Preface to the Paperback Edition
1. John Yoo and John R. Bolton, “An Obsolete Nuclear Treaty Even Before Russia Cheated,” Wall Street Journal, September 9, 2014.
2. Remarks by the President to the White House Press Corps, The White House, August 20, 2012.
Introduction: Pariahs to Partners: Bringing Rogues to the Table
1. Madeleine Albright, remarks at the Council on Foreign Relations, September 30, 1997.
2. “Remarks by Secretary of Defense William Perry on Nuclear Proliferation,” Federal News Service, April 25, 1996; William S. Cohen, “Rogue States Cannot Hope to Blackmail America or Her Allies,” Times (London), March 1, 2000.
3. Richard K. Betts, “Pygmies, Pariahs, and Nonproliferation,” Foreign Policy, Spring 1977, pp. 165–67; Robert E. Harkavy, “Pariah States and Nuclear Proliferation,” International Organization, Winter 1981.
4. Richard Burt, “Fear of Nuclear ‘Outcasts’ Intensifies Control Debate,” New York Times, October 28, 1979.
5. “Rogue Regime,” Editorial, Washington Post, April 5, 1979.
6. Ronald Reagan, remarks at the Annual Convention of the American Bar Association, July 8, 1985.
7. Michael T. Klare, Rogue States and Nuclear Outlaws: America’s Search for a New Foreign Policy (New York: Hill & Wang, 1995), p. 27.
8. Jim Abrams, “Aspin Announces Program to Counter Weapons of Mass Destruction,” Associated Press, December 7, 1993.
9. President Bill Clinton, remarks to a Multinational Audience of Future Leaders of Europe, Hotel De Ville, Brussels, January 10, 1994.
10. Warren Christopher, “Maintaining the Momentum for Peace in the Middle East,” Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., October 24, 1994.
11. Anthony Lake, “Confronting Backlash States,” Foreign Affairs, March–April 1994.
12. Robert S. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy: Containment after the Cold War (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2000), pp. 47–48.
13. Noam Chomsky, Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs (Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press, 2000); Clyde V. Prestowitz Jr., Rogue Nation: American Unilateralism and the Failure of Good Intentions (New York: Basic Books, 2004).
14. Litwak, Rogue States and U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 48.
15. Leslie Stahl interview with Madeleine Albright, Sixty Minutes, CBS, May 12, 1996.
16. Nicholas Burns, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 6, 2009.
17. “Why Not Talk?” Time, May 14, 2006.
18. James B. Foley, Daily Press Briefing, U.S. Department of State, August 25, 1999.
19. Joel S. Wit, “Don’t Sink Diplomacy,” New York Times, May 19, 2010.
20. James A. Kelly, “Two for Now,” National Interest, November–December 2008.
21. Karim Sadjadpour, “Should the U.S. Negotiate Directly with Iran?” Council on Foreign Relations, May 15, 2006.
22. Arlen Specter, “Trip to Europe and the Mideast,” U.S. Senate, January 30, 2003, S1775.
23. “Q&A: Charles Hunter, Chargé d’Affaires, US Embassy in Syria,” Syria Today (Damascus), November 2010.
24. Joe Biden, “Enhancing Our Diplomatic Readiness—A Critical Test of American Leadership,” U.S. Senate, May 21, 1997, S4911.
25. Joe Biden, “North Korea and Iraq,” U.S. Senate, January 17, 2003.
26. News Conference of the Senate Democratic Leadership and National Security Advisory Group to the Senate Democratic Leadership, March 5, 2003.
27. Nicholas Burns, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 6, 2009.
28. Leon V. Sigal, Disarming Strangers: Nuclear Diplomacy with North Korea (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998), p. 12.
29. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 599.
30. Henry A. Kissinger, “A Nuclear Test for Diplomacy,” Washington Post, May 16, 2006.
31. Daniel C. Kurtzer and Scott B. Lasensky, Negotiating Arab-Israeli Peace: American Leadership in the Middle East (Washington: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2008), p. 34.
32. Chuck Hagel, Speech on U.S.-Iran Relations at the Jewish Public Affairs Council, Washington, D.C., February 26, 2007.
33. Philip J. Crowley, Daily Press Briefing, U.S. Department of State, March 3, 2010.
34. Ryan C. Crocker, testimony at the Hearing on Hezbollah, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, June 8, 2010.
35. Nicholas Burns, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 6, 2009.
36. Joe Biden, “Secretary Baker’s Mission to Beijing: The Realities of Chinese Intransigence,” U.S. Senate, November 19, 1991, S17038.
37. “Text of President Bush’s Speech to the Israeli Parliament,” Associated Press, May 15, 2008.
38. Joe Biden, “Sarajevo on the Abyss: The Fatal Moment before Bosnia’s Tragedy and the West’s Shame Are Complete,” U.S. Senate, August 3, 1993.
39. Joe Biden, “The Situation in Kosovo,” U.S. Senate, October 14, 1998.
40. Kissinger, Diplomacy, p. 332.
Chapter 1: From Machiavelli to Muammar
1 Harold Nicolson, The Evolution of Diplomatic Method (London: Constable, 1954), p. 2.
2. David Reynolds, Summits: Six Meetings That Shaped the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 2007), p. 11.
3. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 77.
4. Nicolson, The Evolution of Diplomatic Method, p. 12.
5. Ibid., p. 17; Brian Campbell, “Diplomacy in the Roman World (c. 500 BC–AD 235),” Diplomacy and Statecraft, March 2001, p. 19.
6. Nizam al-Mulk, The Book of Government or Rules for Kings, trans. Hubert Drake (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978), p. 95.
7. U.S. Embassy Tehran, “Negotiations,” August 13, 1979, Tehran 8980.
8. G. R. Berridge, Maurice Keens-Oper, and T. G. Otte, Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelli to Kissinger (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 8; Nicolson, The Evolution of Diplomatic Method, pp. 31–32.
9. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Discourses, II.13, as quoted in Berridge, Keens-Oper, and Otte, Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelli to Kissinger, p. 11.
10. Machiavelli, The Discourses, II.1, as quoted in ibid., p. 11.
11. Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince (New York: Penguin, 1952), p. 92.
12. Berridge et al., Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelli to Kissinger, p. 40.
13. Armand Jean du Plessis, duc de Richelieu, Testament politique, as quoted in ibid., p. 80.
14. Ibid., p. 81.
15. Ibid., pp. 55–56.
16. Sir Ernest Satow to Sir Edward Grey (private), March 31, 1906, Grey MSS, PRO, FO 800/44; Satow diary, July 3, 1900, PRO 30/33/16/3; as quoted in Berridge, Keens-Oper, and Otte, p. 142.
17. Woodrow Wilson, “Fourteen Points,” Address to a Joint Session of Congress, January 8, 1918.
18. Reynolds, Summits, p. 34.
19. Berridge et al., Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelli to Kissinger, p. 158.
20. Ibid., p. 184.
21. Kissinger, Diplomacy, p. 26.
22. Henry Kissinger, White House Years (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1979), p. 54.
23. Joshua Muravchik, “Obama’s ‘Talking’ Cure,” Commentary, September 2008.
24. “Appeasement Policy Compromises Good Delivery of Services,” Talk of the Town (Port Alfred, South Africa), October 15, 2010; “Andrew Leigh and Kelly O’Dwyer Talk Politics,” Lateline, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, October 22, 2010.
25. Stephen F. Hayes, “Hollywood Takes On the Left,” Weekly Standard, August 11, 2008.
26. Paul Kennedy, “A Time to Appease,” National Interest, June 28, 2010.
27. Pryor Jordan, “Ex-Cabinet Member Tells LR Crowd U.S. Must Know Its Limits,” Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, November 9, 2007.
28. Muravchik, “Obama’s ‘Talking’ Cure.”
29. Reynolds, Summits, p. 174.
30. See, for example, Stuart H. Loory, “Summit Talk Set Today in New Jersey,” Los Angeles Times, June 23, 1967.
31. Muravchik, “Obama’s ‘Talking’ Cure.”
32. Ronald Reagan, Speech on the Geneva Summit, Joint Session of the U.S. Congress, November 21, 1985.
33. Muravchik, “Obama’s ‘Talking’ Cure.”
34. Haynes Johnson, “Vision on the World Stage,” Washington Post, December 9, 1988.
35. CNN/YouTube Democratic Presidential Debate, July 23, 2007.
36. Charles A. Kupchan, “Enemies into Friends: How the United States Can Court Its Adversaries,” Foreign Affairs, March–April 2010.
37. Peter H. Langer, Transatlantic Discord and NATO’s Crisis of Cohesion (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey’s, 1986), p. 30.
38. “Snow Right and Europe,” Economist, February 27, 1982.
39. Gallup Political Index no. 270, February 1983, p. 18, as quoted in David Watt, “The Conduct of American Foreign Policy: As a European Saw It,” Foreign Affairs, 1983.
40. Watt, “The Conduct of American Foreign Policy: As a European Saw It.”
41. Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1982), p. 625.
42. Dianne E. Rennack and Robert D. Shuey, “Economic Sanctions to Achieve U.S. Foreign Policy Goals: Discussion and Guide to Current Law,” CRS Report for Congress, November 1, 1999.
43. Gary Clyde Hufbauer et al., Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, 3rd ed. (Washington: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2007), pp. 23–29.
44. Steven Kull, “Seeking a New Balance: A Study of American and European Public Attitudes on Transatlantic Issues,” Program on International Policy Attitudes, June 1998, p. 48.
45. Ibid., p. 49.
46. Ibid., p. 53.
47. Jörg Monar, “Political Dialogue with Third Countries and Regional Political Groupings: The Fifteen as an Attractive Interlocutor,” in Foreign Policy of the European Union, ed. Elfriede Regelsberger, Philippe de Schoutheete de Tervarent, and Wolfgang Wessels (Boulder, Col.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1997), pp. 263–64.
48. Ibid., p. 266.
49. Ibid., p. 269.
50. Wilbur G. Landrey, “France Tries to Fill Void Left by U.S.,” St. Petersburg Times, August 4, 1996.
51. Michael Gordon, “As West Shuns Iran, Russia Pulls Closer,” New York Times, April 12, 1997.
52. “Iranian Foreign Minister Visit Sparks EU Parliament Outcry,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, June 1, 2010.
Chapter 2: Great Satan vs. Mad Mullahs
1. See also, for example, James Hider and Tom Baldwin, “America Prepares to Talk with Iran after 28 Years of Silence,” Times (London), April 30, 2007.
2. Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Anchor, 2008), p. 426.
3. Cyrus Vance, Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1983), pp. 316–17.
4. According to William G. Miller, as interviewed by John W. Limbert, Negotiating with Iran: Wrestling the Ghosts of History (Washington: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2009), p. 89 n.2.
5. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Advisor, 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1983), p. 355.
6. Limbert, Negotiating with Iran, p. 91.
7. Richard Falk, “Trusting Khomeini,” New York Times, February 16, 1979.
8. Secretary of State to U.S. Embassy Tehran, January 7, 1979, State 4510.
9. Vance, Hard Choices, p. 343.
10. Limbert, Negotiating with Iran, p. 92.
11. Secretary of State to U.S. Embassy Ankara, August 28, 1979, State 226730.
12. Steven Erlanger, “Iran’s Shaky Theocracy,” New Republic, November 10, 1979.
13. U.S. Embassy Tehran, “Moderation: Does It Have a Chance?” October 26, 1979, Tehran 11319.
14. Limbert, Negotiating with Iran, pp. 92–93.
15. Vance, Hard Choices, p. 373.
16. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, pp. 475–76.
