Or to swamps where the usnea lichen hangs in festoons from the white spruce trees.
—HENRY DAVID THOREAU
Did you hear the one about the fungus and the algae? They took a lichen to each other.
Lichen is from the Greek leiko meaning “to lick” or “lick up,” in reference to the way the algae appears to lap its tongues all over the host. Lichen may also come from the Greek for “leprous, wart, or eruption,” because Dioscorides thought they resembled the skin of afflicted people and used the Doctrine of Signatures as an attempted cure. The French scientist Tournefort named them back in 1700 AD.
Usnea is from the Arabic ushna for “moss.” Bryoria is derived from Bryopogon and Alectoria, two classifications to which lichens were formerly assigned.
Lichens are a slow growing symbiotic combination of fungi and algae. As such, they do not completely resemble either group, but have their own beautiful and distinctive look. One lichenologist called lichens “fungi that have discovered agriculture” in reference to their supposed symbiotic relationship.
There are 42 percent lichenized, and 58 percent non-lichenized fungal species within Ascomycota (Lutzoni et al. 2001).
Lichen fossils have been discovered dating back to the Devonian period some four hundred million years ago.
For a long time, it was believed that the relationship was symbiotic. Many scientists now believe, following laboratory study, that the fungus is really a parasite. When lichens were experimentally separated in labs and grown apart, the algae grew more quickly and the fungus more slowly. However, when the two join forces, they can survive where neither would make it one its own. In fact, scientists could get them to rejoin only when conditions would not support them separately. Strange bedfellows indeed!
When this idea of two organisms living together was first proposed, it was considered quite radical.
Mordecai Cooke denounced this dualism as “unqualified romance, which a future generation will contemplate as fairy tales.”
The German Simon Schwendener wrote in 1869, “This fungus[‘s] … slaves are green algae, which it has sought out or indeed caught hold of, and compelled into its service. It surrounds them, as a spider its prey, with a fibrous net of narrow meshes, which is gradually converted into an impenetrable covering, but while the spider sucks its prey and leaves it dead, the fungus incites the algae found in its net to more rapid activity, even to more vigorous increase.”
The term helotism, suggesting a master-slave relationship, may best describe lichens, according to this ancient dictum. They are what they are, and we need to see them as whole organisms instead of succumbing to reductionist redundancy.
They have the ability to grow in the coldest, snow-free alpine and boreal forests, often growing less than a millimeter a year. Lichens have been found growing on rocks just 264 miles from the South Pole!
It is estimated that from thirteen thousand to fourteen thousand lichen species inhabit our planet.
Lichenographs, or printed illustrations, were first published in 1480. Linnaeus was not keen on lichens and called them rustici pauperrimi, or “the poor trash of vegetation.”
Medicinal use of Evernia furfuracea has been traced back to 1800 BC.
A thriving brandy-making industry in Sweden and Russia went bankrupt in the nineteenth century when the lichen supply was exhausted. One kilogram of lichen was needed to produce one-half liter of alcohol.
In France, today, lichens are used in the production of chocolates, using the lichen as a filler and substitute for starch.
After all, lichen fiber is composed mainly of mannose, galactose, and glucose, with each species having different make-ups. Cetraria and Alectoria species, for example, contain significantly more glucose than Cladina and Stereocaulon species, which in turn contain much more mannose and galactose.
This higher glucose level is reflected in higher lichenan content, making these species more than 50 percent soluble in water, while Cladina fiber is less than 5 percent soluble.
Aspicilia esculenta, which is closely related to A. cinerea and A. caesiocinerea, is believed by some scholars to be the manna mentioned in Exodus 16:31 of the Bible. The lichen forms small, round, pebble-like growths that are easily disturbed and blown around by the wind. They swell in morning dew, and they are edible.
Iwatake (Umbilicaria esculenta or Gyrophora esculenta), also known as stone mushroom, is collected in the mountains of Japan and exported to China as a luxury item. Properly prepared, it resembles tripe. The bitter constituents are neutralized by soda ash to lessen stomach irritation. The blacker the lichen, the lower the concentration of usnic acid, which causes irritation.
With two notable exceptions, lichens are not poisonous. You must be wary of the bright yellow big, bad wolf lichen (Letharia vulpina) and the lemon-yellow powdered sunshine lichen (Vulpicida pinastri). These lichens contain pinastric and vulpinic acid, both extremely poisonous. These compounds, combined with ground glass, nails, and Nux vomica, have been used to kill wolves. The Achomawai of northern California soaked their arrowheads in the wet lichen for an entire year, sometimes combined with rattlesnake venom, to make the tips poisonous to game.
Be careful when collecting L. vulpina as it can cause severe respiratory irritation and nosebleeds in closed environments.
Letharia vulpina
The lichens were often assigned medicinal properties based on the ancient doctrine of signatures. A lichen resembling lungs was used for respiratory complaints, for example.
Unidentified black lichen known to the Paiute as kawa siin, or “packrat urine,” was scraped off rocks and boiled as liquor for treating venereal disease.
Highly prized as a treatment for epilepsy in medieval Europe were lichens that grew on human skulls. The demand was so heavy and profitable for this “heady” medicine (mucus cranii humani) that collectors devised methods to paste the skull and cultivate lichens.
The Okanagan Colville boiled it on occasions with Oregon grape bark as a yellow dye. Both the Okanagan Colville and neighboring Blackfoot used Letharia vulpina and Vulpicida pinastri externally to treat skin problems; the latter for warts and eczema after blackened in fire.
The Paiute of western Nevada recognized the yellow and orange lichens for their antibacterial and antifungal properties. They called them lizard semen, in reference to the little pushups that western fence lizards do on rocks.
The Pima and Maricopa of the southwestern United States sprinkled gray colored lichen on cuts and sores, such as rattlesnake bites.
The Waorani of Ecuador use a species of Dictyonema as a hallucinogen.
One as yet unidentified lichen that grows like thick, yellow-green paint on boulders of the Rockies is used by natives as a narcotic. Wild bighorn sheep, especially young ewes, also enjoy a nibble, grinding their teeth to the gums to scrape it off the rocks. It grows slowly, taking more than a century to spread over one square inch of rock. It is a pioneer plant, growing where other plants offer no competition. I suspect it is a Lecanora species. Sheep in the deserts of Libya chew the lichen L. esculenta to the point of tooth loss from abrasion.
The Pima and Maricopa of the southwestern United States used gray colored lichen on rocks and dead wood with a strong violet odor. They called it earth flower, and mixed it with tobacco as a hallucinogen, as well as to attract women and luck.
Caution: all lichens have the tendency to mold if not handled properly. The resulting mold can cause bronchial or dermal irritation or allergies.
During World War II, both the Germans and Americans investigated lichens for antibiotic potential, and found that more than 50 percent of the species tested showed such activity. More than seven hundred secondary lichen substances have been identified, with new compounds being discovered all the time.
Aromatic compounds such as depsides, depsidones, and unusual carotenoids are unique to the lichens.
Studies out of India have shown species of Lepraria to exhibit hypotensive, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic, and neuromuscular-junction-blocking activity. Further studies could be carried out on Lepraria species in our region of the world.
Moo Sung Kim et al. (2006) found that lichens possess anti-thrombotic properties due to anti-platelet activity. The same author identified the ability to reduce melanin in human melanoma cells and inhibit tyrosinase glycosylation (Kim, M. S. et al. 2007).
Two of the very few organic chlorine-containing substances occurring in nature—gangaleoidin and diploiein—have been isolated from lichens.
Rhizocarpic acid and various depsidones found in various lichens are active against methicillin resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus. Kokubun et al. (2007a) found hybocarpine the most active compound.
All lichens will give up a certain percentage of essential oils. Certain varieties like the oakmoss lichen (Evernia prunastri) have been used in Europe for centuries by the perfume industry as fixatives and bass notes. It was shipped from Cyprus and Greece to Egypt for packing embalmed mummies.
Solvent extractions of spruce moss have been used for perfume since the sixteenth century.
West of the Rockies, E. prunastri is quite prominent, and a good source of perfume fixatives. I have also seen it in Nova Scotia. About nine thousand tons are still shipped from Macedonia to France today to produce oakmoss absolute. It is often mixed with Pseudoevernia furfuracea, which is more aromatic but inferior as a perfume fixative. This lichen is not found in North America.
Dr. Schweinfurth, traveling through the Nile Valley in 1864, found a scrap of Evernia furfuracea in a vase of the eighteenth Dynasty (1700 BC). It does not grow in that country, so it was procured through trade.
Over the centuries, certain lichens have been dried and powdered for the white powdered wigs of aristocrats and to repel lice. Lichen extracts are also found in soups and deodorants, due in part to their antibacterial activity, which, in turn, helps reduce underarm odor.
It has been used to dye wool a violet color when treated with urine or ammonia. It is slow growing, only about two millimeters a year, so do not over-harvest.
Lichen dyes: wool (above and below) and horse hair (right).
Iceland moss has been distilled and yields 0.051 percent of a brownish oil from which unidentified crystals separate upon standing. It contains cetrarine, a phenol-ketone.
Lungwort (Lobaria pulmonaria) makes a fine perfume by alcohol extraction.
Diluted lichen absolutes can be rubbed into the forehead and over sinus area for pain relief.
Some lichens such as Sticta fulgininosa have an oceanic or fishy smell, not appreciated by all, but prized by perfumists and aromatherapists.
Considering the vast expanses of raw material available, there are great possibilities for creating viable business opportunities.
Lichens possess the ability to retain scent, and are used extensively in potpourri for this purpose.
I have always felt lichens spoke to the essence of unconditional love. They consist of two unrelated living entities, a fungus and an algae, dependent on each other for nourishment, protection and habitat.… Their biological systems become so intermingled that they act as a single living entity we call a lichen. When speaking botanically this is pure symbiosis, in human terms could it not be unconditional love?
—K. KEANE
Usnea’s keyword is clairvoyance. Usnea gives one trust in their higher consciousness. Usnea supports all the extrasensory perceptions and heightens any kind of clairvoyance.
—MULDERS
Lichens, especially usnea, are more susceptible to damage from sulphur dioxide than other plants and are, therefore, good monitors of air quality. Researchers from Italy, in a 1997 article in Nature, suggest a strong inverse correlation between lichen biodiversity and lung cancer.
The lichen, Hypogymnia physodes, is the most tolerant macro-lichen to sulphur dioxide pollution, and will incorporate it into cellular tissue, as a measure of toxicity in the area.
Lichens are resistant to radiation, and in one experiment they survived a thousand rads per day for nearly two years from a distance of eight meters—and they continued to grow. To put that fact into context, a single exposure of four hundred rads will kill a human. The potential use of lichens as bio-indicators of radionuclides is very high.
Tanning, perfumery, and even powdered wigs relied on lichens.
Aromatic lichen acids, such as atranorin, absorb ultra-violet rays and several are able to protect photosensitive human skin. Atranorin is the most frequently involved.
The Cree of northern Canada used Dicranum lichen for lamp wicks. Other lichens, such as the snow bed Iceland, were simply used as hot burning tinder.
Natives of northern Canada incorporated both Alectoria and Bryoria into clothing. They were interwoven with cedar or silverberry bark to make vests, leggings, and moccasins. Although not very durable in wet weather, this material was used by those who could not obtain furs, or as part of ceremonies.
Architects and model railroad buffs use glycerin-soaked lichens for model trees. Lichens are used for “sizing,” or giving firmness, in bookbinding and for applying gold leaf and color; they are also used in fabric industries for filling pores in the surface of paper and fiber.
Lichens are used in funeral decorations, as they will last for several weeks at the grave.
Natives throughout Canada produced rock pictures, pictographs of real and grotesque animals, by scraping the lichen off large vertical rock faces. These have lasted centuries, due to the slow growth of lichens.
Lichens have been used for natural dyes, including in the tartans of Scotland. A few crofters still produce Harris Tweed using the lichen Parmelia omphalodes. An added advantage over synthetic dye is that bitter lichen acids repel moths. The related P. chlorochroa, which grows on calcareous rocks on the prairie grassland, was used by the Navaho to produce nice warm brown dyes for their wools and blankets.
Brilliant blues, pinks, and purples are possible, something highly unusual in the plant kingdom, by using the ammonia of urine and fermenting for several weeks. It is said the smell of urine disappears in time and finally exudes a violet-like scent. If not fixed by mordant, the colors quickly dull to a pale brown in sunlight.
Ochrolechia oregonensis, which grows with little pink discs on the rough bark of conifers, makes a violet-purple dye and is somewhat plentiful.
Both Letharia vulpina and Vulpicida pinastri have been used for the brilliant yellow dyes they produce. The coastal Tlingit and Haida traded fish oils for the lichen, which they used to color their spruce root baskets and dancing blankets. Interior people used the lichen to dye buckskins, horsehair, porcupine quills, or mountain goat’s wool. The Cheyenne of Montana used the yellow dye for quills as well. The Apache used the lichen to paint crosses on their feet to pass through enemy territory unseen. The Huna of northern California used it to dye bear grass (Xerophyllum tenax).
Natives of the southwest used Physcia mixed with pine resin for a yellow paint.
The Yuki of California used it in bedding.
The related brown eyed sunshine lichen (V. canadensis) is used to dye mountain goat’s wool.
Various constituents of lichens decompose to produce orcin, that in the presence of ammonia and oxygen produce orecein, and a purple color.
The novel Trouble with Lichen, by John Wyndham, is a sci-fi novel about their long life span, as it relates to humans. One species, Acarospora chlorophana, a bright yellow crustose lichen found in western Alberta, grows so slowly on rocks it is almost un-measurable.
