101, has great potential as an immune enhancer during radiation and chemotherapy. M. Jin et al. (2003) showed that levels of TNF-alpha were elevated in control mice but maintained in the orally treated animals. This suggests it might suppress TNF-alpha related to pathological conditions. The compound increased the levels of IL-1B, IL-6, and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor over the twenty-four-day period. It significantly reduced level of TNF-alpha, which increases due to tissue injury and anemia caused by radiation. This suggests great potential for immune-compromised or immune-suppressed patients whose bone marrow systems are damaged.
Back in 1996, the same research team identified this proteoglycan as stimulating B-cell proliferation (Jin, M. et al. 1996).
Lepidepyrone, derived from cultivated mycelium, has been found to inhibit hyaluronidase (Hosoe et al. 2007).
Submerged mycelium extracts of ponderosa Lentinus show considerable hypoglycemic effect in STZ-induced diabetic rats (Yamac et al. 2008).
The related L. cochleatus appears like a yellow-red oyster mushroom with white-pink gills. It is white-spored and edible. It has a licorice-like odor.
It exhibits activity against Staphylococcus aureus, as does the related L. vulpinus.
Three sesquiterpenoids—deoxylactarorufin A and blennin A and C—are potent inhibitors of leukotriene biosynthesis in leukemia cells and human peripheral blood leukocytes. Lentinellone, a protoilludane derivative, has also been identified.
Methanol extracts show activity against E. coli and Bacillus subtilis, while dichlormethane extracts are active against these two bacteria, as well as fungicidal against Candida albicans and Cladosporium cucumerinum (Keller, C. et al. 2002).
The related L. adhaereus contains 2-methoxy-5-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone. In vitro studies suggest this compound reduces blood platelet binding. It is a thromboxane A2 receptor.
Work has found antitumor polysaccharides in L. cyathiformis.
The related bear Lentinus, L. ursinus, contains isovelleral, an anti-feedant compound.
Submerged culture reveals the presence of lentinellic acid, which shows antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity.
The hydrodistilled oil of L. cochleatus has a pleasant anise-like odor. It is composed of 23 percent p-anisaldehyde, 18 percent benzaldehyde, 18.2 percent methyl (E)-p-methoxycinnamate, 13.8 percent methyl p-anisate, 8.8 percent methyl (Z)-p-methoxycinnamate, and minor amounts of nonanal, decanal, 3-octanal, and 2-phenylethanal (Rapior et al. 2002).
In another study of the mushroom grown on a culture medium, the main constituents were trans-nerolidol, fokienol, and 6-formyl-2,2-dimethyl chromene.
Scaly Lentinus (L. lepideus) contains forty-three compounds including the two methoxycinnamates above, which explains the anise-cinnamon odor. It also contains nonanol, with a rotten citrus scent, germacrene D (buttery), 2-vinyl malonic acid (walnut), methylpropyl ester, and nonanoic acid (waxy cheese).
The related L. squarrosulus may be useful for mycoremediation of soil contaminated with engine oil and heavy metals. It is a useful genus indeed, despite the loss of its famous shiitake cousin.
Polyporus betulinus
L. ochraceus
L. variegata
(GILLED POLYPORE)
(BIRCH LENZITES)
L. gibbosa
Trametes gibbosa
P. gibbosus
Daedalea gibbosa
(LUMPY BRACKET)
Lenzites betulina
Lenzites is named after the nineteenth-century German botanist, H. O. Lenz. Betulina means “of birch.” The Japanese call it kaigaratake.
Gilled polypore is an oxymoron, like giant shrimp, dry ice, or friendly takeover.
At first glance, it may appear to be Trametes versicolor or T. hirsuta, and often appears with a green tinge due to algae growth. But again, it has gills, not pores. It is an annual polypore and yet has no tubes. It is very common on birch. The polypore can be easily grown on a medium of malt peptone agar with an admixture of beech or birch sawdust. They must be considered inedible, due to their woodiness.
Lumpy bracket is an introduced bracket polypore with distinct radial, elongated, slotted pores.
In traditional Chinese medicine, Lenzites is considered warming and supportive of the tendons and veins. It is said to dispel endogenous wind, resolve cold, and stimulate blood circulation.
It is a main ingredient of Tendon Easing Pills.
L. betulina: ergosterol peroxide and 9(11)-dehydroergosterol peroxide; betulinans A and B; ergosta-7,22-dien-3-ol; and fungisterol.
Water extracts of this fairly common birch polypore showed antitumor activity against sarcoma 180 in mice (Ikekawa et al. 1968).
Early work on polysaccharides derived from mycelium found inhibition against sarcoma 180 and Ehrlich carcinoma of 90 percent (Ohtsuka et al. 1973).
