1. Video of the ceremony is included in the documentary film The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (Sony Pictures Classics, 2004).
2. Lyndon B. Johnson, “Remarks Upon Presenting the Medal of Freedom to Robert S. McNamara, February 28, 1968,” in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1968–69, Book I–January 1 to June 30, 1968, 290–92 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970).
3. Robert S. McNamara with Brian VanDeMark, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (New York: Vintage, 1996), xx.
4. Although this is the first full-length study of McNamara’s presidency of the Bank, detailed accounts may also be found in Devesh Kapur, John P. Lewis, and Richard Webb, The World Bank: Its First Half Century, vol. 1, History (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1997), 215–329 and Deborah Shapley, Promise and Power: The Life and Times of Robert McNamara (New York: Little, Brown, 1993), 463–582.
5. See Michael O’Brien, John F. Kennedy: A Biography (New York: St. Martin’s, 2005), 505.
6. Robert S. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington D.C., September 30, 1968,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years at the World Bank: Major Policy Addresses of Robert S. McNamara, 1968–1981 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 3, 5.
7. On the history of development and its relationship to U.S. foreign relations, see Michael E. Latham, The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2011); Nick Cullather, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010); David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010). For a recent overview of scholarship on the history of development generally, see Joseph Morgan Hodge, “Writing the History of Development (Part 1: The First Wave),” Humanity 6, 3 (Winter 2015): 429–63, and “Writing the History of Development (Part 2: Longer, Deeper, Wider),” Humanity 7, 1 (Spring 2016): 125–74.
8. E. F. Schumacher, “Intermediate Technology: The Missing Factor in Foreign Aid,” Oxford Diocesan Magazine (July 1970), in Records of the Office of the President, Records of President Robert S. McNamara (hereafter McNamara Papers), Chronological file (outgoing)—19, World Bank Group Archives (hereafter WBGA).
9. See William R. Easterly, The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001).
10. David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Ballantine, 1992), 245. On McNamara’s tenure as secretary of defense, see Lawrence S. Kaplan, Ronald D. Landa, and Edward J. Drea, The McNamara Ascendancy, 1961–1965 (Washington, D.C.: Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 2006) and Drea, McNamara, Clifford, and the Burdens of Vietnam, 1965–1969 (Washington, D.C.: Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 2011).
11. On the international history of the 1970s, see Niall Ferguson, Charles S. Maier, Erez Manela, and Daniel Sargent, eds., The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2011). On changes in U.S. foreign relations during this time, see Sargent, A Superpower Transformed: The Remaking of American Foreign Relations in the 1970s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
12. Scholarship on the history of development in the 1970s is still in its infancy. For a general overview of the U.S. experience during this time, see Latham, The Right Kind of Revolution, 157–85.
13. On the historical significance of international organizations, see Akira Iriye, Global Community: The Role of International Organizations in the Making of the Contemporary World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
1. John Blaxall, interview with author.
2. Harry Dexter White, “Proposal for a United Nations Stabilization Fund and a Bank for Reconstruction,” April 1942, cited in Edward S. Mason and Robert E. Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1973), 15.
3. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 17–18.
4. White’s April 1942 plan called for the Bank to “help strengthen the monetary and credit structures of the member countries by redistributing the world gold supply . . . stabilize the prices of essential raw materials and other important commodities [and] . . . provide for the financing and distribution of foodstuffs and other essential commodities needed for the relief of populations devastated by war conditions.” Cited in Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 16. Also see Donald Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty: The World Bank in the World Economy” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1984), 157–60.
5. Henry Morgenthau, Jr., memorandum attached to the “Preliminary Draft Outline of a Proposal for a United Nations Bank for Reconstruction and Development,” November 1943. Cited in Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 18.
6. The preliminary draft outline for the Bank called for votes to be divided according to government contributions, with no single country controlling more than 25 percent of the votes. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 17.
7. See Michael D. Bordo, The Gold Standard and Related Regimes: Collected Essays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 427.
8. Robert Skidelsky, John Maynard Keynes: Fighting for Freedom, 1937–1946 (New York: Penguin, 2002), 307. Instead, Keynes and the British delegation supported creation of an “International Development Corporation,” as well as a commodity stabilization and buffer stock mechanism (307–9); Kapur et al., The World Bank, 197 ff. Also see Roy Harrod, Life of John Maynard Keynes (New York: Norton, 1983), 525–85.
9. Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), 25–26.
10. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 13.
11. Ibid., 21–22.
12. Articles of Agreement, International Monetary Fund and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, Bretton Woods, N.H., July 1 to 22, 1944, III(4)(vii); III(3); I(ii); II(1)(a), http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTARCHIVES/Resources/IBRD_Articles_of_Agreement.pdf.
13. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 23–24.
14. IBRD, Articles of Agreement, IV(10).
15. Harrod, Life of Keynes, 540.
16. U.S. Department of State, Proceedings and Documents, vol. 1, 1101.
17. See Craig N. Murphy, International Organizations and Industrial Change: Global Governance Since 1850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); David Armstrong, Lorna Lloyd, and John Redmond, From Versailles to Maastricht: International Organisation in the Twentieth Century (New York: St. Martin’s, 1996), 7–61.
18. In 1920, the prime minister of Belgium proposed that an “International Bank of Issue” be created to provide investment capital to governments on favorable terms, and two years later German officials suggested establishment of a “Bank of Nations” that would do the same. See Rich, Mortgaging the Earth, 51; Dean Elizabeth Traynor, “International Monetary and Financial Conferences in the Interwar Period” (Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1949).
19. Frank Costigliola, “The Other Side of Isolationism: The Establishment of the First World Bank, 1929–30,” Journal of American History 59, 3 (1972): 602–20. The BIS role as a manager of World War I reparations fell by the wayside shortly after establishment as a result of the onset of the Depression. It soon evolved into a body for central bank coordination, a role it continues to play.
20. See Eric Helleiner, Forgotten Foundations of Bretton Woods: International Development and the Making of the Postwar Order (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2014), 52–79.
21. William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1988); Walter LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750 to the Present, 2nd ed. (New York: Norton, 1994); Emily S. Rosenberg, Financial Missionaries to the World: The Politics and Culture of Dollar Diplomacy, 1900–1930 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003); Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890–1945 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982).
22. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, “Message to Congress on the Bretton Woods Agreements,” February 12, 1945, Public Papers of the Presidents, American Presidency Project (hereafter APP), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16588.
23. Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World.
24. John G. Ruggie, “International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order,” International Organization 36, 2 (Spring 1982): 379–415. On the role of the state in the postwar order, see also Helleiner, States and the Reemergence of Global Finance (25) and Jacob Viner, “International Finance in the Postwar World,” Journal of Political Economy 65, 2 (April 1947): 97–107.
25. In his closing remarks to the Bretton Woods conference, for instance, Morgenthau declared that the Bank would “drive the usurious money lenders from the temple of international finance.” U.S. Department of State, Proceedings and Documents, vol. 2, 1227.
26. Anastasia Xenias, “Wartime Financial Diplomacy and the Transition to the Treasury System, 1939–1947,” in David M. Andrews, ed., Orderly Change: International Monetary Relations Since Bretton Woods (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2008), 41–50; Raymond F. Mikesell, Foreign Adventures of an Economist (Eugene: University of Oregon Press, 2000), 63–66; Richard N. Gardner, Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: Anglo-American Collaboration in the Reconstruction of Multilateral Trade (Oxford: Clarendon, 1956); Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World, 127–40; Theodore R. Libby, “The Ideology and Power of the World Bank” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1975), 18–20.
27. The Bank’s Articles of Agreement formally came into effect on December 31, 1945, after signature by twenty-eight governments.
28. IBRD, Third Annual Report, 1947–1948.
29. Jeffrey M. Chwieroth, “International Liquidity Provision: The IMF and the World Bank in the Treasury and Marshall Systems, 1942–1957,” in Edwards, ed., Orderly Change, 53.
30. Ibid., 56–60.
31. Ibid., 71.
32. Also see Chwieroth, “Organizational Change ‘From Within’: Exploring the World Bank’s Early Lending Practices,” Review of International Political Economy 15, 4 (2008): 481–505.
33. Chwieroth, “International Liquidity Provision,” 72; Catherine Gwin, “U.S. Relations with the World Bank, 1945–1992” in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 2, 253–54; Valerie J. Assetto, The Soviet Bloc in the IMF and IBRD (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1988), 70–73.
34. IBRD, Third Annual Report, 1947–1948. The report of the Colombia mission was published as IBRD, The Basis of a Development Program for Colombia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1950). For more on the Colombia mission and the Bank’s turn to development see Alacevich, The Political Economy of the World Bank, 11–63.
35. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 57.
36. IBRD, Articles of Agreement, I(i); Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 59–61.
37. Keynes, “Opening Remarks at the First Meeting of the Second Commission on the Bank for Reconstruction and Development,” in U.S. Department of State, Proceedings and Documents, 84. For a view of the proceedings that stresses the centrality of development in the discussions over the IMF and World Bank, see Helleiner, Forgotten Foundations.
38. Cooper, “Modernizing Bureaucrats, Backward Africans, and the Development Concept,” in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 64.
39. On the colonial origins of development see Joseph Morgan Hodge Triumph of the Expert: Agrarian Doctrines of Development and the Legacies of British Colonialism (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2007) and Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), among others.
40. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 491–537.
41. Libby, “The Ideology and Power of the World Bank,” 26–32.
42. Warren Baum, The Project Cycle (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group, 1982); Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 85–138.
43. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 8; Chwieroth, “International Liquidity Provision,” 74, and “Organizational Change ‘From Within,’ ” 497–501.
44. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 124–46.
45. On the Bank’s creation of “client constituencies,” see Libby, “The Ideology and Power of the World Bank,” 40–62.
46. List of closed projects by approval date, World Bank Projects Database, www.worldbank.org/projects.
47. The Bank’s management pushed for creation of the IFC as a means to counter competition from the U.S. Export-Import Bank in financing private enterprises in developing countries. See Libby, “The Ideology and Power of the World Bank,” 73–86.
48. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 72–87.
49. IDA, Articles of Agreement, V(1)(b).
50. On the creation of IDA see Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 382–89; Gwin, “U.S. Relations with the World Bank,” in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 2, 206; Guia Migani, La France et l’Afrique sub-saharienne, 1957–1963: Histoire d’une décolonisation entre idéaux eurafricains et politique de puissance (Bern: Peter Lang, 2008), 207–21; Libby, “The Ideology and Power of the World Bank,” 87–105.
51. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 62–63. On the power of the Bank’s president also see Andrew Shonfield, “The World Bank,” in Evan Luard., ed., The Evolution of International Organizations (New York: Praeger, 1966), 235–36, and Theodore H. Cohn, “Influence of the Less Developed Countries in the World Bank Group” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1972), 61–76.
52. Chwieroth, “International Liquidity Provision,” 75.
53. The Bank’s focus on projects was also the result of the predilections of Robert Garner, who as chair of the organization’s loan committee was able to make his personal preference for infrastructure projects Bank policy. Chwieroth, “Organizational Change ‘From Within,’ ” 497.
54. Amy L. S. Staples, “Seeing Diplomacy Through Bankers’ Eyes: The World Bank, the Anglo-American Oil Crisis, and the Aswan High Dam,” Diplomatic History 26, 3 (Summer 2002): 397–418.
55. Robert W. Oliver, George Woods and the World Bank (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Reinner, 1995).
56. Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 136; World Bank Archives, “Robert Strange McNamara: 5th President of the World Bank Group, 1968–1981.
57. Praveen K. Chaudhry, Vijay L. Kelkar, and Vikash Yadav, “The Evolution of ‘Homegrown Conditionality’ in India: IMF Relations,” Journal of Development Studies 40, 6 (August 2004): 59–81.
58. Kaplan et al., The McNamara Ascendancy, 547.
59. The most comprehensive biography of McNamara is Deborah Shapley, Promise and Power: The Life and Times of Robert McNamara (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993). Also see Paul Hendrickson, The Living and the Dead: Robert McNamara and Five Lives of a Lost War (New York: Knopf, 1996) and Henry L. Trewhitt, McNamara (New York: Harper & Row, 1971).
60. Shapley, Promise and Power, 1–19.
61. Ibid., 24.
62. Ibid., 20–27.
63. Ibid., 28–38.
64. John R. Davis, quoted in Allan Nevins and Frank Ernest Hill, Ford: Decline and Rebirth, 1933–1962 (New York: Scribner’s, 1962), 294.
65. Shapley, Promise and Power, 45–49. Paul Hendrickson has described how McNamara’s accounting system went beyond traditional methods of data collection by trying to determine new metrics for the company, such as “cost centers and budget centers and profit centers,” and using this information to plan business decisions. See Hendrickson, The Living and the Dead, 83–86. On GM’s decentralization, see Robert F. Freeland, “The Struggle for Control of the Modern Corporation: Organizational Change at General Motors, 1924–1958,” Business and Economic History 25, 1 (Fall 1996): 32–37.
66. Shapley, Promise and Power, 59–80.
67. On Kennedy’s recruitment of McNamara, see Shapley, Promise and Power, 82–86, and Hendrickson, The Living and the Dead, 108–15.
68. On the history of the U.S. Department of Defense, see James Carroll, House of War: The Pentagon and the Disastrous Rise of American Power (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2006).
69. Kaplan et al., The McNamara Ascendancy, 72–95.
70. In 1963, for instance, Time Magazine wrote about McNamara’s “brilliance and dedication” in overcoming the military’s opposition to his management programs. See “The Dilemma & the Design,” Time, February 15, 1963.
71. On McNamara’s role in the Bay of Pigs, see Shapley, Promise and Power, 114–16 and Trewhitt, McNamara, 97–98. On his role in the Cuban Missile Crisis, see Shapley, Promise and Power, 165–89.
72. Shapley, Promise and Power, 75–265.
73. Herring, America’s Longest War, 102.
74. Kevin Ruane, The Vietnam Wars (New York: St. Martin’s, 2000), xiii.
75. “Rusk-McNamara Report to Kennedy on South Vietnam, November 11, 1961,” in Neil Sheehan et al., The Pentagon Papers: As Published by the New York Times, Based on Investigative Reporting by Neil Sheehan (New York: Quadrangle, 1971), 150–53; Kaplan et al., The McNamara Ascendancy, 276.
76. Kaplan et al., The McNamara Ascendancy, 517–24.
77. Herring, America’s Longest War, 164. For a detailed account of Johnson administration decision-making in 1965 and 1966, see Drea, McNamara, Clifford, and the Burdens of Vietnam, 21–82.
78. The classic critique of McNamara’s management of the war is found in Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest. Also see H. R. McMaster, Dereliction of Duty: Lyndon Johnson, Robert McNamara, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Lies That Led to Vietnam (New York: HarperCollins, 1997).