The great mystery in the chemistry of lichens is their “secondary compounds,” which are not by-products of normal plant metabolism. Because of the energy required to produce them, scientists speculate they must have important value. Lichens produce over five hundred biochemicals that help control UV exposure, repel herbivores, attack microbes, and discourage competition, according to Vermeulen.
Above: Acarospora contigua. Right: Baeomyces rufus.
A number of lichens are presently being genetically engineered in Japan to produce medical and industrial compounds.
Lichens are an amazing partnership between fungi and algae, the one providing support and structure, the other nutrients and sustenance.
Lichens can live several hundred years on trees and in harsh habitats such as wind-ravaged mountain rocks. They even adapt happily to life on graveyard tombstones. They draw nutrients from dew and rainfall, and store the food in their bodies for very long periods, releasing nourishment gradually as needed. The lichen can thus sustain itself almost indefinitely in a tough environment.
What provisions do you need to sustain you tomorrow? A certain amount of food, money, clothing, and household goods are only a start. What about the sustenance that comes from family, friendships, and sound values? It’s never too soon to stock your storehouse with these treasures that nourish over a lifetime.
—GINA MOHAMMED
Many people are familiar with litmus papers, those little pH indicator strips that turn either red or blue when dipped in acid or alkali. Litmus papers are imbued with special dyes derived from several species of lichen. In modern times, the litmus test has been used in a philosophical sense as well. We may say something is a litmus test of success, or love, or commitment, meaning that it is a discriminating test that will produce a definitive answer.
I wonder how many of us would be willing to subject our priorities to a litmus test. What if we chose peace of mind as our litmus, and held it against each of the priorities, large and small, that we hold at this very moment. Take a few moments to run the test, and see what doesn’t pass. Perhaps these are burdens we shouldn’t be carrying.
—GINA MOHAMMED
In certain districts of Scotland, as Aberdeenshire, almost every farm or cotter had its tank or barrel (litpig) of putrid urine (graith) wherein the mistress of the household macerated from lichens (crotals or crottles) to prepare dyes for homespun stockings, nightcaps, or other garments. The usual practice was to boil the lichen and woolen clothes together in water or in the urine-treated lichen mass until the desired color, usually brown, was obtained.
This took several hours, or less on the addition of acetic acid, producing fast dyes without the benefit of a mordant or fixing agent. The color was intensified by adding salt or saltpeter. This method was prevalent in Iceland as well as Scotland for those homespuns best known to the trade as Harris Tweed.
—G.A. LLANO, 1951
Gyrophora muhlenbergii
Umbilicaria muhlenbergii
(PLATED ROCK TRIPE)
U. vellea
G. vellea
U. americana
(FROSTED ROCKTRIPE)
Dermatocarpon miniatum
(LEATHER LICHEN)
There is some confusion as to the exact identity of the lichen, with Dermatocarpon miniatum sometimes identified as the same lichen.
Rock tripe is flat, brown, circular lichen that attaches to rocks with a cord.
The Woods Cree of Saskatchewan called it asiniwakon and used it to thicken fish soups. They broke it into very small pieces and poured very hot water over it, letting it soak for five to ten minutes until the pieces were softened and the broth was thickened. It was considered good nourishment for those who were sick, because it does not upset the stomach.
The Chipewyan also used this “rock dirt,” or tthe tsi, as a food source. The dried flakes were boiled in soup, imparting a sour, mushroom flavor. This soup was used to fatten up sled dogs.
Usually the lichen is first added to boiling water that is discarded to remove some of the more irritating and bitter acids. Ashes are sometimes added to the water to neutralize the acidity; even baking soda will make rock tripe more digestible.
It is considered a delicacy in Japan, where it is sold under the name iwatake and taken as part of a special tea ceremony or natural food in mountain inns. It is either boiled until tender and then seasoned with rice vinegar or sesame paste, eaten as a vegetable in soybean soup, or deep fried as a tempura.
The lichens U. vellea and U. americana have recently been separated into two distinct species. The latter is found in a sweeping arc from Lake Winnipeg to Great Slave Lake in the Northwest territories.
Leather lichen, or stippleback lichen (D. miniatum), is found on limestone rock.
The Chipewyan burned it to ash, and then boiled it to make syrup for the treatment of tapeworms.
The Inuit, who know rock tripe as quajautit, a word associated with slippery underfoot, use them to absorb blood for cleaning a wound and to ripen boils. A spoonful of the boiled lichen water is considered good for any illness, but the lichen is not eaten.
Decoctions can be used as a gargle for soothing canker sores and bleeding gums.
Gyrophoric acid.
In Japan, a sulfate isolate from rock tripe showed an inhibitory effect on the replication of HIV-1 in vitro. The compound (GE-3-S) appears to work in a manner similar to dextran sulphate and heparin, preventing attachment of HIV to the surface of T4 cells. This partially acetylated pustulan sulphate is only one of four polysaccharides that show weak animal toxicity, with GE-3-S showing no acute toxicity in mice at very high doses.
The lichen is active against gram-positive bacteria. A substance similar to pustulan, an acylated B-1–6 glucan, has shown antitumor activity against sarcoma 180 (Narui 1999).
Work by Swanson and Fahselt (1997) found that UVA exposure increased and UVB exposure decreased their content of secondary compounds.
In Scotland, rock tripe was used to make corkir, a brilliant red dye used to color tartans. When treated with urine, it yielded purple.
Leather lichen, or stippleback lichen (D. miniatum) is used as a source of ash green dye for wool in some parts of Europe.
U. vellea, which contains gyrohoric acid, was used in Sweden to dye wool a violet color.
(WITCH’S HAIR)
A. ochroleuca
(GREEN WITCH’S HAIR)
This lichen looks at first glance like Usnea, but it lacks the central spongy cord. It is found in the same boreal forests, hanging from conifers that are at least a century old.
The Bella Coola of British Columbia called it ipts-aak or “limb moss” and used the long hair for their dance masks.
The Haida call it crow’s mountain goat wool or crow’s blanket.
The Inuit call it greenbeard, caribou moss, or tinqaujait meaning “what looks like pubic hair.” It is a handy fire starter.
In Scandinavia, different colored Alectoria and Usnea lichens are used to make figures of trolls to warn children to be good. (Legends told of trolls carrying off naughty children into the woods.)
When found on alder, it was used as a poultice for sores and boils.
In western Canada, it was mainly used as a fiber for mattresses, baby diapers, and sanitary napkins. It was woven with Bryoria fremontii, below, for poor quality clothing, when skins were unavailable. It was often interwoven with wolf willow bark to make it more durable.
It was used traditionally to make false whiskers and hair for decorative dance masks by variety of coastal natives.
It contains a yellow dye.
A. sarmentosa: dibenzofuranoid lactol, usnic acid, physodic acid, 8’-0-ethyl-beta-alectoronic acid, alectosarmentin, a-collatolic acid, squamatic acid, mannitol, arabitol, and physocid acid.
A. ochroleuca: diffractaic, thamnolic, barbatic, alectoronic, chloroatranorin, and usnic acids.
Recent studies indicate that a new antimicrobial dibenzofuranoid lactol called alectosarmentin has been isolated from witch’s hair. The compound exhibits activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Mycobacterium smegmatis.
Usnic and physocid acids in this lichen were found effective against these two bacteria as well as Candida albicans.
One study showed four antimicrobial compounds including usnic acid, physodic acid, 8’-0-ethyl-beta-alectoronic acid, and alectosarmentin, the newly discovered dibenzofuranoid lactol.
Previous studies have indicated the presence of mannitol and arabitol, active antitumor polysaccharides.
The closely related gray witch’s hair (A. nigricans) lacks usnic acid, but does contain alectorialic acid. An extract was found to exhibit notable inhibition of ODC activity induced by 12–0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in cultured mouse epidermal 308 cells. The IC50 value was only 2.6 micrograms per milliliter. Ingólfsdóttir et al. (2000) found this lichen active against leukemia cell lines and to exhibit quinone reductase activity.
Green witch’s hair (A. ochroleuca) shows strong activity against S. aureus.
Green witch’s hair (A. ochroleuca) was used during the 1930s in Russia to make a type of molasses. It yielded 82 percent of its dry weight to glucose and produced light yellow syrup.
At one time, it was used by distillers to make alcohol.
(BLACK TREE LICHEN)
(EDIBLE HORSEHAIR)
B. trichodes
(HORSE HAIR LICHEN)
Horsehair lichen (B. trichodes) is found isolated in central Saskatchewan, but it is common eastern North America. The related subspecies americana is found in British Columbia and in parts of southern Alaska.
Black tree lichen can be collected at any time of year, and the flavor is definitely influenced by the tree it grows on.
The Northern Okanagan preferred specimens growing on ponderosa or lodge pole pines; whereas the Southern Okanagan preferred the douglas fir or western larch specimens. These preferences were probably based on availability.
This lichen has been used by native tribes for food. Some aboriginals say it tastes like candy, if properly prepared; others maintain it is strictly a survival food. In the Okanagan, young natives would bring back lichen from various areas to their grandmother to taste. If sweet, the family would claim the area where it was growing.
Long poles were utilized to pull the lichen from branches or youngsters would climb into the trees to throw it down. In a good site, five or six trees would yield sufficient harvest for one family for the year!
The fresh lichen is light and bulky and was soaked in water, then cooked in a steam pit created by putting hot rocks at the bottom and covering with green leaves and masses of lichens. It was left for the night, removed after cooling in the morning, and cut into jelly-like loaves. It can be eaten then or stored for several years, and soaked before eating.
It compacts when cooked; a twenty-centimeter-thick layer reduces to four centimeters after steaming. It is rather bland, so it was often cooked with layers of onions, mixed with Saskatoon berries, or dipped in berry juice after cooking. The Okanagan would also cook it with the false solomon seal rhizomes, while others would sweeten it with douglas fir sugar.
The Carrier mixed it with flour and baked it like fruitcake.
The Okanagan would roast it until dry and crumbly, and then boil it until molasses-like. Further south, the Coeur D’Alêne also ate the lichen, which they call skola’pken.
The Nlaka’pamux still prepare it to this day in modern ovens, and serve it as a form of taffy, called we’ia, with the texture and flavor of licorice. The dried cakes were used for long journeys. Pregnant women did not eat this, as they believed it would make their babies dark.
One related lichen, inedible horsehair (B. tortuosa), which looks somewhat like black tree lichen, contains high concentrations of the poisonous vulpinic acid and is a potential toxin. This is mainly a coastal species and not present east of the Rockies.
The related Bryoria fremontii is said to taste like acorns. It was called wa kamwa by the native peoples of Oregon, who dried it, powdered it, and added it to soups.
The Okanagan Colville mixed the dry lichen with grease and rubbed it on the navels of newborns to prevent infection. They also gave a mixture of Saskatoon berry juice and syrup of B. fremontii to babies after weaning.
Natives of the northern Boreal forest heat the various horsehair lichens into a powder for burns. Further south, the Nez Perce used it for treating diarrhea and indigestion.
Horsehair lichen (B. trichodes) was gathered and piled on a sick person in steam baths to help hold in heat, and used to staunch bleeding wounds by various native groups.
B. fremontii: vulpinic acid, atranorin, thamnolic acid, and alectorialic acid. It is incredibly rich in iron containing 8.3 milligrams per hundred grams.
Horsehair lichen: fumar-protocetraric acid and atranorin.
The coyote is the trickster and transformer of all things in their present state. The black tree lichen was originally derived from coyote’s hair braid which became tangled on a tree branch he was climbing.
He cut himself loose and fell to the ground, without his braid. Looking up he said, “You shall not be wasted, my valuable hair. After this, you shall be gathered by the people. The old women will make you into food.”
It was changed into lichen and has been used as food ever since.
—MOURNING DOVE
Horsehair lichen was also gathered by First Nations people of Canada and burned into a black powder for wood paint, as was shiny horsehair lichen (B. glabra).
(FIREDOT LICHENS)
Various Caloplaca species grow on arctic alpine soil, and others on the bark of aspen poplar trees. They appear as orangey, rusty dots on the bark or on granite rocks and sidewalks.
A species occurring in the genus has been found to produce physcion. This is identical to the monomethyl ester of emodine.
Work by Manojlovic et al. (2005b) on various Caloplaca species suggest both antimicrobial and antifungal activity. They contain anthraquinones.
Gray rimmed firedot lichen (C. cerina) contains parietin, found by same author to possess antifungal activity (Manojlovic et al. 2005a).
Sulphur firedot lichen (C. flavescens) leaf lichen essence acts as an energy support for the skin. It helps us change or redefine our contact with the outside world. The essence is people who are too thin-skinned in their relationships.
—KORTE PHI
(CANDLE FLAME LICHEN)
(LEMON LICHEN)
Candle flame or lemon lichen (Candelaria concolor) contains callopismic acid, also known as ethylpulvic acid; stictaurin or dipulvic acid, barbatic acid, and dipulvic dilactone; and tetronic acid derivatives, vulpinic acid, calycin and 5-chloroatranorin.
(COMMON GOLDSPECK)
The fungus from this lichen, an egg-yolk-colored species with scattered and flattened growth on acid and calcareous rocks and tree bark, contains stictaurin. They all contain calycin, a yellow pigment, formerly used in Sweden for dyes.
(ICELAND MOSS)
C. ericetorum
(ICELAND LICHEN)
C. laevigata
(STRIPED ICELAND LICHEN)
C. nivalis
Flavocetraria nivalis
(CRINKLED SNOW LICHEN)
C. palustris
(MARSH LICHEN)
C. cucullata
F. cucullata
(CURLED SNOW LICHEN)
Although called a moss, this brown lichen attaches to rocks in open sub-alpine forests. It is best collected when green and fully grown between May and September. An average yield of seven hundred kilograms (1,540 pounds) per acre of air-dried Iceland moss could be expected if solidly covered.