17. Harold H. Saunders, “The Crisis Begins,” in American Hostages in Iran, ed. Warren Christopher (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 43.
18. Associated Press, November 5, 1979.
19. Massoumeh Ebtekar, Takeover in Tehran: The Inside Story of the 1979 U.S. Embassy Capture (Vancouver, B.C.: Talon Books, 2000), pp. 58, 86.
20. Saunders, “The Crisis Begins,” p. 47.
21. Harold H. Saunders, “Diplomacy and Pressure, November 1979–May 1980,” in American Hostages in Iran, ed. Christopher, p. 73.
22. John M. Goshko and J. P. Smith, “Bazargan Government Resigns; Carter, Security Aides Meet Twice,” Washington Post, November 7, 1979. Gary Sick, a National Security Council staffer, later described the meeting in “Military Options and Constraints,” in American Hostages in Iran, ed. Christopher, pp. 144–47.
23. Bernard Gwertzman, “U.S. Rejects Demand of Students in Iran to Send Shah Back,” New York Times, November 6, 1979.
24. Peter W. Rodman, “The Hostage Crisis: How Not to Negotiate,” Washington Quarterly, Summer 1981, p. 12.
25. Barry Rubin, Paved with Good Intentions: The American Experience in Iran (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 304.
26. Ebtekar, Takeover in Tehran, p. 97.
27. Ibid., p. 75.
28. William Beecher, “Peaceful Outcome Is Thought Possible,” Boston Globe, November 24, 1979.
29. Vance, Hard Choices, p. 375.
30. “U.S. Emissaries in Iranian Crisis,” Washington Post, November 8, 1979; Ronald Koven, “Head of Iranian Regency Council Resigns in Paris,” Washington Post, January 23, 1979.
31. Vance, Hard Choices, p. 376; Robert Spencer, “Kerry: Carter II?” Human Events Online, August 19, 2004.
32. Ebtekar, Takeover in Tehran, p. 119.
33. UN Security Council Resolution 457 (December 4, 1979); UN Security Council Resolution 461 (December 31, 1979).
34. John Bausman, “International News—United Nations,” Associated Press, January 13, 1980.
35. United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), International Court of Justice, May 24, 1980.
36. Rodman, “The Hostage Crisis: How Not to Negotiate,” p. 14.
37. Vance, Hard Choices, p. 376.
38. Ibid., p. 379.
39. Saunders, “Diplomacy and Pressure, November 1979–May 1980,” pp. 74–84.
40. Ibid., pp. 96, 119–20.
41. Ibid., p. 81.
42. Ibid., p. 82.
43. Ibid., pp. 96–97.
44. Ibid., pp. 97, 100; Vance, Hard Choices, p. 378; Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2010), p. 415.
45. Saunders, “Diplomacy and Pressure, November 1979–May 1980,” pp. 99–100; Rodman, “The Hostage Crisis: How Not to Negotiate,” p. 16.
46. Rodman, “The Hostage Crisis: How Not to Negotiate,” p. 15.
47. Notes on Meeting of Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko and Afghan Foreign Minister Shah-Valih, New York, September 27, 1979, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
48. Saunders, “Diplomacy and Pressure, November 1979–May 1980,” p. 135.
49. Harold H. Saunders, “Beginning of the End,” in American Hostages in Iran, ed. Christopher, p. 285.
50. Ibid., p. 286.
51. Don Oberdorfer, “Vance Formally Resigns, Citing Raid Opposition,” Washington Post, April 29, 1980.
52. Roberts B. Owen, “The Final Negotiation and Release in Algiers,” in American Hostages in Iran, ed. Christopher, p. 297.
53. Ibid., p. 298.
54. Department of State Bulletin, vol. 81, no. 2048 (March 1981), p. 17, as quoted in Owen, “The Final Negotiation and Release in Algiers,” p. 298.
55. Owen, “The Final Negotiation and Release in Algiers,” pp. 298–99.
56. Ibid., p. 299.
57. Ibid., p. 306.
58. Rodman, “The Hostage Crisis: How Not to Negotiate,” p. 22.
59. Owen, “The Final Negotiation and Release in Algiers,” pp. 306, 310.
60. William Luers, Thomas R. Pickering, and Jim Walsh, “How to Deal with Iran,” New York Review of Books, February 12, 2009.
61. Rodman, “The Hostage Crisis: How Not to Negotiate,” p. 19.
62. “Transcript of Carter’s Speech in Plains, Georgia,” Associated Press, January 21, 1981; A. M. Rosenthal, “America in Captivity: Points of Decision in the Hostage Crisis,” New York Times Magazine, May 17, 1981.
63. Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2010), pp. 368, 371.
64. See James Fallows, “The Passionless Presidency,” Atlantic, May 1979; Burton I. Kaufman and Scott Kaufman, The Presidency of James Earl Carter, Jr. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), pp. 249–50.
65. Rodman, “The Hostage Crisis: How Not to Negotiate,” pp. 10, 22.
66. John Tower et al., The Tower Commission Report (New York: Times Books, 1987), p. 36.
67. Ibid., p. 20.
68. James Gerstenzang, “Reagan Urges Tougher U.S. Stand in Iranian Hostage Crisis,” Associated Press, March 28, 1980.
69. “Obama harf-e Bush mizenad,” Agahsazi (Tehran), December 9, 2008.