79. Shapley, Promise and Power, 247–360.
80. The speech was reprinted in Robert S. McNamara, The Essence of Security: Reflections in Office (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 141–58.
81. James Reston, “Washington: The Computer That Turned Philosopher,” New York Times, May 22, 1966, 12E.
82. Mary McGrory, Omaha World Herald, May 25, 1966, cited in Shapley, Promise and Power, 383.
83. Reston, “The Computer That Turned Philosopher.”
84. The Fog of War.
85. McNamara, “On Gaps and Bridges,” in McNamara, The Essence of Security, 109.
86. On “helping the largest number,” see Shapley, Promise and Power, 18. On McNamara’s safety efforts at Ford, see The Fog of War, and Michael R. Lemov, Car Safety Wars: One Hundred Years of Technology, Politics, and Death (Madison, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 2015), 61. On Project 100,000, see Christian G. Appy, Working-Class War: American Combat Soldiers and Vietnam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 32–37.
87. For example, in 1963 McNamara told John Kennedy that initiatives to relocate South Vietnamese civilians to military-controlled “strategic hamlets” would give them “an identity as citizens of a community.” Quoted in Latham, Modernization as Ideology, 189.
88. On Point Four see McVety, “Truman’s Point Four Program.”
89. Harry S. Truman, “Inaugural Address, January 20, 1949,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=13282.
90. On U.S. aid in the 1960s and its relationship with the Vietnam War, see Ekbladh, The Great American Mission, 190–225.
91. Latham, Modernization as Ideology; Gilman, Mandarins of the Future, 203–76; Ekbladh, The Great American Mission, 226–256.
92. Shapley, Promise and Power, 323; Herring, America’s Longest War, 214–15.
93. Trewhitt, McNamara, 235.
94. McNamara, In Retrospect, 266–271.
95. “McNamara to Johnson, May 19, 1967,” in Sheehan et al., The Pentagon Papers, 580.
96. Robert Dallek, Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961–1973 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 391–442.
97. Quoted in Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest, 645.
98. Shapley, Promise and Power, 424.
99. John Roche in Shapley, Promise and Power, 426.
100. Robert Dallek, Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 319.
101. Robert McNamara, interview with Errol Morris, December 11–12, 2001, 247–50, II:116, Robert S. McNamara Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (hereafter RSM, LOC)
102. Shapley, Promise and Power, 427–28; McNamara, In Retrospect, 312–13; Hendrickson, The Living and the Dead, 338–39.
103. “List of possible choices, listed in alphabetical order of names, that have been suggested to succeed Mr. George D. Woods upon his retirement as President of the World Bank,” undated, International Classified Material: World Bank 1967, Papers of Henry Fowler, Box 40, Lyndon Baines Johnson Library (hereafter LBJL). The list included five Americans: David E. Bell, Douglas C. Dillon, Thomas S. Gates, William McChesney Martin, Jr., and David Rockefeller.
104. Office Memorandum, Livingston T. Merchant to Henry H. Fowler, Subject: World Bank Presidency Succession, May 22, 1967, International Classified Material: World Bank 1967, Papers of Henry Fowler, Box 40, LBJL.
105. Shapley, Promise and Power, 436–37.
106. Ibid., 437–40.
1. This story is recounted in Shapley, Promise and Power, 464.
2. Greg Votaw, interview with author.
3. John Blaxall, interview with author.
4. There was some precedent for automobile executives moving into development. Paul Hoffman, who served as director of the Economic Cooperation Administration, which administered the Marshall Plan, from 1948 to 1950 and headed the UNDP from 1959 to 1972, was president of Studebaker from 1935 to 1948. See Alan R. Raucher, Paul G. Hoffman: Architect of Foreign Aid (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1985).
5. Minutes of the President’s Council meeting (hereafter PC), April 1, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes. The quote comes from Clark, From Three Worlds, 239.
6. Clark, From Three Worlds, 239.
7. Quoted in Shapley, Promise and Power, 465.
8. Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 168.
9. Ibid.
10. J. Burke Knapp, World Bank Oral History (hereafter WBOH), 83.
11. Weiss, “Science and Technology at the World Bank,” 82.
12. Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 168.
13. On the protests of 1968 and their relationship with global political and economic change, see Jeremi Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003).
14. Partners in Development: Report of the Commission on International Development, ed. L. B. Pearson (London: Pall Mall Press, 1969), 138.
15. Ibid. 138–39.
16. Ibid., 72–73.
17. Ibid., 3.
18. McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968, RSM Chronological Files, Personal, Box 1.
19. Quoted in Shapley, Promise and Power, 471.
20. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1968, 25.
21. PC, April 1, 1968, April 15, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
22. Shapley, Promise and Power, 471.
23. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, September 30, 1968,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years, 8; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 957.
24. Rotberg, WBOH; Rotberg, “The Job Interview-1968,” The Memory Bank: World Bank Stories and Revelations (1818 Society 30th Anniversary Publication, 2008), 6–7. Rotberg accepted the position on November 9, 1968. Cable, McNamara to Siem Aldewereld, November 9, 1968, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S, Box 1. He was named treasurer on November 20. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 957.
25. Shapley, Promise and Power, 472.
26. On the globalization of finance in the 1960s and 1970s see Eric Helleiner, States and the Reemergence of Global Finance: From Bretton Woods to the 1990s (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994).
27. Cary Reich, “The World’s Greatest Borrower (as Told by Himself),” Institutional Investor (July 1984): 57–69; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 957.
28. Eugene Rotberg, interview with author.
29. PC, July 14, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
30. “McNamara Statement on Kennedy Role,” New York Times, April 14, 1968, 62.
31. Shapley, Promise and Power, 466–67.
32. IBRD Articles of Agreement, IV (10).
33. “Indiscretion,” New York Times, April 16, 1968, 46; “McNamara Assailed for Kennedy Acclaim,” Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1968, 17.
34. Catherine Gwin, “U.S. Relations with the World Bank,” in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 2, 205–7.
35. Oliver, George Woods, 204–8.
36. Warren Unna, “IDA Nations Move to Replenish Funds,” Washington Post, December 22, 1967.
37. PC, May 6, 1968, September 23, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
38. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1968, 26.
39. Eric Owen-Smith, The German Economy (London: Routledge, 1994), 505.
40. Rotberg, interview with author.
41. Memorandum of Conversation, Mr. McNamara’s Visit with Finance Minister Strauss on Monday, July 1, 9:00 a.m., Bonn, Germany, July 17, 1968, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S, Box 1; Memorandum of Conversation, Mr. McNamara’s Meeting with Minister Schiller, Monday, July 1, 11:30 a.m., Bonn, July 19, 1968 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S, Box 1.
42. “World Bank Borrows $100 Million from Bank in Dusseldorf, Germany,” Wall Street Journal, July 1, 1968, 27; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 1223; Edwin L. Dale, Jr., “World Bank’s Aid to Be Increased to Offset U.S. Cut,” New York Times, August 7, 1968, 1.
43. PC, December 20, 1968.
44. On McNamara’s reaction to Robert Kennedy’s assassination, see Shapley, Promise and Power, 473–74.
45. “World Bank Issue Is Sold in Kuwait,” New York Times, August 15, 1968, 55.
46. PC, March 10, March 24, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
47. On the Japanese “miracle” see Gary D. Allinson, Japan’s Postwar History (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997).
48. PC, May 26, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
49. PC, October 1, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1. On the Bank-Japanese relationship during this time see Ming Wan, “Spending Strategies in World Politics: How Japan Used Its Economic Power, 1952–1992” (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1993), 228–36.
50. Letter, McNamara to Takeo Fukuda, Minister of Finance, Japan, November 21, 1969, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S, Box 1.
51. Letter, McNamara to Aldewereld, reporting on McNamara’s meeting with Minister Kashiwagi, July 6, 1970 in IBRD/IDA 03–04-09S, Box 2; Wan, “Spending Strategies in World Politics” 233–34; Kapur et al., World Bank, vol. 1, 1224; World Bank Group Historical Chronology (hereafter WBGHC), 1970–79; http://go.worldbank.org/847R4CBE80.
52. Letter from McNamara to Fowler, July 25, 1968, cited in Mason and Ascher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 137.
53. John H. Allan, “World Bank Floats $250 Million,” New York Times, September 18, 1968, 59.
54. McNamara, “To the Bond Club of New York, New York, May 14, 1969,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years, 55–56.
55. Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 170.
56. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1974, 69.
57. Frank C. Porter, “World Bank Readies Bold New Efforts to Aid Poorer Nations,” Los Angeles Times, September 30, 1968, B10.
58. Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest.
59. McNamara, Memorandum for the Record, January 10, 1969, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S, Box 1.
60. Rotberg, “The Job Interview,” 7.
61. Robert McNamara interview with Errol Morris, December 11–12, 2001, pp. 378–79 II:116, RSM, LOC.
62. The Bank was not completely uninvolved in Indonesian history. Funds from its 1948 postwar reconstruction loan to the Dutch government were widely believed at the time to have gone to support the war against Indonesian nationalists. See Rich, Mortgaging the Earth, 69–70.
63. Quoted in ibid., 227.
64. Ibid., 127–28. Also see Jeremy Kuzmarov, “Modernizing Repression: Police Training, Political Violence, and Nation-Building in the ‘American Century,’ ” Diplomatic History 33, 2 (April 2009): 191–21.
65. Shapley, Promise and Power, 475; Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 678.
66. Shapley, Promise and Power, 476. On the Indonesian killings of 1965–66, see Robert Cribb, “Genocide in Indonesia, 1965–66,” Journal of Genocide Research 3, 2 (2001), 219–39.
67. McNamara, Statement at Press Conference, Djakarta, June 15, 1968, IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1.
68. On the Bank’s role in Indonesia in the 1970s see Miftah Wirahadikusma, “The Rise and Development of the Indonesian New Order Regime” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii, 1990) and Brad Simpson, “Indonesia’s ‘Accelerated Modernization’ and the Global Discourse of Development, 1960–1975,” Diplomatic History 33, 3 (June 2009): 467–86.
69. PC, April 15, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
70. “Calcutta Mobs Protest Visit by McNamara,” Los Angeles Times, November 21, 1968, 8.
71. Katherine Marshall, interview with author.
72. Clark, “Dr. McNamara, I Presume,” Bank Notes, December 1972, 2, WBGA.
73. Memorandum of Conversation, Participants: The President (Richard Nixon), President Leopold Senghor of Senegal, Marshall Wright, NSC, Jose Deseabra, Interpreter, June 18, 1971, 9:30 a.m., Oval Office, June 23, 1971, Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS), 1969–1976, vol. E-5, Documents on Africa, 1969–1972; Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 175–76.
74. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, September 30, 1968,” 6.
75. IBRD/IDA, Annual Reports, 1968–1981.
76. Richard Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress Proposing Reform of the Foreign Assistance Program September 15, 1970,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2661; Carol Lancaster, Foreign Aid: Diplomacy, Development, Domestic Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 75.
77. Roger D. Hansen and the Staff of the Overseas Development Council, The U.S. and World Development: Agenda for Action, 1976 (New York: Praeger, 1976), Table E-11.
78. OECD, Development Cooperation (Paris: OECD, annual issues), in Michael E. Akins, “United States Control over World Bank Group Decision-Making” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1981), 64.
79. Edwin L. Dale, Jr., “World Bank’s Aid to Be Increased to Offset U.S. Cut.”
80. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 30, 1968,” 15.
81. IBRD, The Program for Selecting Young Professionals for Careers with the World Bank Group (Washington, D.C.: IBRD, 1970).
82. IBRD/IDA, Annual Reports, 1968–1981.
83. McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968, in RSM Chronological Files, Personal, Box 1; McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 30, 1968,” 9.
84. IDA, 50 Questions and Answers (May 1970), cited in Cohn, “Influence of the Less Developed Countries,” 160.
85. Visvanathan Rajagopalan, WBOH.
86. See Mitsuo Ezaki, “On the Two-Gap Analysis of Foreign Aid,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 6, 2 (September 1975), 151–63.
87. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 17.
88. John G. Gurley, Book Review: Structural Change and Development Policy, Journal of Asian Studies 40, 2 (February 1981): 329.
89. According to one former staffer, McNamara “had his first influence on the Bank before he actually got there.” Before McNamara’s arrival, the Bank “had no programming or budgeting of any sort . . . we had six months [from announcement of his appointment until beginning of his term]. . . . So people started saying ‘oh my God, what are we going to do? We can’t have McNamara coming in here and finding out we don’t know what the hell we’re doing. So we better start adding things up’ . . . all the country people started rushing around trying to write up for each country a description of the country and its economics and what it was that we were supposed to be doing there with a sort of forward looking program of loans that we were making. And all this was done in an absolute mad rush.” Stephen Eccles, interview with author.
90. John Blaxall, “The World Bank’s Management Control Systems: A Brief History,” World Bank Working Paper (August 2006).
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.
93. Eccles, interview with author.
94. Blaxall, interview with author.
95. McNamara, PC, April 1, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1. McNamara’s initial agenda included a call to “replace the present procedure in which unrelated project loans, considered in isolation from one another, filter up through the levels with a five-year program based on systems analysis and overall development strategy, taking account of relative priorities among countries and within sectors of each country, is directed from the top.” McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968.
96. Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 168.
97. Blaxall, “The World Bank’s Management Control Systems.”
98. Blaxall, interview with author.
99. PC, May 27, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
100. Blaxall, “The World Bank’s Management Control Systems.”
101. Blaxall, interview with author.
102. Knapp, WBOH, 9.
103. Blaxall, “The World Bank’s Management Control Systems.”
104. Kaplan et al., The McNamara Ascendency, 72–95.
105. Ibid., 92.
106. Blaxall, “The World Bank’s Management Control Systems.”
107. Blaxall, interview with author.
108. Blaxall, “The World Bank’s Management Control Systems.”
109. Knapp, WBOH, 71.
110. PC, April 9, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
111. Ibid.
112. PC, February 23, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
113. Quoted in Shapley, Promise and Power, 459.
114. PC, May 14, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
115. PC, June 2, 1969,” McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; Memorandum, John H. Adler to Area Department Directors and Deputies, “Forecast of Board Action,” October 8, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 2, WBGA.
116. PC, May 6, 1968, June 7, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1
117. PC, March 27, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
118. Blaxall, interview with author.
119. PC, April 1, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
120. PC, April 14, 1969, April 13, 1970, April 1, 1968, March 15, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
121. These had resulted in publications such as James Morris, The Road to Huddersfield: A Journey to Five Continents (New York: Pantheon, 1963) and Albert O. Hirschman, Development Projects Observed (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1967).
122. McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968.
123. The P&B Department carried out limited evaluation work during this time. See Christopher Willoughby, “First Experiments in Operations Evaluation: Roots, Hopes, and Gaps,” in World Bank, OED, The First 30 Years (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2003), 3–4.