The lichen is symbolic of health, and associated symbolically with the birth date January sixteenth. Other lichen, such as Ramalina and Cladonia species, symbolize dejection, and relate to January fourteenth.
It is associated with the second rune, UR, of Norse mysticism.
In Iceland it is called fjallagros, and the first written laws of that country, from as far back as 1280 AD, banned people from picking it on another’s land.
Bread moss, or brodmose, is a Scandinavian name due to its use in extending wheat flour or potatoes in times of famine. It is also known as matmasa or “food moss” and svinmasa meaning “swine moss.”
In Europe, it was traditionally soaked in birch ash (2 percent) to decrease the lichen acids before ingestion. The flour was used for porridge, jellies, and bread. It was mixed with mashed potatoes, rye, or oatmeal at about 25 percent.
The Chipewyan called it tsanju and used it as a source of both food and medicine.
The closely related Iceland lichen (C. ericetorum) is also common, and although similar, does not contain fumarprotocetraric acid, but lichenesterinic acid. Yup’ik of Alaska used it to flavor and thicken soups.
Striped Iceland lichen (C. laevigata) in the extreme north contains fumarprotocetraric, protolichesterinic, and lichesterinic acids.
Crinkled snow lichen (formerly C. nivalis and now Flavocetraria nivalis) is found near the tree line or tundra.
The related C. palustris is a bright yellow species that favors buffalo berry (Shepherdia canadensis), alder (A. crispus), willow, and labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), as well as the base of pine.
Curled snow lichen (formerly C. cucullata and now F. cucullata) is found at higher elevations of coniferous woods and on tundra. Natives of Alaska use it to flavor their fish or duck soups.
C. islandica: lobaric acid; glucans lichenin (polysaccharides 30 to 40 percent); isolichenin (10 percent); lichenan (17 percent); galactomannan (7.6 percent); various usnic, salicylic, cetraric, physodalic, and fumaric acids; estrosterol peroxide; protolichesterinic acid (0.1 to 0.5 percent); lichesterinic; protocetraric acid (0.2 to 0.3 percent); fumarprotocetraric acids (2 to 11 percent); aromatic lichen acids (2 to 3 percent); aliphatic lichen acids (1 to 1.5 percent); cetrarin; picrolichenin; oxalic acid; furan derivatives; iodine; vitamin A; trace minerals including iron, iodide, and calcium salts; fatty acid lactones; terpenes; mucilage; fiber; and gums.
Crinkled snow lichen (formerly C. nivalis and now Flavocetraria nivalis) is brewed into a tea in parts of the high Andes and used as a tonic for heart conditions and to relieve altitude sickness.
In Switzerland, Iceland moss is used for sore throat pastilles.
Iceland moss is a nutritious and soothing tonic, with slight laxative effect. It helps improve the appetite and digestion of the elderly and those recovering from a debilitating illness. The bitter principles benefit the stomach in both tincture and infusion form, stimulating a poor appetite, through increasing the production of saliva and gastric juices. It therefore can be used for both hyper and hypo-acidic stomach conditions.
However, Iceland moss may aggravate gastric or duodenal ulcers, and is contraindicated in cases of excessive catarrh or mucus congestion.
Decoctions are used for chronic diarrhea and respiratory problems. Like lungwort, it increases the flow of breast milk, but not with inflamed or sore breasts. Low thyroid and anemia are helped by trace levels of iodine and iron and other nutritive properties.
Dr. King’s American Dispensatory is a classic of eclectic herbal medicine. He writes that the lichen is “used as a demulcent in chronic catarrhs, chronic dysentery, and diarrhoea, and as a tonic in dyspepsia, convalescence, and exhausting diseases. Boiled with milk it forms an excellent nutritive and tonic in phthisis and general debility. It relieves the cough of chronic bronchitis.”
It soothes nausea from gastritis and vomiting, and combines well with borage and chickweed for peptic ulcers, hiatus hernia, and esophageal reflux. In fact, for those individuals with a yin or fluid deficiency, it would work better than a straight astringent herb.
Mild infusions of Iceland moss can be used as a vaginal douche for its soothing, demulcent properties.
Tincture form is best for whooping cough, asthma, tuberculosis, and kidney and bladder complaints; especially those related to a dry, irritating condition. Here, the sweet, moist, and astringent nature of Iceland moss helps address the underlying concern.
It may be used for night sweats or fevers, but is taken during the day to prevent recurrence. Do not use Iceland moss when a fever is present.
When untreated lichen was fed to mice as 50 percent of their diet, the mice died in four to five days. When the lichen was first ash-soaked and boiled, survival times increased to twenty to twenty-two days, and when lichen was only 25 percent of their diet it was well tolerated for six weeks (Airaksinen et al. 1986).
Early work by Burkholder and Evans (1945) found activity against Bacillus subtilis, B. mycoides, and Sarcina lutea. Stoll et al. found strong activity against S. aureus.
The related C. palustris contains + l-usnic acid and vulpinic acid, and shows strong activity against S. aureus in work by Stoll above.
Burkholder and Evans (1945) found the curled snow lichen to exhibit activity against Bacillus subtilis, B. mycoides, and Sarcina lutea as well as Streptococcus species such as S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, S. viridans, Staphylococcus aureus, and S. albus (hemolytic).
Iceland moss has been used in the manufacture of antibiotics to treat tuberculosis.
In Finland, an antifungal cream called USNO is made, for treating athlete’s foot and ringworm. The lichen entered the Finnish Pharmacopoeia in 1915.
Lichenin is soluble in hot water, and upon cooling forms a gel; while isolichenin, present in smaller amounts, is soluble in both hot and cold water.
Lichenan is a polysaccharide similar to beta-glucan, found in oats and barley. One study found lichenan exhibited strong antiviral activity.
In an open clinical trial, one hundred patients with pharyngitis, laryngitis, or bronchial ailments were given lozenges containing 160 milligrams of an aqueous extract of the lichen. There was an 86 percent positive response with good gastric tolerance and lack of side effects.
In vitro studies have shown protolichesterinic acid to be a potent inhibitor of HIV, as well as 5-lipoxygenase (Pengsuparp et al. 1995).
Other components, such as polysaccharides, have been found by Ingólfsdóttir et al. (1994) to stimulate the immune system. Later, the same author found the polysaccharides comparable to the fungal polysaccharide lentinan (shiitake) used for clinical cancer therapy in Japan. The author found extracts of Iceland moss to suppress the growth of Helicobacter pylori, which contributes to gastric and duodenal ulcers (Ingólfsdóttir et al. 1997b).
Protolicheresterinic acid has been found to be significantly anti-carcinogenic with regards to two breast carcinoma and erythro-leukemia cell lines, and to possess anti-inflammatory properties. The ED50 for lobaric acid is between fourteen and forty-four micrograms per milliliter for these three cancer cell lines.
Haraldsdottir et al. (2004) found lobaric acid very effective against a number of human cancer cell lines in vitro.
One study determined that Iceland moss has significant potential as a natural antioxidant. Just fifty micrograms of water extract showed higher antioxidant activity than five hundred micrograms of alpha tocopherol.
Eight secondary compounds in C. islandica decreased by 52 percent when screened from natural UVA and UVB radiation.
The closely related snow bed Iceland lichen (C. delisei) contains gyrophoric acid and shows significant activity on estrogen through inhibition of aromatase. Extracts at a concentration of forty micrograms per milliliter showed 82 percent inhibition. Aromatase inhibition is one approach to preventing overgrowth of hormone-sensitive cancer cells.
The genus contains caperatic acid and atranorin. The related C. halei contains alectoronic acid.
The common spiny heath lichen (C. aculeata), also known as Coelocaulon aculeatum, has significant effect on various bacterial systems, but not mammalian cells.
The lichen extract and its active constituent protolichesterinic acid exhibit activity against Aeromonas hydrophilia, Proteus vulgaris, Streptococcus faecalis, Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Listeria monocytogenes.
Iceland moss (Cetraria islandica) is used for acute and chronic bronchitis, asthma, and pains in the chest while coughing.
Dose: ten to twenty drops of tincture as needed. The mother tincture is prepared from the dried lichen, 1:10 at 40 percent alcohol.
Iceland moss is steam distilled and yields brownish oil (0.051 percent). It has a saponification value of ninety-eight and an acid value of seventy-two.
The bulk of aliphatic acids are saturated (66.8 percent), composed mainly of palmitic, stearic, and behenic acids. Unsaturated acids compose the rest, with oleic and linoleic acids the most common.
Iceland moss and its spiritual properties are related to the signature of this lichen. Individuals struggling with their personal evolving of spiritual issues, or those in difficult environments, physically and emotionally, will benefit from this plant.
When an individual comes close to achieving deeper awareness of God, there is often great fear and unwillingness to continue. This is often related to the incorrect belief that nothing will remain to be done on earth.
Those working toward spiritual goals based in Eastern philosophies will also be helped. In the martial arts, one seeks to let go of the mind, and yet be ready for full physical response. Iceland moss will help develop this trust, as well as help an individual discover and feel comfortable with their own level of spiritual purpose.
—GURUDAS
Iceland moss is used as a source of glycerol in the soap industry, and because of its lack of odor, in cold cream manufacture.
Europe’s best selling natural tooth whitener, BlanX, contains silica and Arctic moss.
In Russia, during World War II, Iceland moss, Alectoria ochroleuca, and various Cladina species were used to make a type of molasses, with the glucose yield from Iceland moss at 78 percent of dry weight.
A patent issued in 1951 suggested the use of Iceland moss as a preservative for luncheon meats, or cream filled pastries. It is both antibiotic and heat stable, and safe for human consumption.
In Switzerland, Iceland moss is used as an additive to luncheon meats and pastries to retard spoilage.
Iceland moss has been used for tanning hides and dyeing wool.
Ragbag or varied rag lichen (Platismatia glauca), formerly classified as Cetraria glauca, yields a chamois-colored dye for wool.
Water extracts of the lichen have been found to inhibit development of the tobacco mosaic virus. Even at one part to five hundred, it reduced the number of brown lesions on leaves by 80 percent, due to an enzyme called ribonuclease.
The moistened Cetraria gives off an aroma that suggests still other mammals or things mammalian—a blended whiff of suede worn by an equestrian, and of the horse, sweating.
It is a good-bad-intriguing scent, probably with pheromonal powers, and of the sort that is used as ballast in the making of a perfume. I would not be at all surprised if an essence of this plant is eventually stirred into some concoction with a name like The Devil’s Dew, to be dabbed on by would be Dionysians.
—GEORGE SCHENK
(GRAY REINDEER LICHEN)
(TRUE REINDEER LICHEN)
C. mitis
(GREEN REINDEER LICHEN)
C. arbuscula
(TREE REINDEER LICHEN)
C. alpestris
C. stellaris
C. aberrans
(REINDEER LICHEN)
(STAR TIPPED REINDEER LICHEN)
(NORTHERN REINDEER LICHEN)
(CAULIFLOWER LICHEN)
(CARIBOU LICHEN)
C. stygia
(BLACK FOOTED REINDEER LICHEN)
The Woods Cree of Saskatchewan call it wapiskastaskamih or sometimes atikomiciwin.
Rangifer is the scientific grouping for both reindeer and caribou.
True reindeer lichen is very common across northern Canada, where it is used as a food source by caribou. It is very fragile and slow growing; averaging 3.4 millimeters of growth per year. After grazing by caribou, it takes up to fifteen years to recover. Although C. rangifera is the true reindeer lichen, the equally slow-growing star tipped lichen is a more important food, and preferred by caribou.
Caribou and reindeer produce lichenase in their stomachs, which, along with bacteria and protozoa in the rumen, help them survive extreme conditions. The enzyme, lichenase, is also found in snail livers.
Black footed reindeer lichen has a pinkish jelly; as opposed to the clear, colorless jelly from the true reindeer lichen.
The Gwich’in of the Mackenzie delta call it uhdeezhu or “white moss.” It makes a stimulating tea that is good for stomach and chest pain. It can also be boiled for an hour and then fried for a crispy treat.
When removed from freshly killed caribou rumen, it is known as it’rik. It is eaten in soup, or placed on other meat to tenderize and enhance its flavor. It is sometimes hung for up to a week to age, and then mixed with fat, marrow, and berries.
In Denmark, the popularity of a whiskey made from the caribou or reindeer moss so endangered the lichen that production was shut down by the government. A similar brandy venture in Sweden also closed down in 1883.
In Russia, C. mitis syrup was too bitter for human consumption, and used to produce alcohol, or medium for food yeast, with a glucose yield of 75 percent dry weight.
In Alaska, the lichen is added for flavoring to duck or fish soup.
Decoctions of the dried powder were taken by the Woods Cree of Saskatchewan to rid the body of intestinal worms.
Inuit ate the undigested stomach contents of caribou as a source of vitamin C.
The Aleuts of Alaska used infusions of this lichen for chest pains while the Tanaina boiled and ate it for diarrhea.
Cladina species, separated from grass in caribou stomachs, was stirred with oil while the word teniyash, meaning “increase,” was sung repeatedly so the mixture would rise and become light.
The Chipewyan call it tsanju. The use of partially digested reindeer lichen from caribou digestive tracts has long been a traditional part of their diet. The contents of the rumen, eburti, were boiled by placing heated rocks into the cut out rumen or large intestine, with added meat, fat, and blood. This is known to the Chipewyan as ebie hechelh or “bowel soup.”