70. The Tower Commission Report, p. 45.
71. Ibid., p. 47.
72. Ibid., pp. 47–48.
73. Bernard Gwertzman, “Why President Ended Silence on Iran Policy,” New York Times, November 14, 1986.
74. See, for example, “Militant Clergy Association Issues Statement Calling on People to Take Part Extensively in the Second Round of Majlis Elections,” Iran (Tehran), April 10, 1996; “Hajj Pilgrims Protest against Israel, USA during Symbolic Ceremony,” Islamic Republic News Agency, April 30, 1996.
75. Bahman Baktiari, Parliamentary Politics in Revolutionary Iran: The Institutionalization of Factional Politics (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), p. 135.
76. Nora Boustany, “Beirut Magazine Says McFarlane Secretly Visited Tehran,” Washington Post, November 4, 1986; Stanley Reed, “‘Beirut Rag’: Al Shiraa Magazine,” Nation, December 20, 1986.
77. The Tower Commission Report, p. 51.
78. Bootle Cosgrove-Mather, “A Look Back at the Polls,” CBS News, June 7, 2004.
79. David B. Ottaway, “Bush Seems to Appeal to Iran on Hostage Issue,” Washington Post, January 21, 1989.
80. “Bush Says Iran Could Help Free Hostages,” Associated Press, January 27, 1989.
81. Ibid.
82. See, for example, Bill Hewitt, “Burying the Passions Khomeini Inflamed,” Newsweek, June 19, 1989.
83. Limbert, Negotiating with Iran, p. 141.
84. “Subject: U.S. Policy Toward the Persian Gulf,” National Security Directive 26, The White House, October 2, 1989.
85. Giandomenico Picco, Man Without a Gun (New York: Times Books, 1999), p. 111.
86. Ibid., pp. 113–14.
87. For example, see Lucia Mouat, “Signs of U.S.-Iran Thaw Appear,” Christian Science Monitor, December 18, 1989.
88. Picco, Man Without a Gun, p. 115; Donald M. Rothberg, “Bush’s Deal: Better Iran Relations in Return for Hostages,” Associated Press, April 24, 1990.
89. Picco, Man Without a Gun, p. 118.
90. “Ravayeh fa’li siyasat-I kharaji motalib nist” [The current practice is not good foreign policy], Diplomasi-ye Irani, July 13, 2011.
91. Martin Indyk, “The Clinton Administration’s Approach to the Middle East,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, May 18, 1993.
92. Ibid.
93. Executive Order 12957 (March 15, 1995); Executive Order 12959 (May 6, 1995).
94. Executive Order 13059 (August 19, 1997).
95. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Brent Scowcroft, and Richard Murphy, “Differentiated Containment,” Foreign Affairs, May–June 1997.
96. Kianouche Dorranie, “Khatami Sworn In, Calls for ‘Détente’ in Iran’s Foreign Relations,” Agence France-Presse, August 4, 1997.
97. Louis J. Freeh, “Remember Khobar Towers,” Wall Street Journal, May 20, 2003.
98. Gary Sick, “U.S. Can Exploit Peaceful Iran Revolution,” Newsday, June 11, 1997.
99. Graham Fuller, “U.S.-Iran Relations: A Road Map for Normalization,” The Atlantic Council of the United States, March 19, 1998.
100. “Washington and Its One-Sided View of Diplomacy,” Akhbar (Tehran), August 30, 1997, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
101. “Sources: U.S. Sought a Government Dialogue with Iran,” CNN.com, January 9, 1998.
102. Douglas Jehl, “Iranian President Calls for Opening Dialog with U.S.,” New York Times, December 15, 1997.
103. Mohammad Khatami interview with Christiane Amanpour, CNN.com, January 7, 1998.
104. Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright, remarks at the Asia Society Dinner, Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York, June 17, 1998.
105. Robin Wright, “Diplomatic Exit; For Iran’s Javad Zarif, a Curtain Call Behind the Scenes,” Washington Post, April 15, 2007.
106. “Why Is America After Dialogue with Iran?” Emruz (Tehran), April 18, 1999, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
107. Lee H. Hamilton, James Schlesinger, and Brent Scowcroft, Thinking Beyond the Stalemate in U.S.-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, Policy Review (Washington: The Atlantic Council of the United States, May 2001), p. 2.
108. “Compromise with America, War with Friends?” Misaq (Tabriz), October 11, 1999, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
109. “Khemene’i Says Détente Policy Excludes U.S.,” Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (Tehran), August 16, 1999, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
110. “Abdollah Ramezanzadeh: Siast pish pirdeh dawlat-i Khatami adamayeh-i fa’aliyatha-ye hasteha-ye bud,” Fars News Agency, June 14, 2008.
111. Ali Akbar Dareini, “Iran Cleric Wants ‘Special Weapons’ to Deter Enemy,” Associated Press, June 14, 2010.
112. “To Compensate for the Disappointment,” Resalat (Tehran), December 2, 1999, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
113. Hamilton, Schlesinger, and Scowcroft, Thinking Beyond the Stalemate in U.S.-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, Policy Review, p. 3.
114. “Talk of Reestablishing Iran-U.S. Relations an ‘Insult’: Khamenei,” Agence France-Presse, July 27, 2000.
115. Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran Radio 1 (Tehran), August 15, 2000, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
116. Hamilton, Schlesinger, and Scowcroft, Thinking Beyond the Stalemate in U.S.-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, Policy Review, p. 3.
117. Ibid., p. 3; “New Reassessment of Iran’s File at the White House,” Afarinesh (Tehran), February 12, 2001, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
118. Hamilton, Schlesinger, and Scowcroft, Thinking Beyond the Stalemate in U.S.-Iranian Relations, vol. 1, Policy Review, pp. ix, 10.
119. “State Department Replaces Term ‘Rogue States’ with ‘States of Concern,’” All Things Considered, NPR, June 19, 2000.