124. PC, December 15, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
125. PC, June 8, 1970, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
126. PC, December 15, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
127. PC, August 31, 1970, November 16, 1970, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; OED, The First 30 Years, 165.
128. OED, The First 30 Years, 166.
129. GAO, Comptroller General, “Report to the Congress: More Effective United States Participation Needed in World Bank and International Development Association,” February 14, 1973.
130. PC, April 3, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
131. PC, February 26, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes; OED, The First 30 Years, 166.
132. OED, The First 30 Years, 7, 167.
133. PC, May 6, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes; IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1970, 28.
134. Letter, McNamara to K.A. Busia, Prime Minister of Ghana, July 7, 1971 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 2.
135. PC, March 3, 1969, June 30, 1969, July 7, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
136. Letter, McNamara to Sir Robert Jackson, Commissioner, UNDP Capacity Study, July 21, 1969 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1.
137. McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968.
138. IBRD/IDA, Annual Reports, 1970–1973.
139. PC, May 13, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; Craig N. Murphy, The United Nations Development Programme: A Better Way? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 24.
140. Leif Christoffersen, interview with author.
141. PC, December 16, 1968, July 14, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
142. PC, January 26, 1970, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
143. PC, February 8, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
144. PC, February 15, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
145. Quoted in Libby, “The Ideology and Power,” 181.
146. OECD, Query Wizard for International Development Statistics, https://stats.oecd.org/qwids/.
147. Quoted in Libby, “The Ideology and Power,” 186.
148. Ibid., 181.
149. Letter, McNamara to C. A. Doxiadis, President, Athens Center of Ekistics, April 28, 1970 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S, Box 1; PC, November 30, 1970, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; McNamara, Remarks at Board Meeting Regarding Future Lending and Borrowing, February 10, 1972 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1, March 20, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
150. PC, October 14, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes.
151. PC, December 18, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes.
152. Office Memorandum: Staff Morale, H. B. Ripman to Robert S. McNamara, January 8, 1971, I:22, RSM, LOC.
153. Mohamed Shoaib, quoted in Louis Galambos and David Milobsky, “Organizing and Reorganizing the World Bank,” Business History Review, 69, 2 (Summer 1995): 177–78.
154. “World Bank Cites Shift in Divisions,” New York Times, November 18, 1968, 71.
155. McKinsey & Company, “Recommended Organization Structure: The World Bank Group” July 1972, II: 4, RSM, LOC; Galambos and Milobsky, “Organizing and Reorganizing the World Bank,”180.
156. McNamara called for a “decentralization of authority and responsibility” in his initial agenda. McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968.
157. Eccles, interview with author.
158. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 246. Also see Oshiba, “Resource Allocation,” 67.
159. President’s Council Meeting to Discuss Organizational Changes, August 7, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
160. Marshall, interview with author.
161. Votaw, interview with author.
162. Marshall, interview with author.
163. PC, June 11, 1973, January 29, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
164. Sudanese official quoted in Libby, “The Ideology and Power of the World Bank,” 193.
165. Quoted in ibid., 193.
166. Ethiopian official quoted in ibid., 193.
167. Quoted in ibid., 194.
1. Katherine Marshall, The World Bank: From Reconstruction to Development to Equity (London: Routledge, 2008), 54.
2. Robert S. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Nairobi, Kenya, September 24, 1973,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years at the World Bank: Major Policy Addresses of Robert S. McNamara, 1968–1981 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 230–63.
3. For a useful summary of economists’ concerns and their relation to the Bank’s work, see Nicholas Stern with Francisco Ferreira, “The World Bank as ‘Intellectual Actor,’ ” in Kauper et al., The World Bank, vol. 2, 530–31.
4. George Woods, Gabriel Silver Memorial Lecture, Columbia University, April 13, 1967, excerpted in IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1967, 1.
5. McNamara, The Essence of Security, 150.
6. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 30, 1968,” in The McNamara Years, 15.
7. McNamara, “To the Inter-American Press Association, Buenos Aires, October 18, 1968,” in ibid., 22.
8. McNamara, “To the University of Notre Dame, Indiana, May 1, 1969,” in ibid., 40.
9. McNamara, Arrival Statement in Addis Ababa, November 18, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1.
10. McNamara, Draft Reply to Toast at President Ahidjo’s Formal Dinner at Yaounde, January 15, 1971, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1.
11. Robert McNamara Remarks at Dinner, Dakar, February 9, 1969, in ibid.
12. Agronsky Interview (University of Georgia), December 2, 1971, in ibid.
13. Shapley, Promise and Power, 18.
14. The Fog of War.
15. McNamara with VanDeMark, In Retrospect, 324.
16. Shapley, Promise and Power, 523.
17. Ford Foundation, Annual Report, 1968, http://www.fordfound.org/archives/item/1968/text/21. On the influence of U.S. foundations in development policy generally see Inderjeet Parmar, Foundations of the American Century: The Ford, Carnegie, and Rockefeller Foundations and the Rise of American Power (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).
18. Letter, McNamara to Barbara Ward (Lady Jackson), July 13, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 2; McNamara, “An Eloquent Evangelist for the Poor,” Washington Post, June 3, 1981; McNamara, “Miscellaneous Comments by Barbara Ward,” undated (probably 1968/69) I:31, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC. Also see “Barbara Ward: Correspondence, I:18, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
19. Mahbub ul Haq, World Bank Oral History, December 3, 1982.
20. Ul Haq, The Poverty Curtain: Choices for the Third World (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 1.
21. Ul Haq, World Bank Oral History, 2–3.
22. For a summary of the first UN Decade for Development see United Nations, Toward Accelerated Development: Proposals for the Second United Nations Development Decade (New York: UN, 1970).
23. Dudley Seers, “The Meaning of Development,” International Development Review 11 (December 1969): 2–6.
24. David Morse, “The Employment Problem in Developing Countries,” speech at the Seventh Cambridge Conference on Development, September 1970, in Ronald Robinson and Peter Johnson, eds., Prospects for Employment Opportunities in the Nineteen Seventies (London: Cambridge University Overseas Study Committee, 1971), 5–13.
25. E. F. Schumacher, “Intermediate Technology: The Missing Factor in Foreign Aid,” Oxford Diocesan Magazine (July 1970).
26. PC, August 12, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
27. McNamara, letter to Lester Pearson, July 17, 1968, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1. On McNamara’s interest in the Pearson Report as a public relations document also see PC August 4, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
28. Partners in Development, 18. On the production of the Pearson Report and the surrounding debates, see Michael A. Clemens and Todd J. Moss, “Ghost of 0.7%: Origins and Relevance of the International Aid Target,” Center for Global Development Working Paper 68 (September 2005).
29. PC, August 4, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
30. Barbara Ward, J. D. Runnalls, and Lenore D’Anjou, eds., The Widening Gap: Development in the 1970’s: A Report on the Columbia Conference on International Development, Williamsburg, Virginia, and New York, February 15–21, 1970 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971).
31. Ibid., 11.
32. Ibid., 13.
33. Ibid., 12–13.
34. Shapley, Promise and Power, 507–8; Ekbladh, The Great American Mission, 226.
35. McNamara, “To the Columbia University Conference on International Economic Development, New York, February 20, 1970,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years, 104.
36. Richard Jolly, UNOH, http://www.unhistory.org/CD/PDFs/Jolly.pdf.
37. Matthew Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2008), 155–236; Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, UN Secretariat, The World at Six Billion (12 October 1999), ESA/P/WP.154, 5.
38. Cohn, “Influence of the Less Developed Countries,” 248–49.
39. Quoted in Asher Brynes, “Charity Begins at Home, The Nation, October 1, 1973, 307.
40. McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968, in RSM Chronological Files, Personal, Box 1. Both Eugene Black and George Woods called attention to the issue of overpopulation during their presidencies, but neither took any steps to move the organization into the field. Similarly, Bank staff had long drawn attention to population growth as part of the development process (the 1949 mission to Colombia stated that “the population is completely out of balance with other factors”), but the organization did not make any population loans nor encourage governments to adopt population control programs prior to McNamara’s arrival. See Cohn, “Influence of the Less Developed Countries,” 227–28, 256.
41. PC, May 6, 1968, October 7, 1968, October 7, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes; McNamara, Memorandum for Mr. Friedman, October 12, 1968, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1.
42. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, September 30, 1968,” in The McNamara Years, 12–14.
43. McNamara, “To the Inter-American Press Association,” in The McNamara Years, 21–27.
44. Statement by Mr. Robert S. McNamara, President of the World Bank, on leaving India, Sunday, November 24, 1968 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1.
45. McNamara, “To the University of Notre Dame,” in The McNamara Years, 31–52; IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1970.
46. “Economic aspects of population and labor force growth in Brazil,” World Bank Staff Working Paper, 1970; “Problems of applying stable population techniques in estimating demographic measures for Arab countries,” World Bank Staff Working Paper, 1971. Also see George C. Zaidan, “The Costs and Benefits of Family Planning Programs,” World Bank Staff Occasional Paper Number 12, 1971. The most comprehensive statement of the Bank’s population policy was “Population Planning,” World Bank Sector Working Paper, 1972.
47. For instance, three years after the Bank issued a $4.8 million loan to the government of Tunisia for the construction of maternity hospitals and an extension of family planning services, the government requested another $3.8 million to complete the project. Memorandum, from the President to the Executive Directors, Subject: TUNISIA—Population Project, July 29, 1974, in J. Burke Knapp Papers, Hoover Institution Archives (hereafter HIA).
48. Meet the Press, March 24, 1974, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 2.
49. Memorandum for the Record, Meeting to Discuss Population, July 18, 1975.
50. On the population control movement generally, see Connelly, Fatal Misconception, 276–340. On developing country opposition to Bank population programs, see Cohn, “Influence of the Less Developed Countries,” 213–64; Edmundo Flores, “The Desperation of Calcutta,” The Nation, May 24, 1971, 653; and David Gordon, “The World Bank: New Directions in Africa,” African Affairs 68, 2 (July 1969): 241. On staff resistance, see Michael Walden, interview with author; PC, December 2, 1974, May 17, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; and Robert McNamara, WBOH, October 3, 1991. For more on the Bank’s failure to develop a population lending program see Barbara Crane and Jason Finkle, “Organizational Impediments to Development Assistance: The World Bank’s Population Program,” World Politics 33, 4 (July 1981): 516–53.
51. PC, March 3, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
52. Letter, McNamara to Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, High Commissioner for Refugees, Office of the UN High Commission for Refugees, February 11, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1.
53. McNamara, letter to Mr. Mohamed Nassim Kochman, Subject: Community Development, May 1, 1969, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1.
54. PC, April 22, 1974, April 23, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; PC, April 23, 1979, Box 2; Jennifer Prah Rugger, “The Changing Role of the World Bank in Global Health,” American Journal of Public Health 95, 1 (January 2005): 65.
55. Hollis B. Chenery and Alan M. Strout, “Foreign Assistance and Economic Development,” American Economic Review 56, 1 (September 1966): 679–733.
56. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 25, 1972,” in The McNamara Years, 228.
57. For instance, in the early 1970s the Bank began to issue “sector study papers” on agriculture, water supply and sewerage, forestry, education, and telecommunications, among other topics.
58. Weiss and Jéquier, eds., Technology, Finance, and Development, 261.
59. Though Bank staff had been assisting other international agencies in trying to address the issue since the early 1960s, it was not until McNamara and his wife came across victims of the disease on a trip to Mali that the Bank took up the cause. In April 1972, McNamara proposed that the Bank enlist other donors in a cooperative effort to limit river blindness. A few months later, the Bank summoned the first meeting of the Onchocerciasis Control Program (OCP), and the program commenced spraying in 1974. Jesse Bump, “The Lion’s Gaze: African River Blindness from Tropical Curiosity to International Development (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 2005), 306–72; Shapley, Promise and Power, 523; Bernard H. Liese, John Wilson, Bruce Benton, and Douglas Marr, “The Onchocerciasis Control Program in West Africa: A Long-Term Commitment to Success,” World Bank Staff Working Paper (August 1991); Ellie Tragakes, “The Political Economy of National and International Agricultural Research” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1987), 261; John K. Coulter, “The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research,” in Weiss and Jéquier, Technology, Finance, and Development, 267. In addition to the OCP and CGIAR the Bank’s support of development research institutes included co-sponsorship of the Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, created by the World Health Organization in 1977. See Adetokunbo O. Lucas, “The Tropical Diseases Research Program,” in Weiss and Jéquier, Technology, Finance, and Development, 283–94.
60. Statement by McNamara on leaving India.
61. PC, March 24, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
62. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, September 30, 1968,” in The McNamara Years, 11; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 405.
63. PC, October 4, 1971, December 13, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
64. Uma Lele, The Design of Rural Development: Lessons from Africa (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1975), 6. Also see Albert Waterston, “A Viable Model for Rural Development,” Finance and Development 11, 4 (December 1974): 22–25.
65. For an overview of the Bank’s urban development approach before, during, and after the McNamara years see Cecilia Zanetta, “The Evolution of the World Bank’s Urban Lending in Latin America: From Sites and Services to Municipal Reform and Beyond,” Habitat International 25, 4 (December 2001): 513–33.
66. Commission on International Development, Partners in Development, 60–61.
67. World Bank, Urbanization Sector Working Paper (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1972).
68. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 1, 1975,” in McNamara Years, 316.
69. On the Bank’s failure to lend for urban development before the McNamara years, see Edward Ramsamy, “From Projects to Policy: The World Bank and Housing in the Developing World” (Ph.D. dissertation, Rutgers University, 2002), 147; PC, February 23, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; Letter, McNamara to Senator John Sparkman, Chairman of the Committee on Banking and Currency, Subcommittee on Housing and Urban Affairs, April 14, 1971 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 2.
70. Ramsamy, “From Projects to Policy,” 175.
71. PC, January 6, 1969, May 15, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes; William Ascher, “New Development Approaches and the Adaptability of International Agencies: The Case of the World Bank,” International Organization 37, 3 (Summer 1983), 432.
72. Ascher, “New Development Approaches,” 433.
73. Ibid., 428–34.
74. John Blaxall, interview with author.
75. Office Memorandum: Summary of Special Meeting with Agricultural Staff, From Montague Yudelman to Robert S. McNamara, October 28, 1976, I: 20, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
76. Katherine Marshall, interview with author.
77. In 1973, Hollis Chenery broached the idea of creating a system to determine the “distributional effects of Bank projects,” and McNamara promised the Bank should devote greater attention to assessing the social impacts of its projects during his speech to the Bank and IMF Board of Governors that fall. PC, May 7, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
78. Ascher, “New Development Approaches,” 428–33.
79. Knapp, WBOH, 59.
80. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1973, 6; Mahbub ul Haq, “Changing Emphasis of the Bank’s Lending Policies,” Finance and Development 15, 2 (September 1978): 10–21.
81. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Nairobi, Kenya, September 24, 1973,” in The McNamara Years, 242.
82. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 25, 1972,” in ibid., 220–22.
83. Ul Haq, WBOH, 3–4.
84. Hollis Chenery et al., Redistribution with Growth: Policies to Improve Income Distribution in Developing Countries in the Context of Economic Growth: A Joint Study by the World Bank’s Development Research Center and the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974). The report was based on papers delivered at a conference held at the Rockefeller Foundation’s Bellagio estate in April 1973.
85. Ibid., v.
86. Ibid., xiii.
87. Ibid., 10. The authors did not include mainland China or the Soviet Union in their analysis.
88. Ibid., xiii, 38.
89. Ibid., 48–49.
90. Ibid., 48.
91. Ibid., 47.
92. Ibid., xv.
93. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, September 29, 1969,” in The McNamara Years, 73.
94. “Concluding Remarks by Robert S. McNamara, President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and Affiliates, at the Closing Session, September 28, 1973,” World Bank press release 82; McNamara, Remarks upon Departure from Mauritania, January 21, 1971, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1.
95. John Blaxall, interview with author, January 2008.
96. Finnemore, “Redefining Development,” 203–27.
97. See Paul Streeten and Shahid Javed Burki, “Basic Needs: Some Issues,” World Development 6, 3 (March 1978): 411–21.
98. PC, October 20, 1975, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
99. Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 79.
100. Kapur in Knapp, WBOH, 72.
101. Nancy Birdsall and Juan Luis Londono, “Asset Inequality Matters: An Assessment of the World Bank’s Approach to Poverty Reduction,” American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings of the Hundred and Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association 87, 2 (May 1997): 33.
102. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 1 1975,” in The McNamara Years, 309–10.
103. Robert McNamara, WBOH, October 3, 1991.
104. Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty,” 391.
105. Mr. McNamara’s Remarks at State Dinner in Colombia, June 4, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1.
106. Letter, McNamara to Jose Figueres Ferrer, President, Costa Rica, December 18, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 2.
107. Letter, McNamara to Jean-Bédel Bokassa, President, Central African Republic, December 15, 1971, in ibid.
108. McNamara, Agronsky Interview (University of Georgia), December 2, 1971, in ibid.
109. Escott Reid, “McNamara’s World Bank,” Foreign Affairs 51, 4 (July 1973), 795.
110. McNamara, David Spanier Interview (London Times and EUROPA), February 4, 1975, in ibid.
111. Tanzanian official quoted in Libby, “Ideology and Power,” 49.
112. Ceylonese official quoted in ibid., 198.
113. Eugene Black, “Development Revisited,” International Development Review 13, 4 (1970): 2–8.
114. Michael Hoffman, “The Challenges of the 1970s and the Present Institutional Structure,” in John P. Lewis and Ishan Kapur, eds., The World Bank Group, Multilateral Aid, and the 1970s (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington, 1973), 17.
115. Jennifer Light, From Warfare to Welfare: Defense Intellectuals and Urban Problems in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
116. G. H. R. to Robert McNamara, February 1975, I:20, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
117. Shaun Farragher to Robert McNamara, September 28, 1977, I:20, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
118. Blaxall, interview with author.
119. Shapley, Promise and Power, 491; William Safire, Before the Fall: An Inside View of the Pre-Watergate White House (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1975), 192; “Kissinger and World Bank President Robert McNamara, 3 January 1973, 5:45 p.m.,” Nixon Presidential Materials Project, Henry A. Kissinger Telephone Conversations Transcripts, Chronological File, Box 17, 1973 2–6, National Security Archive (NSA); McNamara to Kissinger, October 15, 1972, I:26, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
120. Shapley, Promise and Power, 491; Safire, Before the Fall, 192; “Kissinger and World Bank President Robert McNamara, 3 January 1973”; PC, April 7, 1969, June 30, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes. Also see the folder “Mekong Basin dam project” in I: 30, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
121. Letter, McNamara to Tran-Thien-Khiem, Prime Minister of Vietnam, April 19, 1971, RSM, Chronological Files (Outgoing), Box 2.
122. PC, January 22, 1973, May 21, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
123. Mark Selden, “Multinational Aid to Saigon,” The Nation, April 6, 1974, 422–23.
124. Quoted in Sanford, U.S. Foreign Policy, 214.
125. Shapley, Promise and Power, 495.
126. Hendrickson, The Living and the Dead, 7–13.
127. On McNamara’s early interest in Romania see Memorandum of Conversation, Mr. McNamara’s Meeting with Minister Wischnewski and Dr. Dumke of Ministry for Economic Cooperation, Monday, June 1, 10:00 a.m., Bonn, July 19, 1968, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1; Assetto, The Soviet Bloc in the IMF and IBRD, 146.
128. IBRD, Yugoslavia and the World Bank (Washington, D.C.: IBRD, 1979), 34; Assetto, The Soviet Bloc in the IMF and IBRD, 108, 126–28. McNamara met with Yugoslavian officials early in his tenure to encourage them to borrow more from the Bank. See Memorandum for the Record, January 14, 1969 in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1.
1. Robert S. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Nairobi, Kenya, September 24, 1973,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years, 230–63.
2. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Nairobi, Kenya, September 24, 1973,” in ibid., 230–63.
3. “IMF Overflows Nairobi’s Hotels,” New York Times, September 24, 1973, 49.
4. Charles N. Stabler, “Clamoring for ‘Paper Gold,’ ” Wall Street Journal, September 24, 1973, 30.
5. For instance, Tajuddin Ahmad, the first Prime Minister of Bangladesh and a sometimes critic of the Bank, praised McNamara for shedding light on “number of disconcerting facts about the current international economic situation which are having very deleterious effects on the poorer nations such as continuous trade barriers against poor countries, considerable shortfall in official aid flow below the target 0.7 per cent of the GNP of the rich countries and the mounting external debt-service problem of the developing countries.” See IBRD, 1973 Annual Meetings of the Boards of Governors: Summary Proceedings, Nairobi, Kenya, September 24–28, 1973 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1973), 50.
6. Edwin L. Dale, Jr., “The Nairobi Talks: In Search of Stability; In Quest of Aid,” New York Times, September 30, 1973, 208. See also “Innovative Aid Reform,” New York Times, October 1, 1973, 34 and “The Impossibility of Isolation,” Los Angeles Times, September 28, 1973, B6.
7. Ayres, Banking on the Poor, 4, 9; Leif Christoffersen, Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, interviews with author.
8. Nicholas Stern with Francisco Ferreira, “The World Bank as ‘Intellectual Actor,’ ” in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 2, 535, 549; Finnemore, “Redefining Development,” 217; Escobar, Encountering Development, 160–62.
9. Maddux, The Development Philosophy of Robert S. McNamara, 19.
10. Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 177.
11. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, “Declaratory Statement of Petroleum Policy in Member Countries,” Resolutions of Sixteenth OPEC Conference, Vienna, June 24–25, 1968.
12. On the origins, contours, and consequences of the 1973–74 oil crisis, see Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power (New York: Free Press, 2008).
13. PC, December 10, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
14. “Draft Report on FAO/IBRD Roundtable Discussion,” February 21–22, 1974, FAO Investment Center, SF 4/1-UN 12/1, Archives of the Food and Agriculture Organization (hereafter FAO Archives).
15. PC, December 17, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes.
16. Munir P. Benjenk, “The Impact of New Oil Prices on Developing Countries,” January 29, 1974, IMF Central Files Collection: Economics Subject Files S1184–1190, Box 383, IMF Archives.
17. PC, January 14, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
18. PC, January 14, January 21, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
19. PC, December 10, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
20. PC, January 21, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
21. Benjenk, “Impact of New Oil Prices,” 2–3.
22. McNamara, List of Projects, May 25, 1968, in RSM Chronological Files, Personal, Box 1.
23. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 973.
24. PC, February 26, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
25. Ibid.
26. Stephen S. Rosenfeld, “Robert S. McNamara and the Wiser Use of Power,” World 2 (July 3, 1973): 18.
27. Shapley, Promise and Power, 516.
28. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1974, 5–7.
29. Memo, Martin J. Paijmans to Burke Knapp, European Communities: Future Aid to Developing Countries, January 29, 1974, J. Burke Knapp Papers, HIA.
30. PC, February 4, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
31. Memorandum for the Record, Meeting on Energy, January 22, 1974, McNamara Papers, Memoranda for the Record, Box 1.
32. Memorandum from J. J. Polak to Acting Managing Director, January 23, 1974, in S1780, IMF Archives; Memorandum for the Record, Meeting on Energy, January 22, 1974.
33. A. D. Crockett to Files, Memorandum, Subject: Financing Oil in the Medium Term, February 11, 1974, IMF Central Files: Economic Subject Files S1780 (1973–1974), Box 472, IMF Archives.
34. A. D. Crockett to Files, Memorandum, Subject: Financing Oil in the Medium Term, February 13, 1974, IMF Central Files: Economic Subject Files S1780 (1973–1974), Box 470, IMF Archives.
35. A. D. Crockett to Files, Memorandum, Subject: Managing Director’s Conversation with Mr. McNamara, February 26, 1974, IMF Central Files: Economic Subject Files S1780 (1973–1974), Box 472, IMF Archives.
36. Ibid.
37. Press Conference, Tehran, Iran, February 21, 1974, in WBGA IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 2.
38. Algerian officials thought the Bank often refused to lend to them because of French resistance. They also opposed the Bank’s policy against financing energy projects, which according to McNamara made them “feel forced to deal with private firms they would have liked to avoid.” PC, April 1, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
39. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1974, 67.
40. Ibid., 5.
41. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1975, 76.
42. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 973.
43. Jahangir Amuzegar, Oil Exporters’ Economic Development in an Interdependent World (Washington, D.C.: IMF, 1983), 62.
44. Ibid., 62–63; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 973–74.
45. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 973–74.
46. Ibid., 975–76; V. H. Oppenheim, “Whose World Bank?,” Foreign Policy 19 (Summer 1975): 104.
47. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 977.
48. PC, September 9, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
49. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1975, 42.
50. Amuzegar, Oil Exporters’ Economic Development, 62.
51. From 1977 and 1981 just 8 percent of the organization’s borrowings came from OPEC members. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 973–74.
52. PC, June 10, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
53. In the U.S., for instance, ODA increased from $2.34 billion in 1973 to just $2.5 billion the following year (in current dollars), while Japanese ODA actually declined between 1974 and 1976. World Bank, GDF.
54. Richard Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress Proposing Reform of the Foreign Assistance Program September 15, 1970,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2661; Carol Lancaster, Foreign Aid: Diplomacy, Development, Domestic Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 75.
55. Roger D. Hansen and the Staff of the Overseas Development Council, The U.S. and World Development: Agenda for Action, 1976 (New York: Praeger, 1976), Table E-11.
56. Robert David Johnson, Congress and the Cold War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 72; Jeffrey F. Taffet, Foreign Aid as Foreign Policy: The Alliance for Progress in Latin America (New York: Routledge, 2007), 40; Randolph Jones, “Otto Passman and Foreign Aid: The Early Years,” Louisiana History 26, 1 (Winter 1985): 53–62.
57. National Security Council Memorandum, Arnold Nachmanoff and Robert Hormats to General Haig, May 6, 1971, RG 56: Records Relating to International Financial Institutions, Box 9, National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter NARA); Jonathan E. Sanford, U.S. Foreign Policy and Multilateral Development Banks (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1982), 121; Babb, Behind the Development Banks, 67.
58. In Latin America alone, U.S.-owned companies were expropriated on at least twenty-two separate occasions between 1968 and 1976. See Hal Brands, “Richard Nixon and Economic Nationalism in Latin America: The Problem of Expropriations, 1969–1974,” Diplomacy and Statecraft 18, 1 (January 2007), 216.
59. Brands, “Richard Nixon and Economic Nationalism,” 221.
60. Memorandum for the Record, Meeting on Expropriation of Foreign Investments, October 21, 1971, McNamara Papers, Memoranda for the Record, Box 1.
61. “Expropriation Policy, 1969–1972,” Editorial Note 148, FRUS, 1969–1976, IV, Foreign Assistance, International Development, Trade Policies, 1969–1972.
62. U.S. General Accounting Office, More Effective United States Participation Needed in World Bank and International Development Association (Washington, D.C.: Comptroller General of the United States, 1973), 2. These findings were echoed by a Congressional Research Service report issued the following year. See U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, The United States and the Multilateral Development Banks, by Margaret Goodman and Jonathan Sanford, A Report to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, 93rd Cong., 2nd sess., 1974, 210.
63. Gwin, “U.S. Relations,” 219–20.
64. Memorandum of Conversation, November 17, 1969, White House Situation Room, Subject: Discussions of References to Increased Japanese Economic Development Assistance in President’s Talks with Japanese Prime Minister Sato, Nixon Presidential Materials, National Security Council Files, Name Files, Box 828, NARA.
65. John Blaxall, interview with author, January 2008.
66. Memorandum of Conversation, Palm Springs, California, May 7, 1971, 2:50–5:45 p.m., Kissinger Office Files, Country Files, Middle East, Farland, Amb. (Pakistan), Nixon Presidential Materials, NSC Files, Box 138, NARA, cited in FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 11, South Asia Crisis, 1971; Conversation among President Nixon, the president’s assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), and Attorney General Mitchell, Washington, D.C., December 8, 1971, 4:20–5:01 p.m., FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-7, Documents on South Asia, 1969–1972.
67. Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, July 23, 1971, 12:50–1:18 p.m., Country Files, Middle East, India/Pakistan, July 1971, Nixon Presidential Materials, NSC Files, Box 643, NARA, cited in FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 11, South Asia Crisis, 1971; Memorandum of Conversation, Washington, July 30, 1971, 6 p.m., Geopolitical File, South Asia, Chronological File, Nov 69-July 1971, Kissinger Papers, Box CL 210, LOC, cited in FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. 11.
68. World Bank Office Memorandum to Mr. Lester Nurick, Subject: Cases of Nationalization Relevant to the Iraqi Dispute, June 10, 1972, RG 56, Records Relating to International Financial Institutions, Box 1, NARA.
69. William Clark, “Reconsiderations: Robert McNamara at the World Bank,” Foreign Affairs 60, 1 (Fall 1981): 176; J. Burke Knapp, WBOH, Papers of J. Burke Knapp, HIA.
70. PC, March 5, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; “Lists of White House ‘Enemies’ and Memorandums Relating to Those Named,” New York Times, June 28, 1973, 38.
71. PC, June 7, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
72. Sanford, U.S. Foreign Policy, 62–63.
73. John M. Hennessy, Draft letter to Chairman of House Banking and Currency Committee, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, House and Senate Appropriations Sub-Committees on Foreign Operations, undated, RG 56, Office of International Development Banks, Chronological File, Box 1, NARA.