The Ojibwa decocted C. rangiferina to bathe newborns and give them strength. They call the lichen asa’gunink.
The Inuit of Baffin Island make a broth of niriat (C. stellaris) for sickness and eye infections.
Traditionally, the lichen was used in Russia in the form of powder for treating wounds.
In Finland, the lichen was traditionally boiled in water as a laxative, or boiled in milk for respiratory afflictions.
C. stellaris: usnic, fumarprotocetraric, perlatolic acids; atronorin; various polysaccharides including nigeran, galactomannan, arabinitol, and mannitol; and small amounts of rangiformic, psoromic, pseudonor-rangiformic, and ventoric acids; proteins; and sterols.
C. rangiferina: fumaroprotocetraric acid, atranorin, trace amounts of vitamin D, some ergosterol, arabitol, mannitol, volemitol, alpha trehalose, sucrose, umbilicin, and 54 to 63 percent lichenin acid.
C. arbuscula: fumarprotocetraric and usnic acids.
C. mitis: usnic and rangiformic acids.
C. squamosa: squamatic acid.
Usnic acid is significantly higher in young lichen tissue, with the first few millimeters containing up to twelve times that of the older growth just four to eight millimeters back.
Cladina species are 94 percent carbohydrate, 2.7 percent protein, 2 percent fat, and 1.3 percent minerals.
C. alpestris water extracts have been demonstrated to have strong effect against Trichomonas vaginalis in vitro. No significant difference has been found between the effect of usnic acid and metronidazole at concentrations of 0.4 and 0.6 milligrams per milliliter.
Reindeer lichen (C. rangiferina) has been shown to be more effective in chronic inflammation than acute conditions. Compared to indomethacin, the lichen extract showed 43 percent inhibition, as compared to the drug at 72 percent.
Atranorin appears to be stimulated by UVA sunlight.
Recent work identified new compounds, hangokenols A and B. These and other previously identified compounds were tested for activity against MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and VRE (vancomycinresistant Enterococci species) (Yoshikawa, K. et al. 2008).
Both C. mitis and C. stellaris show activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis.
One study showed strong activity against S. aureus by d-usnic acid in the former species.
Early work by Burkholder and Evans (1945) indicated C. mitis showed activity against S. albus, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus hemolyticus, S. viridans, Bacillus mycoides, and Sarcina lutea.
Cladina alpestris shows activity against Bacillus subtilis.
Northern reindeer lichen (C. arbuscula) shows activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Reindeer lichen (C. rangiferina) was proved at 30C potency by Misha Norland in 2002.
Mental symptoms include jealousy, suspicion, and delusion. Dreams of crime, evil, guns, murder, war, fights, and robbery are prevalent.
Physically, there is vertigo, throat huskiness or loss of voice, and head and eye pain. Nasal congestion, burning tongue, stomach nausea, and abdominal flatulence are present. A dry cough, thick expectoration, stitching pain in the chest, cold extremities, and itching skin are also common. A more complete description can be found in Fungi by Frans Vermeulen.
Reindeer lichen (C. mitis) is for transformation. It revitalizes the lifeblood congestion or over-stimulation of the etheric heart that impedes the free circulation of life force.
—FINDHORN
In Europe, true reindeer lichen has been used to produce an iron red dye for wool.
Star tipped reindeer lichen is harvested commercially for flower arrangements and wreaths and architects and model railway hobbyists use it for miniature trees and shrubs. In Finland and Sweden, this is a million dollar export business, with some three thousand tons harvested per year.
Numerous texts have mixed up Cladina and Cladonia, but unlike the former, the latter has a squamulose primary thallose that makes for accurate identification. Cladonia now refers to pixie cup lichens and their relatives, but previously represented all reindeer lichens.
Cladonia species contain usnic and isusnic acids, especially in the cortex, as well as beta-orcinol depsides and depsidones such as barbatic and squamatic acids; atranorin, fumarprotocetraric, and proto-cetraric acids; and norstitic, psoromic, rhodocladonic, and thamnolic acids. They also contain ursolic acid, found in apples and various medicinal herb species.
Usnic acid from Cladonia species has shown high cytotoxic activity against cancer cells (Bezivin et al. 2004).
Various Cladonia species have been found effective in the treatment of tuberculosis. This confirms the traditional use in Finland of hot water lichen infusions for this dreadful disease.
Didymic acid, found in many Cladonia species, inhibits the mycobacterium at twenty-five micrograms per milliliter.
Species inhibiting Bacillus subtilis include C. gracilis, C. deformis C. amaurocraea, C. bacillaris, C. coniocrae, C. fimbriata, C. pleurota, and C. uncialis.
Species inhibiting Staphylococcus aureus are C. gonechu, also known as C. sulphurina, C. deformis, and C. amaurocraea.
(BRITISH SOLDIERS)
This lichen is so named due to its green body and red head, reminiscent of the early British red coats.
The red-tipped C. bellidiflora is common. Other Cladonia species worth mentioning are gritty British soldiers (C. floerkeana) containing cocellic acid; and C. macilenta with thamnolic acid. Both are eastern species.
Dragon Cladonia, or dragon funnel (C. squamosa), contains atranorin.
Mealy pixie cup (C. chlorophaea) was boiled by the Okanagan-Colville of British Columbia, who knew it as Liver on Rock or pen’ pen’emekxixxn’, and used it to wash sores that were slow to heal.
This lichen is an old whooping cough remedy mentioned in early European herbals. It is boiled in milk and used today in Wales under the name cwpanau pas.
The Haida dipped the red tip into human breast milk and applied it to sore eyes.
Research in Michigan found four different chemical populations of Cladonia cristatella, with each race occupying a different habitat, leading to significant differences in constituents, from grayanic acid to cryptochlorophaeic acid to merochlorophaeic acid, to the more common fumar-procetraric acid strain.
Cladonia cristatella: usnic, didymic, barbatic, and rhodocladonic acids.
C. bacillaris: barbatic acid.
C. coccifera: zeorin and usnic acid.
C. convoluta: usnic, fumarprotocetraric, and 9’-(O-methyl) protocetraric acids.
Mealy pixie cup is active against Staphylococcus albus, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, B. mycoides, and Sarcina lutea (Burkholder and Evans 1945).
The same authors found both C. pleurota and
C. uncialis active against the above bacteria as well as several Streptococcus species, including S. pneumoniae, S. pyogenes, and S. viridans. The latter contains usnic acid and sometimes squamatic acid.
9’-(O-methyl) protocetraric acid, contained in C. convoluta, has been shown to induce apoptosis of murine leukemia cells (Bezivin et al. 2004).
(LESSER SULPHUR CUP)
Cladonia deformis has been investigated for an unusual iron substance. Work by Alagna et al. in Italy indicates that the iron is present as high-spin Fe(III), and coordinates in an oxygen containing environment arising graciliformin ligands. It also contains zeorin.
It is strongly inhibitory against S. aureus.
C. major
(TRUMPET LICHEN)
Trumpet lichen (C. fimbriata) contains only 12.9 micrograms per gram of carotenoids, while some Caloplaca ssp. contain up to 151 micrograms per gram of various carotenoids.
Work from Poland published a list of carotenoids from thirty-four lichen species. The lichen also contains atranoric acid, fimbriatic acid, and fumaroprotocetraric acid.
It has been used in the past as a red dye for wool.
C. subrangiformis
(MANY FORKED CLADONIA)
C. furcata has been shown to weakly inhibit the Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, and contains fumarprotocetraric acid.
One study identified a polysaccharide in the lichen that induced apoptosis in human leukemia K562 cells.
(BLACK FOOT CLADONIA)
(SMOOTH CLADONIA)
Gracilis means slender, referring to the slender cup shape. It may be the most common lichen in dry lodge pole pine forests, where it grows in huge mats in some places.
This lichen shows significant inhibitory effect on estrogen formation from the estrogen precursor sulfatase.
Extracts at a concentration of forty micrograms per milliliter showed an 83 percent inhibition rate.
It contains fumarprotocetraric acid, and shows activity against C. subtilis (Huneck 1999).
The lichen has been used to produce an ash green dye for wool.
(BROWN PIXIE CUP)
(CUP MOSS)
(CHIN CUPS)
Pyxidata is from the Latin pyxis, meaning a box. A pyx is now a term applied at the Canadian mint for a box containing sample coins. “Chin cup” comes from its former use in whooping cough or chin cough, as it was known.
It grows mainly on soil that is high in mineral content.
Its cup-like shape can identify it.
Abundant atranorin and fumaroprotocetraric, barbatic, and psoromic acids; mucilage; parellic acid, protofumarcetraric acid, and an enzyme emulsin.
Brown pixie cup shows activity against both S. aureus and B. subtilis (Burkholder and Evans 1945).
This lichen is fairly widespread throughout the area and exhibits demulcent, anti-tussive, and expectorant properties.
The lichen has been shown effective against bronchitis and coughs (including whooping cough), combining well with coltsfoot and sundew.
It was used traditionally in Europe to dye wool red, purple, or ash green.
Symptoms include hurried feeling, but less anxious and nervous; bloated abdomen, disorientation, uncertainty, and dryness of tongue, lips, throat, skin, and rectum.
Tired and yet sleepless, desire for open air; difficulty breathing in a hot room.
Dose: 6C to 30C potency, proved by Izzie Azgad and Rosalind Floyd on nine provers in 1994. See Vermeulen’s excellent book for greater detail.
(FLACCID JELLY LICHEN)
Flaccid jelly lichen (Collema flaccidum), found on the east coast of North America, has been found to possess antitumor activity.
Smooth Cladonia lichen essence is the mirror—for helping open new doors into consciousness. It is like a spotlight focusing deep within, reflecting up into awareness, an unacknowledged part of oneself.
It helps to discover and understand the patterns developed and enacted today. It allows one to reclaim power through awareness.
—CANADIAN FOREST
Arctic alpine Cladonia lichen releases deep-seated patterns and worn-out old issues by transmuting negative karma, which is ripe for resolution. Destructive emotions are then purified, self-punishment, anger, and low self-esteem relinquished.
—FINDHORN
(STIPPLEBACK LICHEN)
D. miniatum
(LEATHER LICHEN)
This fairly common lichen is found on gravel. When wet the upper part turns green and becomes translucent. It can be soaked in water and then chewed slowly as a food source. When boiled for about fifteen minutes with a little salt, it has a flavor reminiscent of mushroom. It is a good addition to help thicken and flavor rock soup.
Crude extracts inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus (Burkholder and Evans 1945).
Dermatocarpon miniatum contains a powerful antioxidant.
Leather lichen has been used as an ash-green dye for wool in Europe.
(CRATER LICHEN)
Crater lichen (Diploschistes scruposus) has a zinc content up to 9.34 percent of its dry weight, showing unusual ability to absorb ions from the soil. It makes a red-brown dye after treatment with urine or ammonia. It contains atranorin, lecanoric and diploschistesic acid.
(SPRUCE MOSS LICHEN)
(BOREAL OAKMOSS LICHEN)
(BIRCH LICHEN)
From the northern boreal muskegs, spruce moss lichen, or boreal oakmoss lichen (E. mesomorpha), grows on the branches and bark of black spruce, larch, and birch. Chipewyan natives call it k’tsa”ju or birch lichen. They use a cooled decoction of the lichen from birch trees to treat snow-blindness.
Oakmoss lichen has been used in Egypt as a bread additive, and by the Turks to make a type of jelly.
Oakmoss is used today in aromatherapy for its grounding nature, and to create a sense of security and personal prosperity. It helps one work with nature spirits and prevents slipping of secrets.
Evernia prunastri contains evernic acid. This compound shows activity against mycobacterium at rates similar to usnic acid. It was used traditionally to leaven bread and as a hops substitute for beer. It shows moderate activity against S. aureus.
(CURLED SNOW LICHEN)
F. nivalis
(CRINKLED SNOW LICHEN)
Other interesting lichens include the snow lichens, such as curled (Flavocetraria cucullata) and crinkled (F. nivalis).
The former, previously classified as Cetraria cucullata, has been used in northern Canada as a condiment for fish or duck soup. The Yup’ik call it ninguujug meaning “would like to be stretched,” perhaps in reference to its filling nature.
Crinkled snow lichen is infused in hot water as a cardio-pulmonary tonic for heart attack and altitude sickness.
Usnic and protolichesterinic acids.
Crinkled snow lichen is weakly active against Staphylococcus aureus (Burkholder and Evans 1945).
According to the Pharmacopoeia Universalis of 1846, the medicinal uses are similar to Iceland moss.
Curled snow lichen has been used as a food, and was used in Russia during World War II to produce glucose molasses, yielding 71 percent by dry weight.
It produces a violet dye with the addition of ammonia or urine.
(COMMON GREEN SHIELD LICHEN)
Common green shield lichen (Flavoparmelia caperata) is throughout northeastern Canada and United States, as well as the southwest.
Powder-edged speckled greenshield (Flavopunctelia soredica) is found on bark in open woods.
Green starburst lichen (Parmeliopsis ambigua) is widespread.
It was made into a dry powder and applied on burns by the Tarahumara of Mexico.
Flavoparmelia caperata: usnic, protocetraric, and caperatic acids, as well as atranorin.
Flavopunctelia soredica: usnic and lecanoric acids.
Parmeliopsis ambigua: divaricatic acid.
Ethanol extracts were found to be active against the virulent strain of M. tuberculosis H37Rv (Gupta et al. 1997).
Burkholder and Evans (1945) found activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus hemolyticus, S. viridans, Bacillus subtilis, B. mycoides, and Sarcina lutea.
It has been used as an orange-brown to yellow dye on the Isle of Man.
The Navaho of New Mexico use it to produce a flesh colored dye.