120. Christopher Marquis, “U.S. Declares ‘Rogue Nations’ Are Now ‘States of Concern,’” New York Times, June 20, 2000.
121. “More American than Americans,” Jomhuri-ye Eslami (Tehran), June 25, 2000, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
122. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, “The Granting of Capitulatory Rights to the U.S.,” October 27, 1964, in Imam Khomeini: Islam and Revolution, ed. and trans. Hamid Algar (London: KPI, 1981), p. 185.
123. Reuters, “Shah Nephew Killed in ‘Purge of Pawns,’” Globe and Mail (Toronto), December 8, 1979.
124. No Safe Haven: Iran’s Global Assassination Campaign, Iran Human Rights Documentation Center, May 2008, pp. 16–17.
125. Youssef M. Ibrahim, “Trial of Accused Mastermind in Bombings Begins in Paris,” New York Times, January 30, 1990.
126. Paul Lewis, “France Breaks Iran Ties and Isolates Embassy,” New York Times, July 18, 1987.
127. Steven Greenhouse, “Bold Iranian Raid on French Craft Heightens Gulf Tensions,” New York Times, July 19, 1987.
128. “Anything Else, Mr. Khomeini?” Economist, December 12, 1987.
129. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Hukumat-i Islami, in Imam Khomeini: Islam and Revolution, ed. and trans. Algar, p. 139.
130. See Peter Rudolf, “The European Union and Iran,” in Trans-Atlantic Tensions: The United States, Europe, and Problem Countries, ed. Richard Haass (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1999), p. 73; Anthony Parsons, “Iran and Western Europe,” Middle East Journal, Spring 1989, p. 228.
131. European Council in Edinburgh, December 11–12, 1992, Conclusions of the Presidency, Part D: External Relations: Iran, ¶ 15 (p. 96).
132. Rick Atkinson, “Killing of Iranian Dissenters: ‘Bloody Trail Back to Tehran’; Trial in Berlin Follows Deaths across Europe,” Washington Post, November 21, 1993.
133. “Bonn ‘Role’ in Spy Deal,” Herald Sun, November 2, 1993; Igal Avidan, “Bonn Aiding Iran Secret Service,” Jerusalem Post, November 1, 1993.
134. Murder at Mykonos: Anatomy of a Political Assassination, Iran Human Rights Documentation Center, March 2007, pp. 2–20.
135. “Fury in Iran over German Accusations,” Agence France-Presse, April 11, 1997.
136. “Declaration by the European Union on Iran,” European Council in Luxembourg, April 29, 1997, PESC/97/41, as cited in V. Matthias Struwe, The Policy of “Critical Dialogue”: An Analysis of European Human Rights Policy Towards Iran from 1992 to 1997, Durham Middle East Papers (School of Government and International Affairs, University of Durham, UK, 1998), p. 2.
137. Dr. Klaus Kinkel, Federal Minister for Foreign Affairs, speech in the Bundestag debate on policy toward Iran, Bonn, April 17, 1997.
138. “Europe: Choose Between Iran and the United States,” Abrar (Tehran), October 2, 1997; “Europe Oil Deal Shows US Policy Failure,” Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran Radio (Tehran), March 2, 1999; translations provided by the Open Source Center.
139. Kinkel, speech in the Bundestag debate on policy toward Iran.
140. Foreign Minister Klaus Kinkel, news conference with Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, U.S. Department of State, November 5, 1997.
141. Michael Gahler, “Report on the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on EU Relations with the Islamic Republic of Iran,” European Parliament, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Human Rights, Common Security and Defense Policy, November 26, 2001, A5-0418/2001.
142. Mohamed ElBaradei, “Introductory Statement to the IAEA Board of Governors,” Vienna, November 20, 2003; “Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” IAEA Board of Governors, November 10, 2003, GOV/2003/75.
143. Ian Traynor, “Iran’s Nuclear Secrets Split EU and US,” Guardian (London), November 21, 2003.
144. Brian Murphy, “Iran Claims Victory in EU Nuke Deal,” Associated Press, October 22, 2003.
145. “Agreed Statement at the End of a Visit to the Islamic Republic of Iran by the Foreign Ministers of Britain, France, and Germany,” UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, October 21, 2003.
146. “Iran Agrees to Key Nuclear Demands,” BBC News, October 21, 2003.
147. “Nagoftaha-ye Hassan Rouhani as diplomasi hasteh-ye dureh eslahat az europa qol vatave tareh-i Amrika ra gerefteh budam,” Etemaad (Tehran), October 24, 2011.
148. Michael Adler, “Soft European Line on Iran Seen Undermining U.S. Stance,” Agence France-Presse, February 25, 2004.
149. “Sardar Safavi: Hezbollah-e luban az Basijiyan-e Iran alegu gereft,” Asr-i Iran, November 27, 2010.
150. “Iran Agrees to Suspend Enrichment,” CNN.com, November 15, 2004.
151. Steven Everts, “Engaging Iran: A Test Case for EU Foreign Policy,” Centre for European Reform, March 2004, p. 18.
152. “Khatami Praises U.S.; Says Protests in Iran Part of Normal Process,” Associated Press, November 12, 2001.
153. Senator Joe Biden, “Prospects for Progress: America and Iran after 9-11,” remarks to the Iranian American Council, March 13, 2002; Zalmay Khalilzad, speech to the American Iranian Council, March 13, 2002.
154. 9-11 Commission Report (Washington: The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, July 22, 2004), pp. 240–41.