74. Memorandum for Secretary Shultz from John M. Hennessy, Assistant Secretary for International Affairs, Subject: “Stretch-out” U.S. Contribution to IDA, April 16, 1973, William E. Simon Papers (microfiche), Series IIIA Subject Files (D.S.) Drawer 14 Federal Energy Office Folders 14:1 thru 14:64, Gerald Ford Library (hereafter GFL).
75. PC, September 23, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes.
76. Gwin, “U.S. Relations,” 215.
77. On the decline in U.S. support for foreign aid see David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010), 226–56.
78. Randall Bennett Woods, J. William Fulbright, Vietnam, and the Search for a Cold War Foreign Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 255; PL 93–189 (December 17, 1973).
79. Selig S. Harrison, “Administration Plans New Aid Fund Attempt,” Washington Post, February 10, 1974, A17.
80. On responses to the oil crisis see G. John Ikenberry, “The Irony of State Strength: Comparative Responses to the Oil Shocks in the 1970s,” International Organization 40, 1 (Winter 1986): 105–37.
81. Memorandum for the Record, Meeting on Energy, January 22, 1974, McNamara Papers, Memoranda for the Record, Box 1; Memorandum for the Record, Meeting on Energy, January 28, 1974, McNamara Papers, Memoranda for the Record, Box 1; Memorandum for the Record, Meeting with Mr. Ullberg, Minister Counsellor, Norwegian Embassy, March 1, 1974, McNamara Papers, Memoranda for the Record, Box 1. On the U.S. response to the oil crisis generally see David E. Spiro, The Hidden Hand of American Hegemony: Petrodollar Recycling and International Markets (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999).
82. Oppenheim, “Whose World Bank?” 106–8.
83. Quoted in Gwin, “U.S. Relations with the World Bank,” 217.
84. Prominent among these critics was British economist P. T. Bauer, whose Dissent on Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972) argued that post-World War II foreign aid had not achieved its development objectives for a variety of reasons, including the inability of government planners to identify productive investments. For a sympathetic review of Bauer’s work, see Andrei Shleifer, “Peter Bauer and the Failure of Foreign Aid,” Cato Journal 29, 3 (Fall 2009): 379–90.
85. PC, February 2, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
86. PC, December 16, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
87. McNamara initially sought to get around U.S. hesitancy to increase its capital contribution to the Bank by reaching out to oil-producers. In January 1975, he asked OPEC officials to consider increasing their share of capital subscriptions to the Bank from 4 to 15 percent, an “extraordinary offer,” the Bank’s historians note, “given the record of the extreme difficulties in changing relative voting power in the IBRD.” Yet here too McNamara was rebuffed. PC, January 6, 1975, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 973.
88. Charles F. Schwartz, Memorandum to the Managing Director and the Deputy Managing Director, Subject: Board Meeting at the World Bank, March 21, 1974, IMF Central Files- Economic Subject Files S1780 (1973–1974), Box 470, IMF archives; PC, July 8, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1. Meanwhile, the U.S. opposed IMF efforts to expand its oil facility. See Daniel Sargent, “The United States and Globalization in the 1970s,” in Ferguson et al., The Shock of the Global, 59.
89. By contrast, the U.S. put up 41 percent of the Bank’s initial capital and held 25 percent in 1975. Akins, “U.S. Control over World Bank Group Decision-Making,” 147–55.
90. PC, July 1, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
91. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1. A similar proposal for an “Interest Equalization Fund” had been put forward in 1962 by David Horowitz, the Israeli governor to the Bank. See James H. Weaver, The International Development Association (New York: Praeger, 1965), 179.
92. Memorandum for the President from William E. Simon, Subject: Results of International Meetings this Week on Monetary and Development Issues, January 18, 1975, White House Central Files, Subject Files IT 10–20, Box 2, GFL; Memorandum to Ms. Marian Bradley from Bernard Zinman, Subject: Comments on DDC Policy Paper No. 1, May 30, 1975, Office of International Development Banks, Chronological File, Box 3, RG 56, NARA; IBRD/ IDA, Annual Report, 1975, 14.
93. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 1984.
94. Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, May 1, 1974, A/RES/S-6/3201.
95. Guiliano Garavini, After Empires: European Integration, Decolonization, and the Challenge from the Global South, 1957–1986, trans. Richard R. Nybakken (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 178.
96. PC, May 6, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1. McNamara had flirted with a number of “pro-South” positions before. Aside from continuing the Bank’s longstanding support for reductions in developed country import barriers and increased foreign assistance levels, in 1972 he argued for allocating SDRs to developing countries as a means to supplement regular aid flows. In 1969 McNamara also pushed through a proposal to have the Bank provide developing countries with supplementary financing in case of sudden commodity price drops.
97. PC, December 4, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
98. On U.S. responses to the NIEO see John Toye and Richard Toye, “From New Era to Neo-Liberalism: U.S. Strategy on Trade, Finance, and Development in the United Nations, 1964–1982,” Forum for Development Studies 1, 32 (June 2005): 151–80.
99. Henry Kissinger, Global Consensus and Economic Development, Speech Delivered to the Seventh Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly, September 1, 1975 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, 1975); Peter Dickson, Kissinger and the Meaning of History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 181; PC, April 26, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
100. Robert Hormats, National Security Council memorandum for Brent Scowcroft, January 20, 1976, Subject: Nigeria: Treasury Intends to Oppose IBRD Lending, FRUS, 19691976, vol. E-6, Documents on Africa, 1973–1976.
101. On Kissinger’s growing appreciation for the role of economics in international affairs see Daniel J. Sargent, “The United States and Globalization in the 1970s,” in Ferguson et al., The Shock of the Global, 49–51.
102. Kissinger to Simon, March 3, 1976, FRUS, 1969–1976, vol. E-6.
103. PC, February 2, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
104. Raul Prebisch, The Economic Development of Latin America and Its Principal Problems (New York: UN, 1950); H. W. Singer, “The Distribution of Gains between Investing and Borrowing Countries,” American Economic Review 40, 2, Papers and Proceedings of the Sixty-Second Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association (May 1950): 473–85.
105. Paul A. Baran, The Political Economy of Growth (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1957); Celso Furtado, Desenvolvimento e subdesenvolvimento (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Fundo de Cultura, 1961); Samir Amin, L’accumulation à l’échelle mondiale (Dakar: IFAN, 1970); Andre Gunder Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967).
106. Frank, “The Development of Underdevelopment,” Monthly Review Press 18, 4 (September 1966): 17–31.
107. For a representative dependency theory approach, see Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America.
108. Teresa Hayter, Aid as Imperialism (Middlesex: Penguin, 1971). As described in the following chapter, the Bank initially sponsored Hayter’s study but then tried to prevent its publication.
109. Ernest Feder, “McNamara’s Little Green Revolution: World Bank Scheme for Self-Liquidation of Third World Peasantry,” Economic and Political Weekly 11, 14 (April 3, 1976): 538. See also Rosemary Galli, “Rural Development as Social Control: International Agencies and Class Struggle in the Colombian Countryside,” Latin American Perspectives 5, 4 (Autumn 1978): 86. At times critics took such complaints directly to the Bank. In 1976, for instance, a Bank staff noted that European scholars had “viciously attacked the organization on the grounds that it serves as a “pathfinder for multinational corporations [and] proleterized small farmers through its rural development program so that their land could be taken over by multinational agribusinesses.” PC, March 15, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
110. Bertram Gross, “Destructive Decision-Making in Developing Countries,” Policy Sciences 5, 2 (June 1974): 236.
111. Aart J. M. van de Laar, “The World Bank: Which Way?” Development and Change 7 (1976): 93. Also see van de Laar, “The World Bank and the World’s Poor,” World Development 4, 10–11 (1976): 837–51.
112. Gordon H. Ball, “Man and His Parasites in the Tropics,” American Biology Teacher 30, 5 (May 1968): 429; Thayer Scudder, “The Human Ecology of Big Projects: River Basin Development and Resettlement,” Annual Review of Anthropology 2 (1973): 45–55; M. Taghi Farvar and John P. Milton, eds., The Careless Technology: Ecology and International Development (New York: Doubleday, 1972).
113. Brynes, “Charity Begins at Home,” 307.
114. Donella H. Meadows, Dennis L. Meadows, Jørgen Randers, and William W. Behrens III, The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind (New York: Universe, 1972). On the rise of environmental concerns about development, see Stephen J. Macekura, Of Limits and Growth: The Rise of Sustainable Development in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
115. E. F. Schumacher, Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (London: Blond & Briggs, 1973). For a contemporary perspective on the environmentalist critique of foreign aid, see Richard Critchfield, “The New Environment of Foreign Aid,” The Nation, May 15, 1972, 622.
116. On opposition to the Chico Dam project, see Sanjeev Khagram, Dams and Development: Transnational Struggles for Water and Power (Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press, 2004), 191–92, and “The Cordillera Under Siege: An Interview with Victoria Tauli Corpuz,” Multinational Monitor (September 1992).
117. Peter Winn, “Why Letelier Died Now,” The Nation, October 9, 1976, 327.
118. PC, December 13, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
119. Well-known development economist William Arthur Lewis, for instance, argued that economic development would lead to a greater prevalence of nuclear families, which would give women more freedom to enter the formal workforce. See W. Arthur Lewis, The Theory of Economic Growth (London: Allen and Unwin, 1955), 48–50. On early views of the role of women in development, see Maureen Woodhall, “Investment in Women: A Reappraisal of the Concept of Human Capital,” International Review of Education 19, 1 (March 1973): 10.
120. See Arvonne S. Fraser and Irene Tinker, eds., Developing Power: How Women Transformed International Development (New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 2004); Robyn G. Isserles, “Ideology, Rhetoric and the Politics of Bureaucracy: Exploring Women and Development” (Ph.D. dissertation: City University of New York, 2002); Jane L. Parpart, M. Patricia Connelly, and V. Eudine Barriteau, eds., Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development (Ottawa: International Development Research Centre, 2000); Nuket Kardam, Bringing Women In: Women’s Issues in International Development Programs (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1991).
121. Ester Boserup, Woman’s Role in Economic Development (London: Allen and Unwin, 1970).
122. For a sampling of the emerging scholarship on women in development, see Lourdes Arizpe, “Women in the Informal Labor Sector: The Case of Mexico City,” SIGNS 3, 1 (August 1977): 25–37; Kathleen Staudt, “Agricultural Productivity Gaps: A Case Study of Male Preference in Policy Implementation,” Development and Change 9, 3 (July 1978): 439–57; Ruth Dixon, Rural Women at Work: Strategies for Development in South Asia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Barbara Rogers, The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies (New York: St. Martin’s, 1979); Roslyn Dauber and Melinda Cain, eds., Women and Technological Change in Developing Countries (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1981); Barbara Lewis, ed., Invisible Farmers: Women and the Crisis in Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: Women in Development Office, Agency for International Development, 1981).
123. Irene Tinker, “Challenging Wisdom, Changing Policies: The Women in Development Movement,” in Fraser and Tinker, Developing Power, 70–72.
124. See Irene Tinker and Michele Bo Bramsen, eds., Women and World Development (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1976) for a collection of papers and a review of the proceedings of an American Association of Science Seminar on Women in Development held at the Mexico City Conference.
125. John Toye, Dilemmas of Development: Reflections on the Counter-Revolution in Development Theory and Policy (New York: Blackwell, 1987).
126. P. T. Bauer, United States Aid and Indian Economic Development (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Association, 1959), 115.
127. P. T. Bauer and B. S. Yamey, “The Economics of the Pearson Report,” Journal of Development Studies 8, 2 (January 1972): 322, 325.
128. On Johnson’s views on development see Arnold C. Harberger and David Wall, “Harry G. Johnson as a Development Economist,” Journal of Political Economy 92, 4 (August 1984): 616–41. For a critique of Johnson’s arguments see Toye, Dilemmas of Development, 47.
129. Harry Johnson, “Thrust and Response: The Multinational Corporation as a Development Agent,” Columbia Journal of World Business 5, 3 (May–June 1970): 25–30; Johnson, “Economic Growth and Economic Policy,” in Johnson, The Canadian Quandary: Economic Problems and Policies (Toronto: McGraw-Hill, 1963), 61–63.
130. Bella Balassa, The Structure of Protection in Developing Countries (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971).
131. Anne O. Krueger, “The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society,” American Economic Review 64, 3 (June 1974): 291–303.
132. Ian Little, Tibor Scitovsky and Maurice Scott, Industry and Trade in Some Developing Countries: A Comparative Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1970).
133. Arthur M. Okun, Equality and Efficiency: The Big Tradeoff (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1975).
1. PC, February 27, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
2. Ibid.
3. PC, March 31, 1975, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
4. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1976, 5.
5. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1977, 5.
6. Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw, The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy (New York: Touchstone, 2002), 113–14.
7. PC, January 14, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
8. PC, July 8, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
9. McNamara, Remarks at the Commerce Department, June 17, 1976, in WBGA IBRD/ IDA 03-04-12S Box 2.
10. PC, June 10, July 8, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
11. World Bank, International Debt Statistics.
12. J. Burke Knapp, WBOH, 88.
13. A few factors complicate our ability to document this change. Not only was much of the Bank’s advisory work informal and, as such, undocumented, but the Bank continued to grow as both a bank and a development agency during these years. In nominal terms, annual IBRD lending commitments more than doubled between 1974 and 1980, while IDA credits nearly tripled. At the same time, loans for rural development, primary education, population, health and nutrition, small-scale industry, water supply and sewerage, and urban development, jumped from 5 percent of the organization’s portfolio between 1968 and 1970 to 27.4 percent between 1975 and 1978. See Hirosato, “Changing Policies of the World Bank for Educational Intervention,”187–88.
14. Between 1969 and 1974, the percentage of IBRD and IDA loans with a distinct technical assistance component increased from 45 to 64 percent. See IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1974, 58.
15. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1972, 9.
16. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1974, 58.
17. Ibid., 31.
18. Ibid., 31–32.
19. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1975, 43.
20. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1974, 58.
21. For example, Bank loans with a technical assistance component rose from 112 in 1974 to 139 in 1975 and 152 in 1976. See IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1975, 67; 1976, 73.
22. For background, see Mason and Asher, The World Bank Since Bretton Woods, 528–35.
23. World Bank, Review of World Bank Co-Financing with Private Financial Institutions (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1980), 1–3.
24. Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty,” 257.
25. World Bank, Review of World Bank Co-Financing, 4–5.
26. For instance, when McNamara visited officials at the Bank of America to discuss co-financing in 1977, he sought to “outline the advantage for commercial banks to participate in financing [developing country] growth [and] . . . give assurance that [the Bank] would inform the Bank of America of the countries and projects where we were contemplating lending.” See Memorandum for the Record, Meeting to Discuss IBRD Capital Increase and Cofinancing, September 19, 1977, IBRD/IDA 03-04. Office of the President, Records of President Robert S. McNamara, Series 07: Memoranda for the Record, Box 2.
27. Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty,” 266.
28. “Nordic Cable, Report of Board Meeting January 11, 1976,” 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff, Box 43, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
29. Anonymous Brazilian journalist quoted in Office Memorandum: Visit to Brazil, from Dinesh Bahl to John E. Merriam, November 10, 1978, I:20, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
30. PC, October 30, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2, WBGA; Hans Janssen, “Bank has undergone significant changes,” Bank Notes, September 1978, 6, WGBA.
31. PC, July 12, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
32. PC, January 9, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2. Some developing country officials had voiced these concerns earlier.
33. Ibid.
34. Edwin L. Dale, Jr., “McNamara Asks for Poverty Group,” New York Times, January 15, 1977, 38; Barbara Ward Jackson to William Clarke, January 25, 1976, I:20, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
35. PC, March 7, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
36. Statement by McNamara to the Executive Directors’ Meeting, June 23, 1977, in IBRD/ IDA 03-04-12S Box 2.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.
39. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 26, 1977,” in The McNamara Years, 468–69.
40. PC, January 9, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
41. Bruno S. Frey and Friedrich Schneider, “Competing Models of International Lending Activity,” Journal of Development Economics 20, 2 (March 1986): 225–45.
42. Cheryl Payer, The World Bank: A Critical Analysis (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1982).
43. PC, November 16, 1970, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
44. On the United States and Allende see Tanya Harmer, Allende’s Chile and the Inter-American Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011) and Lubna Z. Qureshi, Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 Coup in Chile (Lanham, Md.: Lexington, 2009).
45. John Hugh Crimmins, Acting Chairman, Ad Hoc Interagency Working Group on Chile, Memorandum for Mr. Henry A. Kissinger, December 4, 1970, in “Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, 1970–1976,” National Security Archive, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm.
46. On Allende’s economic policies see Edward Boorstein, Allende’s Chile: An Inside View (New York: International, 1977).
47. Memorandum, Richard Dosik to files, “Chile- Mr. Knapp’s Meeting with Delegation,” October 4, 1971, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 1007.
48. Quoted in “Chile and the World Bank,” U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, United States and Chile During the Allende Years, 1970–1973, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs, a compilation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 445.
49. For views that attribute the cutoff in Bank lending to pressure from the Nixon administration see Don M. Coerver and Linda B. Hall, Tangled Destinies: Latin America and the United States (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), 140, and Michael Reid, Forgotten Continent: The Battle for Latin America’s Soul (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007), 112.
50. PC, October 18, 1971, November 29, 1971, January 10, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
51. Memorandum, Knapp to McNamara, January 6, 1972, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 1007.
52. PC, October 2, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
53. PC, January 22, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
54. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 1008.
55. PC, July 16, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
56. PC, June 18, 1973, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
57. Although the Board approved the loans, the director representing the Norwegian countries repeatedly criticized Bank management for lending to Pinochet. See “Memorandum: The Nordic executive director’s Position toward IBRD’s Policies and Relationships with Chile,” December 18, 1974, in 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff, Box 43, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
58. Mahbub ul Haq, “The Bank’s Mistakes in Chile,” April 26, 1976, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 301.
59. Stephen Eccles, interview with author.
60. Quoted in Babb, Behind the Development Banks, 62–63.
61. Congressional Quarterly, Congressional Quarterly Almanac 1976, 787; Babb, Behind the Development Banks, 67.
62. Transcript of Robert S. McNamara Speaking to a Press Seminar in The World Bank on May 10, 1978, McNamara Papers, Statements, Speeches, and Interviews, Box 2. See also PC, September 28, 1977, April 17, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
63. “Staff Compensation Policy: Recommendations of the Management of the Bank,” April 1979 and Statement by the Managing Director on 1980 Staff Compensation Review, IMF Executive Board Meeting 81/85, June 5, 1981, Computer Database, Archives of the International Monetary Fund.
64. PC, April 17, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
65. Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 180.
66. PC, April 17, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
67. James Grant, “Strings Attached: Will Congress Finally Hobble the World Bank?” Barron’s, July 18, 1977.
68. See Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010), 151–52.
69. See Clair Apodaca, “U.S. Human Rights Policy and Foreign Assistance: A Short History,” Ritsumeikan International Affairs 3 (2005): 64.
70. Charles W. Yost, “Should U.S. Tie Aid to Human Rights?” Christian Science Monitor, November 28, 1975.
71. To Board of Governors from Ken Guenther, Subject: House Rejection of Conference Report, September 19, 1977, Arthur Burns Papers, 1969–1978, Federal Reserve Board Subject File: IMF/IBRD Meeting, Washington, Sept. 30–Oct. 4, 1974: Summary Proceedings, Box B71, GFL.
72. PC, March 14, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
73. PC, October 25, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
74. Transcript of Robert S. McNamara Speaking to a Press Seminar in The World Bank on May 10, 1978, McNamara Papers, Statements, Speeches, and Interviews, Box 2. On the Bank’s response to the U.S. human rights position also see “Human Rights Issues and the Bank and IDA,” November 29, 1977, I:28, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
75. Congressional Quarterly Almanac 33 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1977), 370–75.
76. PC, February 15, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
77. U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Policy and the Multilateral Banks: Politicization and Effectiveness, by Jonathan E. Sanford, Staff Report to the Subcommittee on Foreign Assistance, 95th Cong., 1st sess., May 1977, 5.
78. Ibid., 10. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee repealed the law in March 1977. According to Senator Hubert Humphrey (D-Minn.) the restriction had been “an ineffectual message to India to ‘drop dead.’ ” Quoted in Washington Post, March 31, 1977, A-24. Also see Akins, “U.S. Control,” 222.
79. Sanford, Multilateral Development Banks, 31.
80. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1981, 86; Clark, “Reconsiderations,” 169, n. 1.
81. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1968, 89; IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1981, 162.
82. Memorandum for the President from W. Michael Blumenthal, Subject: Robert McNamara’s Serving Another Term as President of the World Bank, March 25, 1977, Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter, White House Central File Subject File, IT-3, Jimmy Carter Library (hereafter JCL).
83. See, for example, McNamara, Remarks before Congressional Breakfast Audience, March 30, 1977, McNamara Papers, Statements, Speeches, and Interviews, Box 2.
84. Mahbub ul-Haq, quoted in Barbara Ward Jackson to William Clarke, January 25, 1976, I:20, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
85. World Bank Projects Database.
86. Babb, Behind the Development Banks, 67; Schoultz, “United States Participation,” 566–67; House Would Bar World Bank Use of U.S. Funds to Aid Vietnam,” Washington Post, July 19, 1979, A7.
87. PC, September 10, 1979, September 17, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
88. PC, April 30, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
89. Gwin, “U.S. Relations,” 226
90. Clyde H. Farnsworth, “Legislative Snags Peril Foreign Aid,” New York Times, December 10, 1979, D4; PC, September 10, 1979, September 17, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
91. Shapley, Promise and Power, 571; Babb, Behind the Development Banks, 67; Schoultz, “United States Participation,” 566–67.
92. Hayter, Aid as Imperialism, 193–213.
93. In April 1971, for instance, McNamara had the Bank’s Public Affairs Department respond to critical newspaper editorials by drawing attention to the “shift of emphasis in Bank lending toward such [poor] areas as East Pakistan and Northeast Brazil.” PC, April 5, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
94. Wade, “Greening the Bank,” 616.
95. McNamara, “To the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, Sweden, June 8, 1972,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years, 193–206. McNamara’s Stockholm speech was one of the first times the head of an international development organization publicly addressed environmental concerns. Indeed, the organization played a key role in organizing the conference. The Bank’s new environmental adviser, James Lee, helped draft the Conference agenda, and Mahbub ul Haq was instrumental in convincing developing countries, who feared that environmental concerns would give developed nations a reason to further reduce their foreign aid, to participate. See James Lee, WBOH; Wade, “Greening the Bank,” 622–23. A preparatory meeting was held in Founex, Switzerland in the spring of 1971. The report from the Founex Conference, which served as the basis for the program at Stockholm, “was largely drafted inside the World Bank.” Wade, “Greening the Bank,” 623. Also see Philippe Le Prestre, The World Bank and the Environmental Challenge (London: Associated University Presses, 1989), 83.
96. Tom Stoel, “July–August 1976 Trip to Europe and Nairobi,” August 26, 1976, Folder 4169, Box 696, RG 3.1, Rockefeller Brothers Fund Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y. Stoel was citing the views of Raymond Dasmann of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Thanks to Paul Adler for locating this material.
97. Wade, “Greening the Bank,” 620–21.
98. Ibid., 621.
99. Quoted in ibid., 616.
100. See generally Shahara Razavi and Carol Miller, Gender Mainstreaming: A Study of Efforts by the UNDP, the World Bank, and the ILO to Institutionalize Gender Issues (Geneva: UN Research Institute for Social Development, 1995), 33–34.
101. Gloria Scott, “Breaking New Ground at the UN and the World Bank,” in Fraser and Tinker, eds., Developing Power, 14–25.
102. V. Rajagopalan, WBOH.
103. Razavi and Miller, Gender Mainstreaming, 35; Isserles, “Exploring Women and Development,” 71, n. 11.
104. Razavi and Miller, Gender Mainstreaming, 35. According to the Bank’s own evaluations, “progress in moving from rhetoric to action [in integrating women’s concerns into Bank lending decisions] remained slow until the mid-1980s.” World Bank, Independent Evaluation Group, “Gender Issues in World Bank Lending: An Overview,” 1995.
105. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 480.
106. Jurgen Donges, “Incentive Policies and Economic Integration: Report of the Research Advisory Panel on Industrial Development and Trade,” May 1, 1979, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 484.
107. World Bank, Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Agenda for Action (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1981), 1.
108. Ibid., 2.
109. Ibid., 4–7.
110. Ibid., 6.
111. Katherine Marshall, interview with author.
112. See, for instance, Ramgopal Agarwala, Price Distortions and Growth in Developing Countries (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1983).
113. See, e.g., Bela A. Balassa, Policy Reform in Developing Countries (Oxford: Pergamon, 1977). On Balassa’s influence in the Bank, see Kapur et al., The World Bank, Vol. 1, 485.
114. These resulted in Deepak Lal, The Poverty of “Development Economics” (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1983); Lal and Paul Collier, Labour and Poverty in Kenya, 18001980 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986); Lal, The Hindu Equilibrium (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989). See “Deepak Lal,” in Roger E. Backhouse and Roger Middleton, eds., Exemplary Economists, vol. 2, Europe, Asia, and Australia (Northhampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, 2000), 379–80.
115. Eccles, interview with author.
116. Marshall, interview with author.
1. On the difficulty in evaluating development interventions, see George Keith Pitman, Osvaldo N. Feinstein, and Gregory K. Ingram, eds., Evaluating Development Effectiveness (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2005).
2. Robert Ayers, Banking on the Poor: The World Bank and World Poverty (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983) remains the best account of the organization’s antipoverty initiatives during the McNamara era. Reports from the Bank’s Operations Evaluation Department (OED) provide another source of information on the impact of its projects. Unfortunately, most of these materials are classified, as are many documents pertaining to the Bank’s policy discussions with developing country officials.
3. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, September 24, 1973,” 246.
4. PC, March 24, 1969, McNamara, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
5. Montague Yudelman, “The Role of Agriculture in Integrated Rural Development Projects: The Experience of the World Bank,” Journal of the European Society for Rural Sociology 16, 4 (November 1976): 308–24.
6. Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 99.
7. Daniel Noah Lindheim, “Regional Development and Deliberate Social Change: Integrated Rural Development in Mexico” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1986), 74.
8. Ibid., 120.
9. World Bank OED, “Appraisal of Integrated Rural Development Project—PIDER Mexico,” April 16, 1975, ii.
10. Ibid., iii.
11. Lindheim, “Regional Development and Deliberate Social Change,” 122–23.
12. Ibid., 171.
13. Ibid.,” 174.
14. OED, Project Performance Audit Report (hereafter PPAR), “Mexico: Integrated Rural Development Project, Papaloapan Basin (Loan 1053-ME),” June 28, 1985, iii.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid., 1985, iii-iv.
18. James K. Boyce and Betsy Hartmann, “View from a Bangladesh Village,” The Nation, March 4, 1978, 239.
19. World Bank, Projects Database; Mohamed Ibn Chambas, “The Politics of Agricultural and Rural Development in the Upper Region of Ghana: Implications of Technocratic Ideology and Non-Participatory Development” (Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1980), 178–79.
20. Ernest Aryeetey, “Decentralization for Rural Development: Exogenous Factors and Semi-Autonomous Program Units in Ghana,” Community Development Journal 25, 3 (January 1990): 206–14.
21. Letter of Managing Director, FASCOM, to Programme Manager, January 2, 1979, in Chambas, “Politics of Agricultural and Rural Development,” 198.
22. Chambas, “Politics of Agricultural and Rural Development,” 200.
23. Quoted in ibid., 213. Also see Christian Lund, Local Politics and the Dynamics of Property in Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 95–96.
24. Peter Uvin, Aiding Violence: The Development Enterprise in Rwanda (West Hartford, Conn.: Kumarian, 1998), 119.
25. Cited in ibid.
26. René Lemarchand, The World Bank in Rwanda: The Case of the Office de Valorisation Agricole et Pastorale du Mutara (OVAPAM) (Bloomington: African Studies Program, Indiana University, 1982), 18.
27. Ibid., 5.
28. OED reports cited in Uvin, Aiding Violence, 119–20.
29. Tina Wallace, “Agricultural Projects and Land in Northern Nigeria” Review of African Political Economy 17 (January-April 1980): 59–70. Also see Raufu Ayoade Dunmoye, “The State and the Peasantry: The Politics of Integrated Agricultural Development Projects in Nigeria” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1986) and see Brian C. D’Silva and M. Rafique Raza, “Integrated Rural Development in Nigeria: The Funtua Project,” Food Policy 5, 4 (November 1980): 282–97.
30. Quoted in Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 124–25. Also see Bello et al., Development Debacle, 84–88.
31. World Bank, OED, PPAR, “Malaysia-Johore Land Settlement Project,” in Rich, Mortgaging the Earth, 94.
32. Ibid., 94–95.
33. Ibid., 27–29.
34. Cathy Ann Hoshour, “Relocating Development in Indonesia: A Look at the Logic and Contradictions of State-Directed Resettlement” (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 2000).
35. World Bank, Independent Evaluation Group (IEG), Indonesia Transmigration Program: A Review of Five Bank-Supported Projects, http://lnweb90.worldbank.org/oed/oeddoclib.nsf/DocUNIDViewForJavaSearch/777331DDD0B6239C852567F5005CE5E2.