G. scripta
(COMMON SCRIPT LICHEN)
Common script lichen (Graphis scripta) is found scribbled on birch and other hardwood trees, mainly in eastern North America, but occasionally on the West Coast. It has been found to contain antioxidant ability and inhibit tyrosinase and xanthine oxidase (Yamamoto, Y. et al. 1993).
Behera et al. (2004) looked at the tyrosinase and xanthine oxidase activity of various Graphis species in India. Tyrosinase plays a role in melanin production and may play a role in some human cataracts. Xanthine oxidase is found in those individuals suffering gout due to excess uric acid and observed in patients with hepatitis and brain tumors. More study is needed.
(BLOOD SPOT LICHEN)
H. coccineum
Blood spot lichen (Haematomma lapponicum) and other species of this genus contain porphyrillic acid, which shows antibiotic activity, as well as divaricatic and usnic acids. The related H. coccineum contains 20 percent usnic acid dry weight, a phenomenal amount.
Elegant centipede or elegant fringe lichen (Heterodermia leucomela) is found in New England, Appalachia, Florida, and along the west coast of North America.
Gupta et al. (2007) found an ethanol extract quite active against the virulent strain of tuberculosis H37Rv. More work should follow. It contains a number of interesting compounds of which hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid, which shows mosquito larvicidal activity, is most interesting (Kathirgamanathar et al. 2006).
Orange tinted fringe lichen (H. obscurata) was researched by Peter Cohen for a PhD thesis at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1995. It contains a number of interesting compounds, including blastenin, zeorin, atranorin, 7-chloro-emodin, emodin, flavoobscurin A-B, 7,7’-dichlorohypericin, and 5,7-dichloroemodin. The latter compound has antiviral activities that respond in the presence of light. Emodin and 7-chloro-emodin both show activity against the herpes simplex virus at two micrograms per milliliter.
Cupped fringe lichen (H. diademata) is confined to southern Arizona and New Mexico. In Nepal, it is known as dhungo ku seto jhau. The lichen is mixed with leaves of Ageratina adenophora and made into a poultice for cuts and wounds to protect against infection. It contains atranorin and zeorin.
(POWDERED LOOP LICHEN)
Powdered loop lichen (Hypotrachyna revoluta), found in small, scattered areas of North America, contains beta-orcinol metabolites hypotrachynic acid, deoxystictic acid, cryptostictinolide, and 8’-methyl-constictic acid.
Parmelia physodes
(HOODED BONE)
(HOODED TUBE LICHEN)
(MONK’S HOOD LICHEN)
(PUFFED LICHEN)
H. tubulosa
(POWDER HEADED TUBE LICHEN)
This pale gray-green lichen is commonly found on coniferous and birch trees in the boreal forest. Research shows it is more tolerant of pollution from sulphur dioxide than most macro-lichens, but is still used as an indicator of pollution.
The Potawatomi used it in soup and as a treatment for constipation.
In fifteenth-century Europe, it was combined with Evernia prunastri and Evernia furfuracea to create the mixture lichen quercinus virides.
H. physodes: atranorin, physodic acid, orcinol, and beta- orcinol depsidones including protocetraric and physodalic acids.
H. tubulosa: 3-hydroxyphysodic acid.
Varnished tube lichen (H. austerodes) contains oxyphysodic acid, physodic acid, and sometimes 3-hydroxyphysodic acid, in addition to above constituents.
Physodic acid at six to twelve micrograms per milliliter inhibits mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Early work by Burkholder and Evans (1945) found the lichen active against Staphylococcus aureus, S. albus, Bacillus subtilis, and Sarcina lutea.
Powder headed tube lichen contains 3-hydroxyphysodic acid. One study found this compound active against Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, and Candida albicans.
Gyrophoric acid and stenosporic acid from Hypogymnia genus show antimicrobial potential (Candan et al. 2006).
Hooded bone appears to be able to bio-remediate arsenic, both by arsenite excretion and methylation of the toxic mineral.
In Sweden and Scotland, the lichen is used to yield a brown dye for wool.
One research group studied the effect of water extracts of the lichen. They found it to inhibit many of the common wood-destroying fungi such as Heterobasidon annosum, Laxitextum bicolor, Schizophyllum commune, Stereum hirsutum, and S. rugosum.
This work could lead to some innovative inoculants or antifungal treatments for woodlot management.
The tube lichens contain atranorin, physodic acid, and often orcinol, as well as beta- orcinol depsidones including protocetraric and physodalic acids.
(SMOKY RIM LICHEN)
L. polytropa
(GRANITE SPECK RIM LICHEN)
L. rupicola
(WHITE RIM LICHEN)
L. sordida
Smoky rim lichen is found commonly throughout North America.
Granite speck rim lichen (L. polytropa) is found worldwide, including at twenty-four thousand feet on the south side of Makalu.
The related L. esculenta has a naturally sweet flavor and is edible, hence the species name. In Alexandria, it is called the “fat of the earth,” and it is sometimes flavored with anise and honey into panakarpian, a type of bread popular there.
In 1829, during the war between Persia and Russia, a Caspian town was covered with lichen, which literally fell from the skies. This was made into bread and helped stave off starvation.
The related L. esculenta grows on cliffs of the Middle East, and is believed to be the manna that fed the Hebrew people fleeing from Egypt, as told in the Bible.
Moses told everyone to gather it up because “this is the bread which the Lord hath given you to eat” … tasting “like wafers made with honey.” High desert winds sometimes scatter it, even to this day, falling on Bedouin settlements like rain.
Three parts lichen and one part meal are made into a bread called schirsad, which can be bought today in the bazaars of Tehran and is used to encourage breast milk production.
Lecanora cenisia: atranorin and fatty acids, especially roccellic acid. It sometimes contains gangaleoidin.
L. polytropa: usnic acid, zeorin and fatty acids.
The related L. californica contains norgangaleoidin and a fatty acid known as nephrosteranic acid.
Lecanora rupicola: atranoric acid, rocellic acid, and thiophanic acid, as well as sordidone, eugenetin, and eugenitol, mycobionts not found in the thallus.
The related L. sordida contains roccellic acid. Barry and McNally (1945) found the isolated acid had low activity against Mycobacterium phlei and M. tuberculosis, but its monoesters and mono amides inhibit growth at very high dilutions. Some of these compounds inhibited M. phlei, M. smegmatis, and M. rabinowitz at one part in twenty thousand to one part in forty thousand, and the bovine type of M. tuberculosis at one part in two hundred thousand to one part in four hundred thousand. Activity against S. aureus and C. diphtheriae was found.
The related L. muralis shows activity against Bacillus subtilis.
(DUST LICHEN)
L. lobificans
(FLUFFY DUST LICHEN)
The dust lichen (Lepraria latebranum) contains lepraric acid and fuciformic acid, while fluffy dust lichen (L. lobificans) contains atranorin, stictic, and constictic acids as well as zeorin.
Sticta pulmonaria
(LUNGWORT)
(LUNGMOSS)
(HAZELCROTTLE) (HAZELRAW)
Note how Lobaria pulmonaria is a rhyming couplet, a taxonomic rarity. Another two are Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, the ox-eye daisy, and Humulus lupulus, or hops.
Sticta is from the Greek stiktos meaning “spotted.”
Lungwort grows in the old-growth boreal forests, where its nitrogen fixing accumulation is very important.
It is distinguished by large thalli that cover the branches, trunks, and fallen logs of spruce and poplar. It looks like flaccid lungs, and was used for respiratory distress by native tribes. Like some other lichens, it is fairly luxuriant, with an average annual growth of 4.8 millimeters.
Traditionally, lungwort is boiled in milk to make a “cough tea” or “lichen chocolate.”
It was also used before hops for beer making in European and Siberian monasteries during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The closely related lettuce lichen, Lobaria oregana, is most commonly found in the mountains, on the top of hundred-year-old douglas firs. Here, the lichen capture nitrogen, fall to the ground, and decompose, releasing the nutrient to nitrogen-deficient soils.
Textured lungwort (L. scrobiculata), called qelquaq by the Yup’ik of Alaska, is found west of the continental divide, as well as from northern Saskatchewan to the Great Slave and Great Bear Lakes. It is edible, and can be eaten right from the tree.
The Haida refer to it as tree blanket, forest cloud, or cloud leaves medicine, alluding to its health properties.
The Gitksan and other First Nations of British Columbia, who associated this lichen with frogs and called it nagaganaw or “frog dress,” decocted it as a treatment for sore throats.
The Hesquiat used it for sunburned faces.
Lungwort is very useful for all sorts of upper respiratory complaints, including what was formerly called lymphatic tuberculosis.
It is useful in formulas for hay fever, head colds, and flu, as well as for intermittent fevers or night sweats.
Its nourishing and blood-building nutrients are useful for those suffering chronic internal dryness. It also restores moisture to the tissue that produces breast milk.
It combines well with borage or herbal lungwort for gastric ulcers, and should be given consideration in treating ulcerative colitis and allergies associated with the gastrointestinal tract. Tannins, quercetin, mucilage, and other constituents help repair and regenerate mucosal membranes, and calm mast cell reactivity.
Its traditional use in Ireland for treating hemorrhoids probably has basis in fact.
It acts on the base of the brain and the vagus nerve, relieving fevers and irritative coughs, both acute and chronic.
The lungwort cough is wheezing, rasping dry, and persistent, often worse in the dry, dusty months of summer.
Lungwort possesses anti-rheumatic and analgesic activity, useful in pain occurring between the scapula, shoulders, and occipital bone of the head. Sometimes the pain extends into the chest and shoulders. Myalgia and arthralgia of the small joints may also benefit.
L. pulmonaria: mucilage, including 30 to 40 percent lichenin; lichen acids, including stictic, norstictic, sticinic, constictic, peristictic, cryptostictic, methyl stictic, thelophoric, and gyrophoric acids; fumaric and oxalic acids; fatty acids such as palmitic, oleic, and linolenic acids; trace minerals; ergosterol; fucosterol; protein; and tannins.
L. oregana: stictic, constitic, cryptostictic, and norstictic acids.
L. scrobiculata: stictic, constitic, norstitic, and usnic acids and scrobiculin.
The related peppered moon lichen (S. fuliginosa) contains trimethylamine.
Cabbage lungwort (L. linita) contains tenuiorin.
Studies conducted at the Institute of Radiation Medicine in Tianjin, China, have shown lungwort to be protective of bone marrow stromal and hematopoietic stem cells when exposed to radiation. This may be due, in part, to its antioxidant properties (Odabasoglu et al. 2004).
Stictic, constictic, and norstictic acids from this lichen show significant inhibition of Salmonella gallinarum.
Lungwort shows moderate activity against Staphylococcus aureus.
Polyporic acid, derived from Sticta coronata, was shown to double the life expectancy of mice infected with acute leukemia and other cancers.
Melanic acid compounds in lungwort are induced by UVB radiation.
Lungwort is for a general feeling of dullness and malaise, when a cold is coming on. The patient may feel as if floating in air, and have a great desire to talk. This is accompanied by dull pressure in the forehead and root of nose, with an unsuccessful, constant desire to blow. There may be a dry, hacking cough during the night that is worse on inhalation. The extremities may be red and inflamed. Changes of weather affect the symptoms.
Dose: 6C tincture. The mother tincture is prepared from the fresh thallus of the lichen (Boericke).
An essential oil is steam-distilled from this lichen and used in perfumery.
In India and Sikkim, lungwort has been used as a cleansing hair powder.
Lungwort was used in France for perfume, but was not plentiful. In Germany it was used for perfume as well and called lungenfletche.
In India and Sikkim, lungwort has been used to tan hides and woolens an orange brown color.
In Scotland, L. scrobiculata has been used to dye wool a brown color.
(GREEN LIGHT)
(ARCTIC KIDNEY LICHEN)
N. parile
(POWDERY KIDNEY LICHEN)
N. laevigatum
(MUSTARD KIDNEY LICHEN)
Green light is found in the extreme north following the Canadian Shield, and on the extreme tops of the Rocky Mountains. The Yup’ik of Alaska call it kusskoak. The lichen is collected and stored until winter and then boiled with fish eggs.
Powdery kidney lichen is found in the sub-alpine region and mountains. Natives of Alaska also cooked this lichen with crushed fish eggs. The lichen was picked in summer and then stored until needed.
Mustard kidney lichen (N. laevigatum) is found on the west coast of North America.
The Yup’ik of Alaska give a hot water infusion to people with weakened constitutions or after a lengthy illness.
N. arcticum: emodin, 7-chloro-emodin, 1-O-methyl-emodin, 7,7’-dichlorohypericin, and 2,2’,7,7’-tetrachlorohypericin.
N. laevigatum: various anthroquinones, nephromin, nephrin, usnic acid, and fatty acids.
It contains emodin and 7-choro-emodin, which show activity against herpes simplex virus at low concentrations. Peter Cohen wrote his PhD thesis at UBC in 1995 on this lichen and Hetereodermia obscurata. He identified hypericin compounds in both that possess antiviral activity. It also contains usnic acid, zeorin, and phenarctin.
Powdery kidney lichen shows mild activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Rankovic et al. (2010) found it weak against various bacteria and fungi tested.
Powdery kidney lichen has been used in Scotland as a blue dye for wool.
(ROCK SHIELD)
(SALTED SHIELD)
(CROTTLE)
P. omphalodes
(SMOKY CROTTLE)
Parmelia was divided into a number of different genera starting in 1974. Research conducted before that year referring to Parmelia ssp. can be extremely confusing.
Saxatilis is from the Latin saxum meaning “a rock.”