Ether and ethyl acetate extracts have been shown to provide significant cytotoxic effect against cervical and hepatoma cancer cell lines (Ren, G. et al. 2006).
Yamac and Bilgili (2006) found various forms of extracts from the fruiting body active against Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermis, and especially Bacillus subtilis.
Mycelium extracted with water showed activity against S. aureus and B. subtilis. The organic fraction was active only against the latter tested bacterium (Yamac and Bilgili 2006).
The mushroom is considered useful in cardiovascular disorders.
At the present time, the fungus is not marketed commercially for antitumor activity or cardiovascular support. In clinical trials, Fujimoto et al. (1994) showed immune-suppressive effect attributed to ergosterol peroxide and 9(11)-dehydroergosterol peroxide.
In-Kyoung Lee et al. (2002) at the Korean Research Institute isolated two benzoquinone compounds. They showed betulinans A and B to be lipid peroxidation inhibitors, with the former four times more effective as a free radical scavenger than vitamin E.
G. Ren et al. (2006) found extracts to be cytotoxic to cervical and hepatoma cancer cell lines.
The mycelium shows selective anti-proliferating and apoptosis-inducing activity against K562 cells and chronic myelogenous leukemia. An active fraction significantly inhibits the autophosphorylation of native and mutated bcr-abl, which are resistant to imatinib treatment including the T3151 mutation.
Imatinib mesylate is part of standard therapy for CML, but its efficacy decreases with advancement of the disease. This is a great discovery by Yassin et al. (2008).
Methanol extract shows mild inhibition of HIV reverse transcriptase activity (Mlinaric et al. 2005).
Polysaccharides from the fruiting body injected into the arteries of rats showed anti-inflammatory and vasoprotective activity (Czarnecki, R. and J. Grzybek 1995).
Birch polypore essence cleans and harmonizes the spirit on the emotional level. It calms down too high emotional activity and is well suited for meditation.
—MARIANA
Take one or two size “00” capsules twice per day.
A decoction is made at a one-to-two ratio with fruiting bodies, boiled for thirty minutes, and then cooled. Drink six to eight ounces two times a day.
These mushrooms make some of the best bracket fungi paper. Anna King and Roy Watling (1997) found that they make a soft, silky paper that takes printing ink very well. They are somewhat slow to break down in the blender or Vitamix, but eventually yield copious quantities of a rich, creamy pulp.
Although any polypore will produce paper, the trimitic types produce the best product.
Other conks in this category include Daedalea quercina, Fomes fomentarius, Ganoderma adsperum, G. applanatum, Trametes hirsuta, and T. versicolor.
Mariam Rice has published a definitive book on preparing mushroom paper.
Lepiota americanum
Leucoagaricus americana
L. bresadolae
L. badhamii
(AMERICAN PARASOL)
L. procera
Macrolepiota procera
(PARASOL MUSHROOM)
L. lutea
Leucocoprinus birnbaumii
L. caepestipes L. luteus
(YELLOW PARASOL)
Leucoagaricus leucothites
L. naucinus
Lepiota leucothites
L. naucinoides
L. naucina
(SMOOTH LEPIOTA)
L. clypeolaria
(SHAGGY STALKED PARASOL)
L. seminuda
L. sistrata
Cystolepiota seminuda
(LILLIPUTIAN LEPIOTA)
Lepiota means “scaly ear” from the Greek Lepis meaning “scaly,” as in leprosy. Procerus is Latin for “tall.” Caepestipes is from cepa for “onion” and stipes for “stem.” Clypeolaria means “pertaining to a shield.”
Many are poisonous and best left alone.
One of interest is the American parasol (L. americana) with its dark red to burgundy color. When bruised or cut, the flesh turns yellow or orange. It has a white spore print.
Parasol mushroom is one of our best edibles, with large, woolly, and scaly caps. They appear in large numbers in pastures, and on city lawns. The veil becomes a moveable ring that slides up and down the stem. A mature cap may smell faintly like maple syrup or fenugreek.
They cook up well on a barbecue and are delicious. The immature specimen is known as the drumstick. Coated with egg and breadcrumbs, the fried caps are similar to weiner schnitzel in texture and, some say, in taste. They can be sautéed and tempura-fried. The stems are tough, but can be finely chopped for a sauce or soup.
Parasol mushroom is quite high in chromium with some studies showing 0.09 milligrams per kilogram. It accumulates mercury up to 230 times, so caution is advised with regard to your picking site. It also accumulates copper, zinc, rubidium, selenium, and cobalt that play a role in human health.
Yellow parasol appeared one day in my giant Aloe vera that I had recently transplanted. It is bright yellow and appears quite often in greenhouses and flower pots.
Shaggy stalked parasol is commonly found under douglas fir in the Pacific Northwest. It should be avoided due to its poisonous nature.