155. “Terror in America (17): Conservatives and Reformists in Iran: Divided in Condemning the Attacks; United in Opposition to the American Response,” MEMRI, Special Dispatch 286, October 15, 2001; Alireza Malekian, “Public Opinion Based on a Fabricated Scenario,” Kayhan (Tehran), September 18, 2001, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
156. S. Nawabzadeh, “How Frail Is the Spider’s Web!” Kayhan International (Tehran), September 13, 2001.
157. Biden, “Prospects for Progress: America and Iran after 9-11.”
158. “A Letter to the US Congress and the Responsibility of the Foreign Ministry,” Entekhab (Tehran), June 30, 2001, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
159. “Those Who Benefit from Trade with America Have Become Advocates of Negotiations,” Kayhan (Tehran), July 15, 2001, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
160. James Dobbins, “Moral Clarity and the Middle East,” speech to the New America Foundation, August 24, 2006.
161. Ibid.
162. Michael Ware, “Iran’s Man in Iraq: ‘We Do Not Take Orders from the Americans,’” Time, April 12, 2006; “Iraqi Governing Council Member Says Iran Playing ‘Decisive Role’ in Unrest,” Al-Hayat (London), April 6, 2004, translation by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts.
163. Bill Samii, “Herat and Iran Strengthen Ties,” RFE/RL Iran Report, July 8, 2002.
164. Douglas Jehl, “A Nation Challenged: Outside Influences,” New York Times, March 9, 2002.
165. Zalmay Khalilzad, speech to the American Iranian Council, March 13, 2002.
166. Ibid.
167. Laura Secor, “The Fugitives,” New Yorker, November 21, 2005.
168. Zalmay Khalilzad, “Where Is Iran—and U.S. Iran Policy—Heading?” remarks to the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, August 2, 2002.
169. George W. Bush, “State of the Union,” January 29, 2002.
170. Siamek Behbudi, “The Role of Military Monopolies in America’s Regional Diplomacy,” Sobh-e Emruz (Tehran), April 9, 2000, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
171. George W. Bush, Decision Points (New York: Crown, 2010), p. 415.
172. “Interview with Mohsen Mir-Damadi, Chairman of the Majlis Foreign Affairs and Security Committee,” Islamic Republic News Agency, April 21, 2002.
173. “Iran: Daily Reports on Secret Contacts with US,” Entekhab (Tehran), April 22, 2002, translation by BBC Summary of World Broadcasts; “Recent Talks and Meetings between Iran and the United States,” Iran (Tehran), April 22, 2002.
174. “Iran: Daily Reports on Secret Contacts with US.”
175. “Powell Backs Off Intervention in Iranian Politics,” New York Times, July 2, 2003.
176. Robin Wright, “U.S. Now Views Iran in More Favorable Light,” Los Angeles Times, February 14, 2003.
177. Peter Galbraith, “The Victor?” New York Review of Books, October 11, 2007.
178. Iranian UN Ambassador Javad Zarif to Trita Parsi, email, March 30, 2006, 7:34 a.m.
179. See, for example, Barbara Slavin, Bitter Friends, Bosom Enemies: Iran, the U.S., and the Twisted Path to Confrontation (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2007), p. 212; William Luers, Thomas R. Pickering, and Jim Walsh, “How to Deal with Iran,” New York Review of Books, February 12, 2009; Chuck Hagel, “Iran,” U.S. Senate, December 4, 2007, S14729.
180. John W. Limbert, “Negotiating with the Islamic Republic of Iran,” United States Institute of Peace, Special Report 199, January 2008.
181. Seyed Hossein Mousavian and Mohammad Ali Shabani, “How to Talk to Tehran,” New York Times, January 3, 2013.
182. Ali Reza Nourizadeh, “Iranian Sources Say Revolutionary Guards Elements Entered Iraq with SCIRI,” Asharq al-Awsat, April 25, 2003, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
183. “Daily Views Importance of US Request for Iran’s Help in Iraq,” Tose’ah (Tehran), April 15, 2004, translation by BBC Worldwide Monitoring; see also “Iranian Editorial Says US Request on Iraq a ‘Turning Point,’” Mardom Salari (Tehran), April 18, 2004, translation by BBC Worldwide Monitoring.
184. “Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran,” IAEA Board of Governors, June 6, 2003, GOV/2003/40.
185. “Nearly 400 Al-Qaeda Members and Other Terror Suspects in Iran: Newspaper,” Agence France-Presse, July 15, 2004.
186. “Powell Backs Off Intervention in Iranian Politics.”
187. Carol Giacomo and Arshad Mohammed, interview with Condoleezza Rice, Reuters, March 11, 2005.
188. “Iran Says U.S. Incentives Offer ‘Insignificant,’” Reuters, March 11, 2005.
189. Islamic Republic News Agency, April 21, 2004; Mark John, “EU Promises ‘Generous’ Offer to Iran,” Reuters, May 15, 2006.
190. “Nagoftaha-ye Hassan Rouhani as diplomasi hasteh-ye dureh eslahat az europa qol vatave tareh-I Amrika ra gerefteh budam,” Etemaad (Tehran), October 24, 2011.
191. Sue Pleming, “Rice Open to Bilateral Talks with Iran at Meeting,” Reuters, April 5, 2007.
192. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, U.S. Department of State, May 31, 2006.
193. Dieter Bednarz, Ralf Beste, Konstantin von Hammerstein, and Marcel Rosenbach, “EU Diplomacy Takes a Beating: The Failure of Europe’s Iran Policy,” Spiegel Online International, April 16, 2007.
194. Daniel Dombey, “Solana Sees Hope of Deal with Iran on Nuclear Enrichment,” Financial Times, September 16, 2006.
195. Ibid.
196. Daniel Dombey and Fidelius Schmid, “Iran on Course for Nuclear Bomb, EU Told,” Financial Times, February 12, 2007.
197. Nicholas Burns, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 6, 2009.
198. Elaine Sciolino, “Iranian Pushes Nuclear Talks Back to Square 1,” New York Times, December 2, 2007.
199. “Iran: Terrorist Freed in Germany Is Welcomed by Tehran,” Radio Farda (Prague), December 11, 2007.