Parmelia saxatilis is found abundantly on acidic rocks and outcroppings in boreal forests. It increases in size by an average of 3.4 millimeters per year.
In Sweden, country people call this dye lichen or stone moss. It is collected from rocks easily after a rain with a table knife.
This lichen accumulates the rare mineral beryllium.
Various Parmelia species have been used traditionally in both India and China for medicinal purposes.
In traditional Chinese medicine P. saxatilis is known as shih hua.
The dried lichen was sprinkled in stockings in parts of the Highlands to prevent foot inflammation and pain from long journeys.
In parts of Ireland it was applied to bad sores under the chin, as well as burns and cuts.
During the fifteenth century, the lichen was known in parts of Europe as Muscus cranii humanii when found growing on a human skull and was much prized for treating epilepsy. It sold for its weight in gold.
The Nishinam of California call it wa’-hat-tak and use it, infused as a tea, to treat colic.
Smoky crottle: salazinic acid, sometimes accompanied by lobaric acid.
Rock shield: altranoric acid (0.5 percent) and salazinic acid (3.1 percent).
Ingolfsdottir et al. in Iceland found salazinic acid to contain MIC values of 125 micrograms per milliliter (Ingolfsdottir et al. 2000).
It yields various shades of brown, depended on the quantity used, and does not require a mordant. In Scotland it is used to dye wool for Harris Tweed. The scent of Harris Tweed is that of the lichen itself; it is especially pronounced when wet.
Smoky crottle (P. omphalodes), more often found in the northern territories, was also used traditionally for dyeing the deep red browns and rusty oranges prized by weavers. The brown shades produced are known as crottle and the red shades as corkir. Studies have shown that the dye is produced by a reaction between the free amino groups of the wool with aldehyde groups on the lichen acids.
Concentric ring lichen (Arctoparmelia centrifuga) has been used traditionally in the north as a red brown dye for wool.
There is no correlation between the color of the lichen and the color obtained by boiling with wool. Lichen substances such as gyrophoric, evernic and lecanoric acid, and erythrin convert to a purple compound in the presence of oxygen and ammonia. August picking yields the richest dye material.
The lichen was used in the early nineteenth century in England in a ritual in which plant and fungi materials were used to create miniature scenes up to ten feet long. These were leaned up against wells during summer festivals.
(WAXPAPER LICHEN)
(HAMMERED SHIELD LICHEN)
P. molliuscula
(GROUND LICHEN)
P. olivacea
Melanelia olivacea
(SPOTTED CAMOUFLAGE LICHEN)
Sulcata is from the Latin sulcus, meaning “a furrow or groove.”
Also known as powdered shield lichen, it is common on dead spruce branches throughout the north. Rufus hummingbirds use it to decorate and hide their nests.
Ground lichen (P. molliuscula) is a flat species that grows from Nebraska to South Dakota and west to the Rockies. It causes severe paralysis and death to range cattle and sheep when forage is scarce.
The lichen was rubbed on the gums of teething babies to help make them less restless and sleep.
In Italy, various species of Parmelia are used as a cholagogue.
Lecanoric, fumarprotocetraric, stictic, perlatolic, salazinic, lobaric, echinocarpic, and galbinic acids.
Parmelia entotheiochria contains secalonic acid A, related to the ergochromes from ergot.
Salazinic and lobaric acids are antiseptic.
Waxpaper lichen shows activity against Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Yersinia enterocolitica, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Candida albicans, C. glabrata, Aspergillus funigatus, A. niger, and Penicillium notatum (Candan et al. 2007; Rankovic et al. 2007).
Parmelia species exhibit astringent, resolvent, aperient, and diuretic properties.
Ethanol extracts of Parmelia species are potentiated by colloidal silver in the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus.
Because it contains salizinic acid, it can be used for dyeing wool.
Spotted camouflage lichen (M. olivacea) has been used in Great Britain to produce a brown dye.
P. stuppeum
(POWDER EDGED RUFFLE LICHEN)
P. reticulatum
Rimelia reticulata
(CRACKED RUFFLE LICHEN)
P. performatum
(PERFORATED RUFFLE LICHEN)
Parmotrema species containing atranonin and chloroatranonin exhibit COX 1 and 2 inhibition, suggesting anti-inflammatory activity (Bugni et al. 2009).
Powder edged ruffle lichen (P. stuppeum) is found in the Appalachians and on the west coast of California. It contains methyl orsenillate, orsenillic acid, atranorin, and lecanoric acid that show moderate antioxidant activity.
Parmotrema reticulatum (Rimelia reticulata), a cracked ruffle lichen, has been found to have moderate activity against the virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains H37Rv and Ra (Gupta et al. 1997).
Perforated ruffle lichen (Parmotrema performatum) is found mainly in the southeastern United States. It is used in India for food and medicine under the name chharila. It is used for a wide variety of conditions including dyspepsia, spermatorrhea, amenorrhea, kidney stones, enlarged spleen, bronchitis, hemorrhoids, sore throat, and pain in general. It is mentioned in various Indian materia medicas, under both P. performatum and P. chinense.
The smoke is used to relieve headaches. It is powdered and used as snuff or applied to bleeding wounds. It is commonly adulterated with other lichens. It contains atranorin and norstictic acid.
(STUDDED LEATHER LICHEN)
(FAIRY PELT)
(LEMON LICHEN)
(FRECKLE PELT)
(SEA GREEN LICHEN)
P. praextator
(SCALY DOG LICHEN)
P. leucophlebia
(RUFFLED FRECKLE PELT LICHEN)
Peltigera is from the Greek and Latin meaning “shield bearing.” Pelta means “a light shield.”
Aphthosa is from the Latin meaning “thrush,” referring to the disease of the throat, for which it was once a specific. Or perhaps, originally, it is from the Greek aphthai meaning “pustule” or “eruption.”
When moist, this lichen turns a brilliant green, later dulling to a gray-green. It is commonly found growing over true mosses in coniferous forests.
Peltigera is a strong purgative and anthelmintic that combines well with other plants for cleansing worms and other parasites.
The Swedes boil the lichen in milk for treating thrush in children. Back in the 1800s, it was believed that white spots inside the cheeks of feverish children were caused by elves and fairy pelt was the treatment of choice. This is another example of matching a plant’s signature to the symptoms to be treated. The cephaloida was thought to be similar to the eruptions caused in children’s mouths by thrush.
Given the prevalence of chronic thrush and yeast infections today, it is a plant worthy of further attention.
When cooked, the lichen becomes a thick and glue-like paste, which, applied to the skin and left to dry, is a great remedy for diaper rash or chapped skin.
The Nitinaht of Vancouver Island chewed both P. aphthosa and closely related P. britannica for tuberculosis. The Tlingit sprinkled the dry, powdered lichen on scalds and burns, and the Nitinaht used the fresh poultice on leg sores.
Membranacous dog lichen (P. membranacea) was used by the Kwakiutl of British Columbia as a love charm, as well as by Nitinaht men who could not easily urinate. I noted in my clinical practice that difficulty with urination sometimes followed using love charms, if you know what I mean.
Above and right: Peltigera aphthosa. Below: Peltigera rufescens.
P. aphthosa: various phenolics including aphtosin and tenuiorin; methyl gyrophorate; gyrophoric acid; triterpenoids; and phlebic acid A and B.
P. polydactylon: peltigerin (2 to 3 percent), tenuiorin, methyl gyrophorate, gyrophoric acid, and triterpenes.
The antimicrobial active compounds in Peltigera were found to be effective against fungi and both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
It contains several laccases that may have application in biological reactions.
The closely related ruffled freckle pelt (P. leucophlebia) was at one time considered to be the same species, but is now thought to be distinct. Both are extremely widespread and common.
Ingolfsdottir et al. (2000) showed the lichen to possess moderate inhibition of HL-60 human leukemia cells. Early work by same author found petroleum and chloroform extracts show activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
The phycobiont of this lichen, Coccomyxa sp., excretes sixteen times more biotin in a culture medium than free-living Chlorella.
The related frog pelt, or many fruited pelt (P. polydactylon), is used medicinally in Sikkim as a paste to stop bleeding and as an antiseptic. It contains 2 to 3 percent peltigerin, a derivative of orcinol; as well as tenuiorin, methyl gyrophorate, gyrophoric acid, and triterpenes.
Water extracts show activity against various bacteria including Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Peltigera rufescens shows remarkably high antioxidant activity despite low levels of phenolics (Odabasoglu et al. 2005).
Scaly dog lichen, or born again pelt (P. praetextata), has been observed to exhibit activity against Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and S. aureus.
Fairy pelt, or lemon lichen, contains a mixture of methyl and ethyl orsellinates that have been shown to be superior to commonly used preservative agents like methyl and proply p-hydroxybenzoates.
All Peltigera are used for boiling water dyes, usually brown in nature.
Studies in Wales indicate that the lichen inhibits the germination of grass seeds, as well as root production and elongation in grass seeds.
This suggests the use of this and other lichens in organic farming and weed control. Water extracts of dog pelt inhibit various bent, meadow, and rye grasses, as well as fescue.
(GROUND LIVERWORT)
(DOG PELT)
The species name canina was based on its traditional use as protection against dog bites and that the fruiting bodies resemble dog teeth or ears.
The Kwakiult call it tl’extl’ekw’es meaning “seaweed of the ground” and used it as a love charm.
Peltigera canina is a safe, reliable laxative if used in moderate amounts and a mild but effective liver tonic.
Early German settlers to North America used the plant for strengthening a weak liver or cooling one that was inflamed.
It was ground into a powder, mixed with white wine, and given to little boys suffering hernia.
In parts of Wales during the nineteenth century it was powdered and mixed with black pepper as a treatment for dog bites.
The Nitanaht of Vancouver Island used P. canina (or P. aphthosa) as an infusion for those suffering anuria, or the inability to urinate.
Boiled in water and gargled, the lichen soothes the swelling of tonsils and the uvula.
A few tablespoons of the distilled water, taken several times daily, is excellent for an inflamed liver or for treating jaundice. The high concentration of methionine may be responsible, in part, for its high curative rate.
Flaky freckle pelt (P. britannica) was chewed by the Nitinaht of British Columbia to treat tuberculosis.
Ergosterol, emulsin, mannitol-like substances, free methionine, and all of the essential amino acids save histidine.
Concentric pelt (P. elisabethae), ruffled freckle pelt (P. leucophlebia), veinless pelt (P. malacea), black saddle lichen (P. neckeri), carpet pelt (P. neopolydactyla), and flat fruited pelt (P. horizontalis) contain tenuiorin, methyl gyrophorate, gyrophoric acid, peltigerin, and various triterpenes.
P. Britannica contains tenuiorin, methyl gyrophate, gyrophoric acid, and triterpenes.
Tenuiorion showed moderate activity against human breast, pancreatic, and colon cancer cell lines (Ingolfsdottir et al. 2002).
Ground liverwort is used whenever there is lots of throat congestion, with profuse expectoration and hoarseness. The throat is tickling and irritating, with a scraping and rough sensation.
Liverwort induces free and easy expectoration, relieving that continual feeling of something caught in the epiglottis.
Dose: 2C. One to two pellets under the tongue, as needed (Boericke).
P. canina was a dye source in Europe as an iron red color for wool.
The noble liverwort does not appear,
Without a speck,
like the unclouded air,
A plant of noble use and endless fame,
The liver’s great preserver, hence its name.
—ABRAHAM COWLEY
(BITTER WART LICHEN)
P. communis
P. pertusa
Bitter wart lichen (Pertusaria amara) is found on the west coast and eastern seaboard of North America. It is extremely bitter, as the name suggests. It contains arabitol, mannitol, and emulsin, as well as picrolichenic acid and is used to treat high fever. The genus contains a variety of depsides, depsidones, and xanthones. Decoction of Pertusaria amara was said to be a quinine replacement. The related P. communis (P. pertusa) was said more useful for men than women.
P. caesia
(BLUE GRAY ROSETTE LICHEN)
(POWDERBACK LICHEN)
P. stellaris
(STAR ROSETTE LICHEN)
Blue gray rosette lichen, or powderback lichen (Physcia caesia), contains atranoric acid, haematommic acid, and zeorin.
Star rosette lichen (P. stellaris) contains atranorin.
Physcia species have been combined with pine resins to produce a yellow-staining paint.
(VARIED RAG LICHEN)
Varied rag lichen or Platismatia glauca, found on lodgepole pine and white spruce, was studied for cytotoxic activity along with seven other lichens. All demonstrated activity on human cancer cell lines (Bezivin et al. 2003a).
Platismatia glauca contains proto-lichesterinic acid.
Elders of Haida refer to Platismatia glauca as “red cedar goat wool” or “light clouds.”
(FINE ROCK WOOL)
Fine rock wool (Pseudephebe pubescens) derives its common name for its appearance of black steel wool. The Haisla of British Columbia used it to make a black wood paint. It is used in Nepal for its antiseptic properties, and in China as a medicated tea.
(DOTTED RAMALINA)
R. intermedia
(ROCK RAMALINA)
R. celastri
(PALMETTO LICHEN)
R. pollinaria
(DUSTY RAMALINA)
There are a number of interesting Ramalina species.
Rock Ramalina (R. intermedia), which resembles the dotted species in some respects, contains sekikaic acid.
Palmetto lichen (R. celastri) is confined to southern Texas. It contains parietin that shows antiviral activity against arenaviruses.
Dusty or chalky Ramalina (Ramalina pollinaria) is common.
The related R. bourgeana is used in Europe to dissolve kidney stones.
The Manchurian drug shih hua, which translates as “stone-flower” and is known to the Japanese as seki ka, consists of a mixture of Ramalina species.