36. Barry Newman, “Missing the Mark: In Indonesia, Attempts by World Bank to Aid Poor Often Go Astray,” Wall Street Journal, November 10, 1977, 26.
37. Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 122.
38. Newman, “Missing the Mark,” 26.
39. Daniel Benor and James Q. Harrison, Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1977).
40. Mick Moore, “Institutional Development, the World Bank, and India’s New Agricultural Extension Programme,” Journal of Development Studies 20, 4 (July 1984): 312.
41. Jaswinder Singh Brara, “The Political Economy of Rural Development: International Development Agencies and the Indian Context” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii, 1980), 325.
42. Moore, “Institutional Development,” 310.
43. Quoted in ibid., 307.
44. Frank Patrick Dall, “Education, Agricultural Extension and Peasant Farmer Marginalization: A Case Study in the High Amazon of Peru” (Ph.D. dissertation, Florida State University, 1987), 458.
45. Ibid., 459, 380–81.
46. World Bank, OED, “Agricultural Research and Extension: An Evaluation of World Bank’s Experience,” in Dall, “Education, Agricultural Extension and Peasant Farmer Marginalization,” 11. Also see Tragakes, “The Political Economy of National and International Agricultural Research,” 144.
47. World Bank, OED, Annual Review of Project Performance Audit Results (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1978).
48. “Notes on Board Meeting, March 21, 1978,” 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff., Box 42, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
49. Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 129–30.
50. Ibid., 130.
51. Ibid., 131.
52. World Bank, OED, Annual Review of Evaluation Results (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1989), v.
53. Ibid., vii.
54. Paarlberg and Lipton, “Changing Missions,” 483.
55. Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 126.
56. World Bank, OED, Twelfth Annual Review of Project Performance Results (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1987), 113, 160.
57. Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 113.
58. Ibid., 113–15.
59. For a more extended discussion see Tragakes, “Political Economy,” 140–58.
60. World Bank Archives, “Robert Strange McNamara: Fifth President of the World Bank Group, 1968–1981,” http://go.worldbank.org/44V9497H50.
61. Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 116–121.
62. Ibid., 107. Some of the Bank’s executive directors also expressed frustration with what they felt were the Brazilian government’s lack of attention to distributional issues, 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff, Box 42, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
63. World Bank, “Sites and Services Projects: A World Bank Paper” (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, April 1974).
64. Herbert H. Werlin, “Urban Shelter and Community Development,” in Weiss and Jequier, eds., Technology, Finance, and Development, 141.
65. World Bank, “Sites and Services,” 3.
66. Douglas H. Keare and Scott Parris, “Evaluation of Shelter Programs for the Urban Poor: Principal Findings,” World Bank Staff Working Paper 547 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1982), v.
67. Stephen K. Mayo and David J. Gross, “Sites and Services- and Subsidies: The Economics of Low-Cost Housing in Developing Countries,” World Bank Economic Review 1, 2 (January 1987): 305.
68. Pieter J. M. Robben and Pieter A. van Stuijvenberg, “India’s Urban Housing Crisis: Why the World Bank’s Sites and Services Schemes Are Not Reaching the Poor in Madras,” Third World Planning Review 8, 4 (1986): 335–51.
69. Horace Campbell, “Tanzania and the World Bank’s Urban Shelter Project,” Review of African Political Economy 42 (1988): 10–11.
70. World Bank, Completion Report: Tanzania: First National Sites and Services Project (Report no. 4941), East Africa Regional Office, 1984, in Campbell, “Tanzania and the World Bank’s Urban Shelter Project,” 12.
71. World Bank, OED, “Indonesia: Impact Evaluation Report, Enhancing the Quality of Life in Urban Indonesia: The Legacy of the Kampung Improvement Program” (June 29, 1995): 71; Ayers, Banking on the Poor, 188–89.
72. Newman, “Missing the Mark,” 1.
73. World Bank, Project Database.
74. Bello et al., Development Debacle, 111–13.
75. Ibid., 107.
76. Mayo and Gross, “Sites and Services,” 327–28.
77. Ibid., 332.
78. World Bank, Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives, Development in Practice Series (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995), 20.
79. Gerhard Pohl and Dubravko Mihaljek, “Project Evaluation and Uncertainty in Practice: A Statistical Analysis of Rate-of-Return Divergences of 1,015 World Bank Projects,” World Bank Economic Review 6, 2 (May 1992): 273–74.
80. World Bank, OED, Tenth Annual Review of Project Performance Audit Results (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1984), 13.
81. “Report of the Committee on the Quality of Bank Lending,” May 10, 1977 I: 23, McNamara Papers, LOC.
82. Benjamin King, quoted in Caufield, Masters of Illusion, 102.
83. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 454.
84. Ibid., 463–67.
85. IBRD/IDA Economic Committee, “Brazil: Country Program Paper,” draft EC/O/69-125/1, November 25, 1969, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 275.
86. Memorandum, Gerald Alter for the record, “Meeting of Mr. McNamara with the Minister of Interior of Brazil, Jose Costa Cavalcanti,” February 17, 1970, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 275.
87. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 276.
88. World Bank, “Notes on Brazil Country Program Review, December 2, 1971,” December 9, 1971, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 276.
89. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 277.
90. Memorandum, Hollis B. Chenery to Robert S. McNamara, “Brazil: Outstanding Policy Issues,” February 16, 1973, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 278.
91. Memorandum, Alexis E. Lachman to John H. Alder, attaching “Notes on Review of CPP on Brazil,” February 28, 1973, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 278.
92. Memorandum, Gerald Alter to Robert S. McNamara, “Brazil: Impressions Gained from Recent Visit to Brazil,” June 10, 1974, 2 in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 279.
93. Memorandum, Robert S. McNamara to J. Burke Knapp, March 18, 1975, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 279. Some of the Bank’s directors were also frustrated by the Brazilian government’s economic and social policies. See “Report of the Board Meeting Held October 21, 1975,” in 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff., Box 42, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
94. Nevertheless, the Bank continued to fund significant poverty oriented lending in Brazil. In 1979, 57 percent of its lending to the country went toward small-farmer projects. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 280.
95. Memorandum, Mahbub ul Haq to Robert S. McNamara, “Brazil CPP: Major Policy Issues,” May 29, 1981, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 281.
96. Kapur, et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 500.
97. Ibid., 501.
98. Robert McNamara, “Conversations with the Shah of Iran at Blair House,” July 27, 1973, in ibid.
99. Ibid., 501–2.
100. Loh, “Foreign Technical Assistance to Malaysia”; Rene Salgado, “International Economic Organizations and Domestic Economic Policies: A Study of the Relationships of Colombia with the Economic Commission for Latin America, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, 1991).
101. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 283–84.
102. Robert S. McNamara, “Notes on Visit to India, November 6–12, 1976,” 3 in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 295.
103. Memorandum, Alexis E. Lachman to John H. Alder, December 5, 1973, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 296. Also see Praveen K. Chaudhry, “International Linkages, Economic Reforms, and Democracy: A Study of India’s Political Economy” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 2003).
104. PC, April 15, 1968, McNamara, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
105. Cable, Bernard R. Bell to Robert S. McNamara, February 11, 1972, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 490–94; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 187.
106. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 494.
107. For instance, poverty concerns were largely absent in Bank discussions with the government of Bangladesh. See Abdul Halim, “Lending Policy of the World Bank with Special Reference to Its Contribution to the Economic Development of Bangladesh, 19721978” (M.A. thesis, Carleton University, 1979), 83–101; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 299–300.
108. Bello et al., Development Debacle, 127–64. The study was based on classified documents leaked by Bank staff.
109. Ibid., 134–35.
110. Ibid., 137.
111. World Bank, “Priorities and Prospects for Development,” vol. 1, Confidential Draft, Washington, D.C., 1976, 1, in ibid., 139.
112. World Bank, “Priorities and Prospects,” 139.
113. World Bank, “Philippines: Review of the Philippines and Bank Activities,” Memo from David Steel, July 8, 1977, 1, in Bello et al., Development Debacle, 147.
114. World Bank, “Meeting of the Consultative Group for the Philippines, December 13 and 14, 1979,” in Bello et al., Development Debacle, 148.
115. World Bank, GDF.
116. Quoted in Karin Lissakers, Banks, Borrowers, and the Establishment: A Revisionist Account of the International Debt Crisis (New York: Basic, 1991).
117. PC, June 19, 1969, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1. Also see PC, April 20, 1970, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
118. Letter, McNamara to Aleke K. Banda, Minister of Finance, Malawi, June 3, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-09S Box 1; italics mine.
119. PC, November 3, 1969, May 25, 1970, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes.
120. World Bank, World Debt Tables (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1970).
121. PC, August 9, 1971, October 4, 1971, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
122. Memorandum, Shiv. S. Kapur, division chief, LACI, for the record, “Meeting of McNamara with the Mexican Delegation on September 2, 1975,” September 3, 1975, 3, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 497.
123. World Bank, “1975- Annual Meeting Briefing-Mexico,” August 18, 1975, 3, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 497.
124. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Manila, Philippines, October 4, 1976,” in The McNamara Years, 346.
125. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, October 4, 1976,” in The McNamara Years, 347–48, 355.
126. Richard E. Feinberg, “An Open Letter to the World Bank’s New President,” in Feinberg, ed., Between Two Worlds: The World Bank’s Next Decade (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1986), 7.
127. PC, May 3, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
128. Ibid.
129. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Washington, D.C., September 26, 1977,” in The McNamara Years, 455–56.
130. Memorandum, I. P. M. Cargill to Robert S. McNamara, “Riskiness in IBRD’s Loan Portfolio,” October 25, 1978, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 598.
131. “Board Discussion of World Development Report,” undated, 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff, Box 43, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
132. Office memorandum, Ernest Stern to regional vice presidents, “Identification of Country Creditworthiness Issues in CPPs,” December 15, 1978, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 598.
133. Helleiner, States and the Reemergence of Global Finance, 175.
134. Memorandum, Surinder Malik and C. Doultsinos to Jean Baneth, “Bank Borrowers Experiencing Debt Servicing Problems,” October 29, 1979, 2, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 599.
135. PC, November 26, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
136. PC, December 10, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
137. Draft Sunday Times (London) Interview with Robert S. McNamara, April 2, 1980, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 2.
138. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 601 n. 20.
139. PC, January 19, 1981, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
140. World Bank, World Development Report (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1981), iii.
141. On the debt crisis and its historical precursors, see Barry Eichengreen and Peter H. Lindert, eds., The International Debt Crisis in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).
142. See, for instance, Robert Devlin, Debt and Crisis in Latin America: The Supply Side of the Story (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989).
143. Feinberg, “An Open Letter,” 7.
1. Robert S. McNamara, “To the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Manila, Philippines, May 10, 1979,” in McNamara, The McNamara Years, 549.
2. Policy-based lending is now called “development policy lending” and, in certain low-income countries, “poverty reduction strategy credits.” See World Bank, Lending Tools, http://digitalmedia.worldbank.org/projectsandops/lendingtools.htm#devt.
3. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, International Macroeconomic Data Set, http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Macroeconomics/.
4. North-South: A Program for Survival: The Report of the Independent Commission on International Development Issues under the Chairmanship of Willy Brandt (London: Pan Books, 1980), 224.
5. Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, “Problems of Industrialization of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe,” Economic Journal 53, 210/211 (1943): 202–11.
6. Paul Krugman, “The Rise and Fall of Development Economics,” in Krugman, Development, Geography, and Economic Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995).
7. Dudley Seers, “The Birth, Life, and Death of Development Economics,” Development and Change 10, 4 (October 1979): 707–19. See also Albert O. Hirschman, “The Rise and Decline of Development Economics,” in Hirschman, Essays in Trespassing: Economics to Politics and Beyond (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 1–26.
8. Katherine Marshall, interview with author.
9. World Bank, International Debt Statistics.
10. PC, March 20, 1972, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
11. PC, October 14, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1; Ivory Coast official quoted in Libby, “The Ideology and Power of the World Bank,” 194.
12. Operations Evaluation Department, “Management Policy Review: Delays in Loan and Credit Effectiveness,” July 22, 1975, I:26, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
13. Richard J. Levine, “McNamara’s Leadership of World Bank Draws Sharp Criticism of Retiring Aide,” Wall Street Journal, November 22, 1976, 3–4.
14. PC, June 26, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
15. “Staff Association Task Force Report on Forms of Association,” cited in PC, July 31, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
16. PC, August 7, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
17. PC, February 27, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2. Staff occasionally voiced their opposition to Bank lending to specific countries. For example, in the late 1970s, some staff at Bank headquarters staged a walkout to protest a visit by Imelda Marcos, the wife of Philippine dictator Ferdinand Marcos. John Blaxall, interview with author.
18. PC, April 17, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
19. PC, October 14, 1974, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
20. PC, January 10, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
21. PC, June 7, 1976, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
22. “Report of Board Meeting October 7, 1975,” 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff, Box 42, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
23. “Report on Staff Attitudes and Perceptions,” cited in PC, January 17, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
24. PC, January 31, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2. These conclusions were echoed in October when a top-level “Working Group on Operational Monitoring and Control” concluded that the Bank’s programming systems were responsible for a wide array of problems in the organization. See PC, October 17, October 31, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
25. PC, January 3, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1978, 8.
29. PC, July 5, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
30. PC, May 1, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
31. Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty,” 282–83.
32. Knapp, WBOH, 77.
33. Stanley Please, The Hobbled Giant: Essays on the World Bank (Boulder, Colo.: West-view, 1984), 32. On the early history of policy-conditioned lending, also see Paul Mosley, Jane Harrigan, and John Toye, Aid and Power: The World Bank and Policy-Based Lending, vol. 1 (London: Routledge, 1991), 27–29.
34. IBRD, Articles of Agreement, Article III, Section 4(vii).
35. PC, July 25, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
36. PC, November 8, 1968, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 1.
37. Draft Statement to Follow Announcement of Circulation Today of Pearson Commission Paper on Program Lending and Financing of Local Currency Expenditure, December 15, 1970, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 1.
38. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1975, 11; Mosley, Harrigan, and Toye, Aid and Power, 32.
39. Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty,” 289.
40. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 487.
41. Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty,” 289. In response to the IMF’s moves to make more of its funds available to developing countries, in 1977 the Board of Executive Directors examined program lending at the Bank but failed to come to a definite agreement on whether or how to reform the organization’s non-project lending. Instead they agreed with staff that around 7–10% of Bank lending should be in the form of program loans. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1977, 10–11; PC, March 28, 1977, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
42. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1981, 13.
43. PC, May 1, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
44. Ibid.
45. See extensive discussion in PC, June 20, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
46. PC, December 18, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
47. PC, May 8, 1978, July 5, 1978, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
48. Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 506.
49. Memorandum, Ernest Stern to McNamara, “Review of the FY 1979 Lending Program,” February 26, 1979, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 506.