200. Yang Jiechi, Bernard Koucher, Frank-Walter Steinmeier, et al., letter to Manuchehr Mottaki, June 12, 2008.
201. Robin Wright, “Iranian Flow of Weapons Increasing, Officials Say,” Washington Post, June 3, 2007; Allison Lampert, “Iran Aiding Taliban: Mackay; Minister Says Arms Crossing Border to Insurgents,” National Post (Toronto), November 26, 2007.
202. Press briefing by Major-General William Caldwell, Spokesman, Multi-National Force–Iraq, and Major Marty Webber, Explosive Ordnance Disposal Expert, Combined Press Information Center, Baghdad, February 14, 2007.
203. William Luers, Thomas R. Pickering, and Jim Walsh, “How to Deal with Iran,” New York Review of Books, February 12, 2009.
204. Kim Murphy, “Iran Holds Foes in Complex Balance; Tehran Is Finding New Ways to Assert Itself in Mideast Conflict,” Los Angeles Times, August 14, 2007.
205. Michael R. Gordon and Jeff Zeleny, “Obama Envisions New Iran Approach,” New York Times, November 2, 2007.
206. Nicholas Burns, statement before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 6, 2009.
207. Roger Cohen, “Iran Is Job One,” New York Times, October 22, 2008.
208. Seyed Hossein Mousavian, The Iranian Nuclear Crisis: A Memoir (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2012), p. 325.
209. Nazila Fathi, “In Rare Turn, Iran’s Leader Sends Letter to Obama,” New York Times, November 7, 2008.
210. “Iran-U.S.-Soltanieh,” Islamic Republic News Agency, December 1, 2008.
211. “Obama Tells Al Arabiya Peace Talks Should Resume,” Al Arabiya, January 27, 2009.
212. Jay Solomon, “Senior Democrat Snubbed by Iran in Outreach Bid,” Wall Street Journal, February 2, 2009.
213. Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran Radio 1 (Tehran) in Persian, 0855 GMT, February 6, 2009.
214. Sheryl Gay Stolberg and Helene Cooper, “Obama Makes Case as Stimulus Bill Clears Hurdle,” New York Times, February 10, 2009.
215. Luers, Pickering, and Walsh, “How to Deal with Iran.”
216. Naser Piran, “What Do New White House Efforts Indicate?” Iran (Tehran), October 20, 1999, translation provided by the Open Source Center.
217. Islamic Republic News Agency, March 21, 2009; “Iran Rejects Idea of U.S. Talks at Moscow Meeting on Afghanistan,” RIA Novosti (Moscow), March 27, 2009.
218. “Warnings on Iran,” Wall Street Journal, April 6, 2009.
219. “Analyst: Enemies Admit Defeat in Iran’s N. Issue,” Fars News Agency, April 9, 2009.
220. Donna Miles, “Gates Assures Arab Friends: No ‘Secret Bargain’ in Works with Iran,” American Forces Press Service, May 5, 2009; Makram Muhammad Ahmad, “Dhaminat muhimeh fi al-’aliqat al-arabiya al-iraniya la tastati’a Washington taqdimaha” [Important guarantees for Arab-Iranian relations that Washington cannot provide], Al-Ahram, May 9, 2009; U.S. Embassy Riyadh, “Saudi King Abdullah and Senior Princes on Saudi Policy toward Iraq,” April 20, 2008, Riyadh 649; Jason Koutsoukis, “Iran Buying Time, Says Israel,” Sydney Morning Herald, March 10, 2009.
221. Alan Cowell and Helene Cooper, “Obama Plays Down Divide with Israel,” New York Times, June 3, 2009.
222. “‘This Week’ Transcript: Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad,” ABC News, April 26, 2009.
223. “US Willing to Hold Face-to-Face Talks with Iran, State Department,” Islamic Republic News Agency, April 9, 2009; “Towze’ah bazgasht beh nezam-e jehane beh me’ane taslem-e moqabel qodratha-ye zurgu ast,” Abrar (Tehran), April 16, 2009.
224. Mark Landler, “A New Iran Overture, with Hot Dogs,” New York Times, June 1, 2009.
225. President Barack Obama interview, CBS, June 19, 2009.
226. Seyed Hossein Mousavian, The Iranian Nuclear Crisis: A Memoir (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2012), p. 339.
227. President Barack Obama interview, Associated Press, July 2, 2009.
228. Thomas Erdbrink, “Iran Read for Talks, Says Nuclear Negotiator,” Washington Post, September 2, 2009.
229. Herb Keinon, “Defiant Ahmadinejad Rules Out Nuclear Concessions,” Jerusalem Post, September 8, 2009.
230. David Gollust, “U.S. to Send Senior Diplomat to Talks with Iran,” Voice of America News, September 14, 2009.
231. “Lawmaker: Iran Specifies Location for 10 New N. Sites,” Fars News Agency, January 9, 2010.
232. Ian Kelly, Daily Press Briefing, U.S. Department of State, October 1, 2009.
233. Bobby Ghosh, “CIA Knew about Iran’s Secret Nuclear Plant Long before Disclosure,” Time, October 7, 2009.
234. Mark Landler and Steven Erlanger, “On the Eve of Nuclear Talks, Iran’s Foreign Minister Makes a Washington Visit,” New York Times, October 1, 2009.
235. Yaakov Katz, “Iran Tests Long-Range Missiles as Nuclear Crisis Deepens,” Jerusalem Post, September 29, 2009.
236. “Iran Agrees to Allow UN Visit to Nuclear Plant,” Agence France-Presse, October 2, 2009.
237. See comments in Eric Etheridge, “Did Iran Blink?” Opinionator, New York Times Blogs, October 5, 2009. “Pwned” is slang for “dominated.”