Ramalina farinacea: ramalinolic acid, sekikaic acid, arabitol, mannitol, and d-usnic acid.
Ramalina pollinaria: usnic, obtusatic, evernic, and sekikaic acids.
Tay et al. (2004) found (+)-usnic acid from this lichen active against Bacillus subtilis, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Yersinia enterocolitica, Candida albicans, and C. glabrata.
One study found methanol lichen extracts active against B. subtilis, S. aureus, S. epidermidis, and E. coli.
Norstictic acid showed activity against all the above, except for Y. enterocolitica, as well as against Aeromonas hydriphila. Protocetraric acid showed activity against the yeasts.
Ethyl acetate fractions have shown the ability to inhibit lentiviral and adenoviral as well as HIV-1.
One study tested against herpes simplex virus type 1 and the respiratory syncytial virus. Both were potently inhibited (IC50 + 6.09 and 3.65 micrograms per milliliter, respectively). It also inhibited HIV-1 reverse transcriptase with an IC50 of only 0.022 micrograms per milliliter.
Dotted Ramalina, or the dotted line (R. farinacea), and Ramalina pollinaria have long histories of use in cosmetics and perfumes throughout Europe.
It has been used traditionally as a light brown dye for wool.
(YELLOW MAP LICHEN)
Yellow map lichen (Rhizocarpon geographicum) is used in Scandinavia to produce a brown dye for woolens. It contains the pigment rhizocarpic acid, as well as parellic, psoromic and rhizonic acid, and tetronic acid derivatives.
(GREEN ROCK POSY)
Green rock posy (Rhizoplaca melanophthalma) is widespread from the northernmost points of Canada down to New Mexico. It shows activity against both Bacillus subtilis and S. aureus bacteria.
Dimelaena oreina
(PEPPER SPORE LICHEN)
The poetically named pepper spore lichen, Rinodina oreina (Dimelaena oreina), contains gyrophoric and fumarprotocetraric acids.
(ORANGE CHOCOLATE CHIP LICHEN)
Orange chocolate chip lichen (Solorinia crocea) contains solorinic and norsolorinic acid, as well as methyl gyrophorate and gyrophoric acid. Solorinic acid is an anthraquinone. It was used for coloring woolens in Scotland at one time. As its common name suggests, S. crocea is unmistakable with its bright orange medulla and red born apothecia. Common throughout the mountains, it contains at least two lacasses.
(FRAGILE SPHAEROPHORUS)
(FRAGILE CORAL LICHEN)
S. globosus var. gracilis
S. globosus var. globosus
(ALPINE SPHAEROPHORUS)
(CORAL LICHEN)
Fragile Sphaerophorus is an Arctic species that grows in dense cushions and has very fragile branches. Alpine Sphaerophorus has two variations: gracilis, which grows on coniferous forest west of the continental divide and globosus, a rare type that grows on the ground or in rock crevices. They both contain hypothamnolic acid, with the latter sometimes containing squamatic acid.
Both lichens exhibit significant inhibition against the estrogen precursor sulfatase. When tested at forty micrograms per milliliter, the former showed inhibition of 95 percent, and the latter 90 percent.
Alpine Sphaerophorus exhibits inhibition against aromatase, another estrogen precursor. While only at 74 percent, the combined inhibition of both precursors makes this a potentially exciting prospect for the future.
(ALPINE CORAL)
S. paschale
(EASTER LICHEN)
S. vesuvianum
(VARIEGATED FOAM LICHEN)
Stereocaulon is from the Greek stereos meaning “hard” or “firm”; and kaulos, meaning “stem,” referring to its firm brittle texture when dry.
Stereocaulon alpinum is a rose-white, grayish lichen common to sub-alpine forest floors. It is often confused with the closely related S. tomentosum, which is silvery-gray.
Variegated foam lichen (S. vesuvianum) is found on newly exposed rock in the Rocky Mountains as well as throughout the northern territories.
S. alpinum: methyl beta-orsellinate, lobaric acid, atranorin, and 9-cis-octadecenamide.
S. paschale: dextro mannose, dextro galactose, atranorin, and lobaric acid.
The related rock foam lichen (S. saxatile), grand foam (S. grande), and Easter lichen (S. paschale) contain lobaric acid, while woolly foam lichen (S. tomentosum) contains stictic acid.
Snow foam lichen (S. rivulorum) usually contains lobaric acid, with some areas containing perlatolic and anzaic acid, and others only atranorin.
The related variegated foam lichen (S. vesuvianum) contains stictic and norstictic acids.
Easter lichen is used in traditional Chinese medicine for various skin and respiratory conditions.
The active ingredient of S. alpinum (methyl beta-orsellinate) is antifungal and shows signs of gram-positive and gram-negative bactericidal activity.
Early work by Ingolfsdottir et al. (1985) found chloroform and acetone extracts active against Staphylococcus aureus, petroleum and acetate extracts active against Bacillus subtilis, chloroform against E. coli, and acetone against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Petroleum, chloroform, and acetone extracts all inhibited the fungi Candida albicans.
Lobaric acid isolated from this lichen has shown in vitro inhibitory effects on arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase, similar to the flavone baicalein, found in skullcap.
Studies conducted in Iceland, a mecca of polar lichens, show some exciting results. On cultured human cells, three malignant cell lines from breast carcinomas and erythro-leukemia (K-562) were tested. At concentrations of twenty milligrams per milliliter, significant cancer cell death was detected. In contrast, the proliferation and survival of normal skin fibroblasts and DNA synthesis was not affected. These results open up the opportunity for future studies of protolichesterinic acid with regards to antitumor and anti-inflammatory properties.
Atranorin and lobaric acids, isolated from the lichen, also showed activity against Mycobacterium avian, a non-pathogenic organism with sensitivity similar to the Tuberculinum mycobacterium.
Ingolfsdottir et al. (1997) showed the presence of an alkamide called 9-cis-octadecen-amide. This compound showed moderate inhibitory activity against cyclooxygenase from sheep seminal vesicle microsomes with an IC50 of 64.3 micromoles, indicating anti-inflammatory properties.
Early work by Burkholder and Evans (1945) showed activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, B. mycoides, and Sarcina lutea.
Petroleum extracts show activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, water extracts against Candida albicans, and chloroform extracts against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis (Ingolfsdottir et al. 1985).
Variegated foam lichen essence is like the lichen, the first plant to grow on cooled lava. It gives us the power to begin over again. It strengthens our resolve to move forward even in small steps.
—KORTE PHI
Several studies indicate that the active ingredient of S. alpinum (methyl beta-orsellinate) is a superior food preserving agent to commonly used methyl and propyl p-hydroxybenzoates.
Easter lichen, like other flat lichens, was used by the Barrens-Keewatin Inuit as a filler in caribou skins to make rafts for crossing rivers and streams.
It was used in parts of Europe as an ash-green dye for wool.
(GOLD EYE LICHEN)
Gold eye lichen (Teloschistes chrysophthalmus) contains usnic acid that shows activity against the arenaviruses Junin and Tacaribe.
(WHITEWORM LICHEN)
Whiteworm lichen (Thamnolia vermicularis var. subuliformis) is frequently found on tundra and arctic alpine areas. Birds like the golden plover use the lichen for nesting material. There are two distinct strains, one containing thamnolic acid and another with squamatic and baeomycic acid, the former found more on the West Coast and the latter in the Rocky Mountains.
The distinct shiny bluish-gray appearance of this genus is due to a thin layer of calcium oxalate crystals that deflect light and help lichens survive extreme conditions.
Whiteworm contains baeomycesic acid, a beta-orcinol depside, which shows weak inhibition of platelet type 12 (S) lipoxygenase (Ingólfsdóttir et al. 1997a).
One study identified thamnolan as one of the immuno-modulating polysaccharides.
Another study found strong activity against S. aureus.
Ingolfsdottir et al. (1985) found petroleum extracts active against S. aureus, B. subtilis, E. coli, and Candida albicans.
(SHAGGY OLD MAN’S BEARD)
(SUGARY BEARD)
U. lapponica
(POWDERY BEARD)
U. cavernosa
(PITTED BEARD)
U. scabrata
(SCRUFFY BEARD)
(STRAW BEARD)
U. filipendula
U. dasypoga
(FISHBONE BEARD LICHEN)
U. longissima
(METHUSALA’S BEARD LICHEN)
The Dakota call it chan wiziye, translating as either “on the north side of the tree,” or “spirit of the north wind.” The northern Chipewyan know it as k’i tsaju, while the Dena’ina call it ch’vala andazi or spruce hair.
Usnea, or old man’s beard, hangs in gray-green strands from larch and spruce of the boreal forest. Look for the central white, elastic thread inside Usnea for correct identification.
As noted, lichens are quite slow growing, but U. longissima has been found to double in length annually.
Usnea species are used as catalysts for making fermented corn beverages by the Tarahumara of northern Mexico.
Usnea was recommended in the Formulary of Al-Kindi around 850 AD. It was suggested for a swollen spleen, a part of the immune system. Earlier in ancient Greece, both Hippocrates and Dioscorides recommended Usnea barbata for uterine problems.
The Chinese have used various Usnea species (Sung-Luo) for thousands of years. It is prized for its broad-spectrum antibacterial and immune stimulating properties in various respiratory and urinary infections. Usnea diffracta has been called Lao Tzu’s beard. Chinese herbalists will only gather this lichen during the fifth lunar month for maximum benefit. Overuse of Usnea for colds, flu, and infections can damage spleen qi.
Usnea is very effective in trichomoniasis, giardia, and candida infections; and particularly effective in cervical erosion, or dysplasia, as a douche.
The Malaysians use Usnea species as a general tonic and tea for colds, and the neighboring Indonesians used U. thallus, or kayu angin meaning “windy wood,” as an astringent and anti-spasmodic for intestinal problems.
It was traditionally burned in homes to combat evil spirits and wind borne diseases.
In my region of Canada, it is used as a bitter stomachic, for coughs, and to relieve menstrual pain.
The Blackfoot, who call it e-simatch-sis, and the Cree by mithapakwan, use Usnea for stopping nosebleeds and bleeding wounds. A decoction was also used to wash sore or infected eyes.
The Nitinaht, who call it P’u7up, used Usnea species for diapers, sanitary napkins, and dressing wounds.
Fishbone beard lichen (U. filipendula) has been used on Sakhalin Island, now belonging to Russia, as a powder to treat wounds. Modern research indicates it has antibacterial activity.
Warty beard lichen (U. ceratina) was known by the Pomo of California as kôchih and used for diapers and toilet paper.
The lichen U. longissima has long been used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine for arthritis, edema, eczema, cardiac tonics, and massage oils for rheumatism, gout, and sciatica.
Usnea longissima has been used in China and India as an expectorant, while First Nations people used it for feminine hygiene products and bedding.
Ayurvedic scholars equate its medicinal use with another lichen, Parmelia perlata.
In Argentina, usnea is used for washing warts. It is a constituent of the Chinese drug shi-koa and the Japanese medicinal drug seki-ka. The Maori of New Zealand utilize Usnea to increase resistance to infection and stimulate the appetite.
U. hirta: (+) usnic acid (3 percent); alectoric, hirtic, thamnolic, diffractaic (rare), hertillic, and usnaric acids; anthraquinones; hirtusneanoside; and various fatty acids.
U. filipendula: salazinic acid, usnaric acid, barbatic acid, d-usinic acid, and emulsin.
U. cavernosa: salazinic acid and/or usnic acid.
U. lapponica: usnic and/or salazinic acid and sometimes barbatic acid.
U. scabrata: usnic acid.
C. longissima: various B-orcinol depsides including evernic, barbatic, and diffractaic acids; glutinol; and longissimione A and B.
U. ceratina: diffractiaic acids.
Dr. William Mitchell Jr. considers Usnea a valuable diuretic that combines well with parsley. He recommends up to ninety drops of tincture three times daily.
It combines well with Oregon grape root, dandelion root, and uva ursi for damp heat strangury; and with scullcap and elecampane root for phlegm heat in the lungs.
For giardia infection, or amoebic dysentery, combine with Oregon grape root and elecampane root.
The active parts of Usnea are poorly water soluble, slightly better in alcohol and most soluble in oil.
Usnic acid is influenced by the solvent used, pH value, and with what powders or ointments it is mixed.
Energetically, Usnea clears heat and resolves toxins due to its bitter and cold nature.
This makes it very valuable in traditional Chinese medicine theory for damp heat in the lower burner, as well as lung conditions when qi is disrupted due to dampness, phlegm, or heat.
The outer, green-grey cortex contains the antibiotic substances, while the white inner core contains immune-stimulating polysaccharides. Recently, the polysaccharides have been found to possess antitumor activity, confirming their traditional use in cancer treatment. For example, in the case of sarcoma-180 in mice, daily injections for ten days after implantation led to complete regression of tumors compared to controls. Although researchers are not certain of the mechanism, it is thought that an outpouring of lymphoid and plasma cells, as well as macrophages to the area of the grafted tumor is responsible. Similar active constituents are found in Umbilicaria, Lobaria, and Sticta species.
Other constituents have been found to be nonsteroidal and anti-inflammatory.
In a 1993 Romanian study of Usnea hirta, it was demonstrated that the anti-inflammatory activity was comparable or superior to phenylbutazone and hydrocortisone. The analgesic activity is close to noraminophenazone, and the antipyretic activity equal or superior to aminophenazone.
One study found usnic acid significantly reduced inflammation in both acute and chronic conditions.
Hirtusneanoside, isolated from U. hirta, shows activity against gram-positive bacteria.
Similar studies in Japan showed Usnea diffracta with similar analgesic and anti-pyretic effect (Okuyama 1995).