50. Office Memorandum: Macro-Economic Conditioning, Ernest Stern to Robert S. McNamara, May 16, 1979, I:28, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
51. PC, April 9, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Attila Karaosmonoglu, interview with author; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 506.
55. McNamara, “To the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, May 10, 1979,” 549.
56. Memorandum, Ernest Stern to McNamara, “Macro-Economic Conditioning,” May 16, 1979, in Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 507.
57. Staffs of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, “Financial Flows to Developing Countries and the Adjustment Process,” June 29, 1979, Computer Database, IMF Archives.
58. Ibid., 2.
59. Ibid., 32.
60. PC, September 24, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Ernest Stern, interview with author; Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 508. A preparatory meeting of the G-24 also called for “The establishment in the World Bank of a longterm facility to finance purchases of capital goods should be considered as quickly as possible.” Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four on International Monetary Affairs, “Outline for a Program of Action on International Monetary Reform, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, September 29, 1979,” Computer Database, IMF Archives.
64. McNamara, “To the Board of Governors, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, October 2, 1972,” in The McNamara Years, 563–610.
65. PC, October 3, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. PC, February 4, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
69. Ibid.
70. PC, October 3, 1979, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
71. PC, December 10, 1979, January 2, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
72. PC, February 4, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
73. PC, March 10, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
74. PC, February 4, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
75. World Bank Archives, “Robert Strange McNamara: 5th President of the World Bank Group, 1968–1981,” http://go.worldbank.org/44V9497H50.
76. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1980, 111–12.
77. “Background Paper on Structural Adjustment Lending,” Background Papers to 1981 World Bank-IMF Annual Meeting, Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter, Staff Office: Council of Economic Advisers, Box 123, JCL.
78. Knapp, WBOH, 66–67.
79. This account is based on Robin Broad, Unequal Alliance: The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).
80. Robert McNamara, “Impressions of the Philippines,” November 13, 1971, I:31, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC. For instance, in 1969, the Bank approved three loans to the government totaling $71.5 million, almost half the money the organization had lent to the Philippines in its entire history
81. Broad, Unequal Alliance, 36–56.
82. Ibid., 59–63.
83. Ibid., 66.
84. World Bank, “Philippines: Country Program Paper, 1978,” cited in Broad, Unequal Alliance, 68.
85. Broad, Unequal Alliance, 68–69.
86. World Bank, “Report and Recommendation, August 21, 1980,” cited in Broad, Unequal Alliance, 69.
87. World Bank, “Aide Mémoire,” cited in Broad, Unequal Alliance, 71.
88. Quoted in Broad, Unequal Alliance, 72.
89. Ibid., 72.
90. World Bank, “Report and Recommendation of the President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development to the Executive Board on a Proposed Structural Adjustment Loan to the Republic of the Philippines, August 21, 1980,” 20, i, World Bank, Project Database.
91. Broad, Unequal Alliance, 76.
92. World Bank, “Report and Recommendation of President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development to the Executive Directors on a Structural Adjustment Loan to the Republic of Turkey, February 29, 1980,” World Bank, Project Database.
93. World Bank, “Report and Recommendation of President of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development to the Executive Directors on a Structural Adjustment Loan to the Republic of Bolivia, May 12, 1980,” World Bank, Project Database.
94. Knapp, WBOH, 75.
95. Marshall, interview with author.
96. McNamara, interview with Lew Simons, Smithsonian Institution, August 8, 1980, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 2.
97. Lewis in Knapp, WBOH, 17.
98. Stern, “World Bank Financing of Structural Adjustment,” in John Williamson, ed., IMF Conditionality (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1983), 91.
99. PC, April 6, 1981, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
100. For an introduction to the debate over structural adjustment lending see Lawrence H. Summers and Lant H. Pritchett, “The Structural-Adjustment Debate,” American Economic Review 83, 2 (May 1993): 383–89.
101. Giles Mohan, Ed Brown, Bob Milward and Alfred B. Zack-Williams, Structural Adjustment: Theory, Practice and Impacts (London: Routledge, 2000).
102. Mosley, Harrigan and Toye, Aid and Power, 205.
103. See, among many others, Peter Gibbon, “The World Bank and African Poverty,” Journal of Modern African Studies 30, 2 (June 1992): 193–220 and Michel Chossudovsky, The Globalisation of Poverty: Impacts of IMF and World Bank Reforms (London: Zed, 1997).
104. Carl Jayarajah and William H. Branson, Structural and Sectoral Adjustment: World Bank Experience, 1980–1992 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995), 173–82.
105. Critical accounts of Bank and IMF adjustment lending include Susan George, A Fate Worse Than Debt: The World Financial Crisis and the Poor (New York: Grove Press, 1990) and Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Rolph van der Hoeven, and Thandika Mkandawire, eds., Africa’s Recovery in the 1990s: From Stagnation and Adjustment to Human Development (New York: St. Martin’s, 1993).
106. Nicolas van de Wall, African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). Also see George B. N. Ayittey, “Why Structural Adjustment Failed in Africa,” in Schydlowsky, ed., Structural Adjustment, 108–22.
107. World Bank, Project Database.
108. William Easterly, “What Did Structural Adjustment Adjust? The Association of Policies and Growth with Repeated IMF and World Bank Adjustment Loans,” Journal of Development Economics 76, 1 (February 2005): 20.
1. PC, June 9, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
2. McNamara, Announcement of Intention to Retire, Letter to Staff, June 9, 1980, in IBRD/IDA 03-04-12S Box 2.
3. North-South: A Program for Survival.
4. Robert McNamara, “Notes on April 15, 1980, Conversation with Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping,” I:31, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC. Also see “Geopolitical File: China, Trips,” I:99, and “China’s View of the World Bank and Its Expectations: Extract from Mr. Husain’s report, July 27, 1980,” I:98.
5. On the origins and consequences of China’s entry into the Bank see Harold K. Jacobson and Michel Oksenberg, China’s Participation in the IMF, the World Bank, and GATT: Toward a Global Economic Order (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990). The event also had important ramifications for China, as the Bank became an important source of financial and technical assistance for the country over the coming years. See Guang Zhang, “Foreign Aid, National Interest, and Economic Development: The Case of China, 1949–2000” (Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State University, 2002).
6. McNamara’s disappointment at the pace of development is reflected in Robert McNamara, “Notes and Notebooks: Field Visits, Folders 1–2,” I:31, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
7. Babb, Behind the Development Banks, 46.
8. PC, January 14, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
9. Ronnie Dugger, “Ronald Reagan and the Imperial Presidency,” The Nation, November 1, 1980, 433.
10. Republican Party Platform of 1980, Adopted by the Republican National Convention, July 15, 1980, Detroit, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25844. Also see Ann Hughey, “Is the World Bank Biting Off More Than It Can Chew?” Forbes, May 26, 1980, 122–28.
11. PC, October 31, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2; Memorandum for the President from Henry Owen, Subject: World Bank Presidency, September 5, 1980, Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter, Staff Offices Counsel Cutler, Box 117, JCL; Memorandum for the President, G. William Miller, Edmund S. Muskie, and Lloyd N. Cutler, Subject: World Bank Presidency, August 8, 1980, draft, in Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter.
12. “A. W. Clausen Correspondence,” I:3, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
13. Memorandum for the President, From Lloyd N. Cutler, Subject: World Bank Presidency, October 2, 1980, in Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter, Staff Offices Counsel Cutler, Box 117.
14. Ibid.; Talking Points for President’s Meeting with A. W. (Tom) Clausen, Thursday, October 23, 1980, in Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter, Staff Offices Counsel Cutler, Box 117.
15. Jimmy Carter, draft letter to Pierre Elliot Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada, Valery Giscard d’Estaing, President of France, Helmut Schmidt, Chancellor of Germany, Arnaldo Forlani, Prime Minister of Italy, Zenko Suzuki, Prime Minister of Japan, and Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, October 23, 1980, in Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter, Staff Offices Counsel Cutler, Box 117.
16. PC, October 31, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
17. Memorandum for the President, G. William Miller et al. On Clausen’s tenure at the Bank of America see Moira Johnston, The Tumultuous History of the Bank of America (Washington, D.C.: Beard Books, 2000), 79–99.
18. William Greider, “The Education of David Stockman,” The Atlantic (December 1981): 27–54; Robert Ayers, “Breaking the Bank,” Foreign Policy 43 (Summer 1981): 104.
19. Ayers, “Breaking the Bank,” 106.
20. PC, November 10, 1980, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
21. PC, February 2, 1981, McNamara Papers, President’s Council Minutes, Box 2.
22. Ayers, “Breaking the Bank,” 105.
23. U.S. Department of the Treasury, Assessment of U.S. Participation in the Multilateral Development Banks in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1981).
24. Ibid., 56.
25. Ibid., 57.
26. “Reagan Backing Helps Foreign Aid Bill,” Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 1981, in Babai, “Between Hegemony and Poverty,” 375.
27. U.S. Department of the Treasury, Assessment of U.S. Participation, 44; Harvey D. Shapiro, “America’s Conservatives Close in on the World Bank,” Institutional Investor (September 1981): 111–20.
28. Armand Razafindrabe, “Statement Before the Board of Executive Directors: The World Bank, June 39, 1981,” and Earl G. Drake, “Statement Before the Board of Executive Directors: The World Bank, June 29, 1981,” in A Collection of Farewell Speeches on the Occasion of the Retirement of Robert S. McNamara, President of the World Bank, 1968–1981, available via World Bank, Documents and Reports.
29. Moeen A. Qureshi, “Remarks at a Farewell Reception, The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, June 28, 1981,” in ibid.
30. IBRD/IDA, Annual Report, 1979, 18–19.
31. “The World Bank’s Role in Energy Development,” September 16, 1980, Briefing Book: IBRD/IMF General Issues [1], Presidential Papers of Jimmy Carter, Staff Office-CEA (Council of Economic Advisers), Box 123, JCL.
32. Clyde H. Farnsworth, “U.S. Rejects Proposal to Form World Bank Energy Affiliate,” New York Times, August 13, 1981, D15.
33. See, for instance, the discussions over public and privately managed development finance companies in “Report of Board Meeting September 23, 1975,” 065-1, E-3-B: Motereff, Box 42, Riksarkivet, Oslo.
34. Atlaf Gauhar, “Editorial,” Third World Quarterly 4, 2 (April 1982): xvii; Rogers, “A Comparative Study of the Brandt Commission’s Ideology,” 270.
35. Ronald Reagan, “Remarks at the Annual Meeting of the Boards of Governors of the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund, September 29, 1981,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=44311.
36. Toye and Toye, “From New Era to Neo-Liberalism,” 177.
37. On the Bank role in managing the international debt crisis see Kapur et al., The World Bank, vol. 1, 595–682; Chris C. Carvounis, The Foreign Debt/National Development Conflict (New York: Quorum, 1986).
38. Walden Bello with Shea Cunningham and Bill Rau, Dark Victory: The United States, Structural Adjustment, and Global Poverty (London: Pluto, 1994). Also see Donald Edward Sherblom, “The Latin American Debt Crisis and United States Hegemony” (Ph.D. dissertation, New School for Social Research, 1992).
39. Toye and Toye, “From New Era to Neo-Liberalism,” 178.
40. Guillermo E. Perry, Omar S. Arias, J. Humberto López, William F. Maloney, and Luis Servén, Poverty Reduction and Growth: Virtuous and Vicious Cycles (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2006), 49.
41. Diana Alcarón and Eduardo Zepeda, “Economic Reform or Social Development? The Challenges of a Period of Reform in Latin America: Case Study of Mexico,” in Gustavo Indart, ed., Economic Reforms, Growth and Inequality in Latin America: Essays in Honor of Albert Berry (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2004), 161.
42. Paul Collier and Jan Willem Gunning, “Why Has Africa Grown Slowly?” Journal of Economic Perspectives 13, 3 (Summer 1999): 3.
43. On the uneven implementation of structural adjustment programs see Nicholas van de Walle, African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
44. World Bank Group Archives, “Barber Conable: 7th President of the World Bank Group,” http://go.worldbank.org/E3LJ89ABX0.
45. On Wolfensohn’s tenure, see Sebastian Mallaby, The World’s Banker: A Story of Failed States, Financial Crises, and the Wealth and Poverty of Nations (New York: Penguin, 2004).
46. Bretton Woods Project, “Success or Failure? Wolfensohn’s reforms at the World Bank,” http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/art-15958.
47. Catherine Weaver, Hypocrisy Trap: The World Bank and the Poverty of Reform (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008); Geske Dijkstra, “Supranational Governance and the Challenge of Democracy,” in Victor Bekkers, Geske Dijstra, Arthur Edwards, and Menno Fender, eds., Governance and the Democratic Deficit: Assessing the Democratic Legitimacy of Governance Practices (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2007), 269–92.
48. An exception is Robert W. Cox, “The Executive Head: An Essay on Leadership in the ILO,” International Organization 23 (Spring 1969): 205–30.
49. See, among others, Frederick Cooper, “Modernizing Bureaucrats, Backward Africans, and the Development Concept,” in Cooper and Packard, eds., International Development and the Social Sciences, 64–92; Uma Kothari, “From Colonial Administration to Development Studies: A Post-Colonial Critique of the History of Development Studies,” in Kothari, ed., A Radical History of Development Studies: Individuals, Institutions and Ideologies (New York: Zed Books, 2005), 47–66; Jeffrey F. Taffet, Foreign Aid as Foreign Policy: The Alliance for Progress in Latin America (New York: Routledge, 2007); Kofas, The Sword of Damocles; Bradley R. Simpson, Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.-Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008); David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order, 1914 to the Present (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010); Nick Cullather, “Research Note: Development? It’s History,” Diplomatic History 24, 4 (Fall 2000): 641–53; David C. Engerman, Nils Gilman, Mark H. Haefele, and Michael E. Latham, eds., Staging Growth: Modernization, Development, and the Global Cold War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003); Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Timothy Mitchell, Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); Amanda Kay McVety, Enlightened Aid: U.S. Development as Foreign Policy in Ethiopia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
50. An exception is Stephen J. Macekura, Of Limits and Growth: The Rise of Sustainable Development in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
51. Paul Hendrickson, The Living and the Dead: Robert McNamara and Five Lives of a Lost War (New York: Knopf, 1996).
52. Barbara Ward Jackson to William Clarke, January 25, 1976, I:20, Robert S. McNamara Papers, LOC.
53. For instance, in McNamara’s apologia for Vietnam he speaks about his years at Harvard and the Ford Motor Company but ignores his tenure at the Bank. See Robert S. McNamara with Brian VanDeMark, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (New York: Vintage, 1996).
54. See Steve Berkman, The World Bank and the Gods of Lending (Sterling, Va.: Kumerian, 2008).
55. Jessica Einhorn, “The World Bank’s Mission Creep,” Foreign Affairs 80, 5 (September/October 2001): 22–35.