238. “Iran to Seek Guaranteed Supply of Nuclear Fuel at Vienna,” NOW Lebanon (Beirut) in English, 1038 GMT, October 18, 2009.
239. David E. Sanger, “Iran Said to Ignore Effort to Salvage Nuclear Deal,” New York Times, November 9, 2009; “Obama on Tehran’s Democrats: ‘We Do Not Interfere in Iran’s Internal Affairs,’” Wall Street Journal, November 5, 2009.
240. “Former Hostage’s Advice for Iran Negotiations,” NPR, September 19, 2009.
241. “The Road Ahead for U.S.-Iran Relations,” Tehran Times, October 7, 2009.
242. “Supreme Leader: Iranian Nation Will Not Be Deceived by US Gov’t,” Islamic Republic News Agency, November 3, 2009.
243. “Text of Obama’s Interview,” Reuters, November 9, 2009.
244. “Construction of New Nuclear Plants, Strong Response to G5+1: Salehi,” Islamic Republic News Agency, November 30, 2009.
245. “FM Spokesman: US Talks Not on the Table,” Islamic Republic News Agency, December 8, 2009.
246. Parisa Hafezi and Reza Derakhshi, “Iran Says Launches Satellite Rocket,” Reuters, February 3, 2010.
247. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, news conference with Qatar Prime Minister Sheikh Hamad Bin Jassim Jabar al-Thani, U.S. Department of State, January 4, 2010.
248. Nasser Karimi, “Iran Accepts Clinton Non-Deadline on Nuclear Talks,” Associated Press, January 5, 2010.
249. “Iran Has Material for 1–2 Atom Bombs: Ex-IAEA Aide,” Reuters, August 26, 2010.
250. See, for example, Trita Parsi, A Single Roll of the Dice: Obama’s Diplomacy with Iran (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012).
251. Louis Charbonneau, “China: Big Powers Should Talk with Iran, Not Punish,” Reuters, February 5, 2010.
252. “Agar mikhahid az goftogu natijeh begardid akhlaq taghavati ra kenar begozarid,” ILNA (Tehran), December 1, 2010.
253. Josh Rogin, “Cat and Mouse: Iranian Foreign Minister Shakes Hands with Senior U.S. Official but Dodges Hillary Clinton,” Foreign Policy, December 4, 2010; “Iziharat-i Clinton mamalu az tunaqaz / zaman bar rivabateh ba amrika narasideh ast,” Mehr News Agency (Tehran), October 29, 2011.
254. “Empty Nuclear Talks with Iran,” Washington Post, December 8, 2010.
255. Jay Solomon, “Iran Agrees to New Round of Talks in Turkey,” Wall Street Journal, December 8, 2010.
256. Suzanne Maloney and Ray Takeyh, “Ahmadinejad’s Fall, America’s Loss,” New York Times, June 16, 2011.
257. “In fakr ghalat ast keh agar ba Amrika maravdeh dasteh bashim, keshavarman tusa’yeh peda mikonad,” Farda News (Tehran), November 16, 2011; “Jaryan Anharafi beh Donbal Shakast-e Nizam-e Suriya,” Daneshjoo [Student News Agency, SNN.ir] (Tehran), September 28, 2012.
258. Hassan Rouhani, “Why Iran Seeks Constructive Engagement,” Washington Post, September 19, 2013.
259. Barack Obama, Statement by the President, The White House, September 27, 2013.
260. “Sokhanrani Hojjat ol-Islam va al-Musulmin Doktor Hassan Rouhani dar Jame’ah Nakhbagan Firdowsi Mashhad,” February 9, 2005.
261. Voice of the Islamic Republic Radio 1 (Tehran), October 2, 2013.
262. Thomas Erdbrink, “Iran’s Leaders Signal New Effort at Thaw,” New York Times, September 18, 2013; “Salehi Strongly Rejects Rumors of Fordo Close Down,” Islamic Republic News Agency, September 18, 2013.
263. “Estratezhi ‘Narmesh Qaharnamaneh’ Haman Estratezhi Kali Nizam Ast ba Taktiki Mutafavat,” Bashgah-e Khabarnagaran (Tehran), September 20, 2013.
264. “Dr. Rouhani’s 1st TV Report to the People,” Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran webpage, September 12, 2013.
265. Paul Richter, “State Dept. Official Urges Congress to Delay New Iran Sanctions,” Los Angeles Times, October 3, 2013.
266. “IAEA and Iran Hold Technical Meetings in Tehran,” IAEA Press Release 2014/24, October 9, 2014.
267. “#Iran’s red lines in the #NuclearTalks,” October 12, 2014, https://twitter.com/khamenei_ir/status/521212555587383296.
268. “Akhtiyarat-e Ra’is-e Jomhur Ziad Ast,” Fars News Agency (Tehran), October 20, 2014.
269. U.S. Embassy Tehran, “Negotiations,” August 13, 1979, Tehran 8980.
270. “‘We Are Ordered to Crush You’: Expanding Repression of Dissent in Iran,” Amnesty International, 2012.
271. Joby Warrick, “Iran’s Nuclear Program Suffering New Setbacks, Diplomats and Experts Say,” Washington Post, October 18, 2011.
272. Kayhan, May 11, 2008.
273. Thomas Erdbrink, “Iran Sees Success in Its Atom Strategy,” International Herald Tribune, May 16, 2012,
274. David Crawford, Richard Boudreaux, Joe Lauria, and Jay Solomon, “U.S. Softens Sanction Plan against Iran,” Wall Street Journal, March 25, 2010.
275. Hassan Nasrallah interview, New TV (Beirut), August 27, 2006.
276. Neil MacFarquhar, “U.S. Walks Out as Iran Leader Speaks,” New York Times, September 23, 2010.
277. “Iran Cancels Aid Ship to Gaza,” Reuters, June 28, 2010.