In northern Europe, the medicinal values of Usnea and other lichens have long been recognized.
Studies show effectiveness against gram-positive bacteria such as Streptococcus (strep throat), Staphylococcus (impetigo), and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Ingolfsdottir 2002).
Usnic acid is more effective against some bacterial strains than penicillin. And it is able to completely inhibit the growth of different strains of human tuberculosis in dilutions of one part to twenty thousand.
Other studies cite effectiveness at one part per million, similar to streptomycin.
Microbes like the tubercle bacterium form heavily waxed coats and stiff cell walls that allow them to persist and even divide inside macrophages. They are able to prevent the host’s lyosomes from taking in the hydrogen ions needed to create an acidic environment, thus neutralizing their effect.
Usnea also has a different mode of action. Synthetic antibiotics resemble the cell walls of bacteria, and are incorporated into the cell. This results in a weak cell structure as the bacteria swell and burst. Scientists believe usnic acid disrupts cellular metabolism, either by preventing ATP formation or by un-coupling oxidative phosphorization. Thus, the cells run out of energy and die.
Honda, N. K. et al. (2010) looked at a variety of lichen constituents and their activity against tuberculosis, drug-resistant strains of which are currently undergoing a worldwide resurgence. Usnic acid ranked third, behind norstictic acid and the most powerful, diffractaic acid.
Weckesser et al. (2007) found Usnea species active against Propionibacterium acnes, Corynebacterium species, and most importantly, against MRSA, or methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
Usnea may be superior to Flagyl (metronidazole) against Trichomonas, a parasite that causes serious uterine and cervical infection and tissue destruction.
It is effective against candidiasis, giardiasis (or beaver fever, as it is known), and bowel inflammation in general. Usnea is a relaxant of the smooth muscles of the body, including the colon and lungs.
In Russia, a sodium salt of usnic acid called binan is used for second and third degree burns to prevent infection; it is also used for varicose ulcers, furuncolosis, impetigo, trichomonas, and lupus erythematosus. Binan is a vigorous antibiotic, effective against microbes and protozoa in concentrations of one part in three hundred thousand to one part per million when applied externally.
In Germany, a product called Evosin, a mixture of usnic and evernic acids, is used for impetigo, furunculosis, and lupus vulgaris, as well as mastitis in cows. Usniplant, containing 0.2 percent usnic acid, is used for skin conditions.
Likewise, sodium usnate is used in China for pulmonary tuberculosis. In thirty cases treated, twenty-four were cured and six were improved after seventy-one days.
Mastitis in cows, athlete’s foot, ringworm, and acute bacterial infections can be treated internally and externally.
Usnic acid shows activity against Streptococcus mutans, which creates dental plaque and caries without disrupting normal oral flora.
Usnic acid is not only antifungal and antibacterial, but also effective against viruses and protozoa.
Usnic acid was tested in one study in Saudi Arabia for the possibility of use for cancer and leprosy. It was found to have no adverse effect on testicular nucleic acids or epididymis spermatozoa in laboratory mice, unlike most anti-cancer drugs.
Usnic acid has been found to inhibit Ehrlich ascitic cells in laboratory studies. It has a vasodilating effect, and helps relax the muscles of the uterus, bronchi, and intestine.
Other studies indicate usnic acid has anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-growth, anti-herbivore, and anti-insect properties.
Both (+)-usnic acid and (-)-usnic acid, especially the former, show high cytotoxic activity against cancerous cells.
Nine usnic acid amine conjugates were tested for cancer on L1210 cell lines. Bazin et al. found significant toxicity and induction of apoptosis (Bazin et al. 2008).
Usnic acid inhibits both HIV-1 and 2 integrase and mammalian topoisomerases I.
Usnea hirta has an LD50 of 21.02 grams vegetal material per kilogram of body weight.
The compound (+)-usnic acid shows protection against hyper proliferative skin wound healing, and when combined with gyrophoric acid increased wound closure most effectively (Burlando 2009).
Hirtuseanoside shows activity against gram-positive bacteria.
The coastal species Usnea longissima has been studied for its anti-platelet and anti-thrombotic activity (Lee, K.-A. and M. S. Kim 2005).
Diffractaic acid in this species has been found to enhance the antioxidant defense system as well as reduce effects on neutrophil infiltration. One study identified anti-inflammatory compounds.
Methanol extracts show in vitro melanogenesis inhibition. Tyrosinase glycosylation is believed to be involved (Kim, M. S. et al. 2007).
Odabasoglu et al. (2006) found usnic acid from this species both antioxidant and protective of indomethacin-induced gastric ulcers. Noted herbalists Christopher Hobbs and Chanchal Cabrera mention its use to treat tuberculosis lymphadenitis.
Other lichens are richer in usnic acid. In one Haematomma species (H. coccineum), it makes up nearly 20 percent of its content. The closely related blood spot lichen (H. lapponicum) has not been studied.
A fungal strain, Corynespora species, has been found on Usnea cavernosa. One study found extracts of this strain cytotoxic to breast and prostate cancer cell lines.
Usnic and salazinic acid from U. filipendula show activity against Serratia marcescens.
Usnic acid, evernic acid, and vulpinic acid inhibit the growth of gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and B. megaterium, but has no effect on gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Usnea barbata is the remedy to remember for all forms of congestive headaches, especially sunstroke. The head can feel ready to burst at the temples, or the eyes feel like bursting from their sockets. The face is reddish.
Dose: mother tincture in drop doses. 1C potency is used for the elimination of heavy metals.
Usnea barbata and others are extracted with ethanol to produce a tree moss concrete and absolute.
The semi-solid mass is greenish-brown, and contains methyl beta-orcinol carboxylate, and olivetonide. It is used largely in soap perfumery, although it does supply the requisite “mossy” notes in Fougere and related perfumes.
It should be restricted to 3 percent of any fragrance compound for best effect.
Usnea lichen essence is for individuals in the helping or healing professions. At times, due to the desperate situations and energies of patients, there is danger of empathizing too strongly, and beginning to take on their “illness.”
Usnea essence helps retain boundaries, so that effective work can be carried out without endangering their own health. This can be subtle, but once observed, which the essence helps reveal, it will be recognized and dealt with.
—PRAIRIE DEVA
Usnea represents the north, the place of gray hairs. It maintains the lung system of the planet. When Usnea came to me, personified as a young man, and spoke to me of its uses, it told me that its healing qualities are specific for the lung system of the planet—the trees.
Its use for people was secondary to its primary function. This was the first time I realized that the plants provided medicinal actions with the ecosystem, that they evolved and developed to help the Earth ecosystem, Gaia, maintain a healthy balance within itself. I realized at that time that it was only because we are a part of the ecosystem that the plants also work for us as healing agents.
There is an ancient compact between Usnea and the trees, and coming into contact with the deeper spiritual aspects of Usnea, one makes contact with ancient powers that existed long before humans.
—STEPHEN HARROD BUHNER
In Sudan, the closely related U. molliuscula, known as sheiba, is used in perfumery and as an aphrodisiac.
The related U. subfloridana is a boreal forest lichen that was mixed with tobacco and butter, and then boiled and cooled as a lotion for skin in Europe.
Recent work suggests that lichens may produce more usnic acid when levels of UVB are high. This suggests a biomonitor for increased radiation levels, and potential for development of more effective sunscreens.
Usnic acid absorbs ultraviolet light and may be used in sunscreen products with good results.
Usnea species are used in Peru to produce a dark blue dye.
Pitted beard lichen (U. cavernosa) was used by the Wylackie of California to tan leather. Animal brains were wrapped in the lichen to hold together, and then rubbed vigorously into the hide.
Usnea has been fed to cows in the alpine regions of Europe to help them get through cold winters and fight mastitis. Sodium usnate is used as a spray for fighting mildew and other plant diseases.
Sodium usnate has been found effective against the tomato canker (Corynebacterium michiganensis); usnic acid shows a moderate degree of inhibition of the blue-staining wood fungus Trichosporium and tobacco mosaic virus.
It is used in a spray at one hundred to five hundred parts per million for bean rusts, mildews, and brown rot on some stone fruits.
Recent work has found usnic acid strongly inhibits the red bread mold Neurospora crassa.
Tree fellers in western Canada are susceptible to skin rashes, and usnic acid has been identified as a potential photo-sensitizer and respiratory irritant.
Kahlee Keane, or Root Woman, in her enjoyable new book The Standing People, suggests Usnea as a heartworm medicine for wolves. Interesting!
Stuff a glass jar tightly full of Usnea and cover with canola or olive oil. Cover with cheesecloth and set in a warm, sunny window for several months. This may be used internally, taken in gelatin capsules, or used externally as a healing salve with beeswax for infected boils, carbuncles, impetigo, and even vaginal boluses for trichomonas.
Dose: twenty to thirty drops of tincture as needed. For serious infection, like trichomonas and tuberculosis, it is taken long-term up to six times daily. When collecting and making tinctures use only living lichens. Usnea tincture is contraindicated during pregnancy.
Prepare at an equal weight-to-volume (i.e. one pound to sixteen ounces) ratio in 95 percent alcohol.
(TUMBLEWEED SHIELD LICHEN)
X. conspersa
(PEPPERED ROCK SHIELD LICHEN)
Tumbleweed shield lichen gets its name from its tendency to detach from rock and tumble around with the wind. It is common to the Great Western Basin and down through the Midwest and is an indicator of good antelope grazing territory. Up to 126 kilograms per hectare communities have been found in parts of Montana.
Peppered rock shield lichen is present in eastern and western North America.
The related X. taractica is common throughout the boreal forest, on exposed rock associated with gravel and slides.
The Navajo used it medicinally to treat impetigo, possibly due to its content of salazinic and norstitic acid. It contains 2 percent usnic acid, compared to 1.5 percent in Usnea barbata.
Peppered rock shield lichen is used in southeastern Africa for medicine, both internally and applied as a powder to treat snakebites and venereal disease, especially syphilis.
It contains a sticitic acid complex including cryptostictic acid, and variable amounts of norstitic acid.
A crude extract inhibits Bacillus subtilis (Burkholder and Evans 1945).
One test showed weak activity against S. aureus.
The related X. scabrosa has been found to induce smooth muscle relaxation, which promotes arterial dilation and increases blood flow. It is a main ingredient in a novel sexual stamina formula, a sort of natural Viagra approach to arousal.
The entire plant, called ground lichen by the Navajo, was boiled for a red, brown, or orange dye for leather, baskets, and wool.
Peppered rock shield lichen has been used in England for dye, producing a red-brown color for wool.
X. taractica is a hyper-accumulator of zinc, and may be a prospecting tool for mining companies.
(ROCK ORANGE LICHEN)
(ELEGANT SUNBURST LICHEN)
X. chlorochroa
(TUMBLEWEED SHIELD LICHEN)
X. parientina
Teloschistes parientinus
(MARITIME SUNBURST LICHEN)
(WALL LICHEN)
X. candelaria
(SHRUBBY SUNBURST LICHEN)
These rock lichens are easy to spot against limestone-type rocks with their flat fan shape and bright orange color. Occasionally they may be found on old wood or bones, but they seem to prefer the carbonic environment.
Nitrogen from bird or mammal waste encourages its growth, so Inuit hunters use it to locate the burrows of animals such as the hoary marmot.
The rock orange lichen was found growing on the graves of crewmembers of Franklin’s last expedition. The lichens are slow growers, and after more than a hundred years only grew 4.4 centimeters in diameter.
It is quite hardy and has been found on Himalayan mountain rocks at seven thousand meters.
The related wall lichen (X. parietina) is sometimes called maritime sunburst lichen. It is bright yellow in sunny regions, and gray in the shade, suggesting a protective mechanism from UV radiation.
The related hooded sunburst lichen (X. fallax), commonly found on elm and poplar, contains fallacinal.
In fifteenth-century Europe, the wall lichen (X. parietina) was erroneously thought, due to its orange color, to be a treatment for jaundice, based on the doctrine of signatures.
Wall lichen is decocted in wine in Spain to treat menstrual problems, and simply decocted for kidney disorders, toothache, and as part of a cough syrup. Throughout Spain it is known as flor de piedra (“stone flower”) or rompiedra (“stone breaker”).
X. elegans: salazinic and norstictic acids.
Ingolfsdottir et al. (2000) found rock orange lichen showed significant induction of quinone reductase against hepatoma cells. The concentration to double activity was determined to be only 4.8 micrograms per milliliter. This is significant because many plant constituents with cytotoxic activity are also harmful to healthy cells. One study found significant induction of quinone reductase activity in an assay using cultured Hepa 1c1c7 hepatoma cells.
Xanthoric acid, besides possessing cytoxicity, is anti-convulsive, antibacterial, and antifungal (Malhotra 2008).
Activity against Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and S. aureus has been shown.
All Xanthoria species contain various anthraquinone pigments such as parietin, and xanthroin.
It contains bromoperoxidase and significant amounts of beryllium and vanadium as well as parietinic and atranoric acids. Parietin pigment levels are strongly influenced by UVB radiation. It shows activity against S. aureus, and is antiviral.
Xanthoria parietina essence facilitates an awakening, bringing wisdom and understanding. It can help to relieve fears, nervousness, and confusion. It is for those who walk around in circles. It helps balance the solar plexus, CNS, liver, skin, lungs and nerves.
—SILVERCORD
The lichen is used as part of hair powder in India. In England, it is known as gold moss or gold lichen to be more accurate.
Tumbleweed shield lichen is prepared as a warm brown dye by Navajo weavers.
Shrubby sunburst lichen (X. candelaria), also called candle lichen in Sweden, is used to color animal fat to make candles. Other shield lichens would work just as well.