Mark

DARRELL L. BOCK

INTRODUCTION TO

Mark

TODAY, THE GOSPEL OF MARK is generally regarded as the first Gospel to have been written (Stein 1987; Brown 1997:99-125; Guthrie 1990:136-208). Most of the church fathers of the first five centuries held that Matthew was the earliest Gospel, possibly because of its direct apostolic roots (see Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.1.1-2; Tertullian Against Marcion 4.2.1-5; Papias, as cited in Eusebius Ecclesiastical History 7.39.16; for evaluation, see Bock 2002a:163-165). However, the connection between Mark and the apostle Peter is also consistently affirmed by early church tradition, which helps to explain how a Gospel written by a non-apostolic figure became a part of the New Testament canon.

The belief that Mark is our earliest Gospel emerges from several factors: (1) Mark’s outline seems to be fundamental to the basic structure of the three synoptic Gospels. In other words, when Matthew is not going his own way, he seems to be following Mark, and the same is true of Luke. This means that Mark is probably either our first written Gospel or the last of the Synoptics. (2) Mark says critical things about the disciples that are softened in the other Gospels. Textually, it seems more likely that later authors would remove or downplay such transparent failures (as Matthew and Luke do) than that a later author would add these accounts (thus, their presence in Mark argues against it being the third Gospel written). (3) Mark is the shortest Gospel, but in the accounts that are parallel to the other Gospels, it generally gives more detail. This makes it unlikely that Mark is a “summary” Gospel following Matthew and Mark. (4) Mark is an “action” Gospel, lacking much of the key discourse material found in the other Gospels. Again, if Mark were writing last and summarizing the other Gospels, it is hard to explain these omissions; there is no infancy account or evidence of a Sermon on the Mount or Plain. Since Mark was probably our first written Gospel, his outline has often been important in recent efforts to present the life of Christ, even though sections of it are probably not arranged chronologically but topically (e.g., the conflicts of Mark 2–3).

As with the other Gospels, discussions about authorship, date, and audience revolve around external testimony from witnesses in the later church and inferences based on internal features of the Gospel (for all the options discussed regarding these areas, see Guelich 1989: xxv-xxxii).

AUTHOR

As with the other Gospels, the author does not name himself in his work. We need to look to other sources to discover the author of this Gospel. Its association with Mark comes to us through early church testimony (Gundry 1993:1026-1045; Taylor 1966:1-8). According to Eusebius, Papias described Mark as Peter’s interpreter (Ecclesiastical History 3.39.15). These remarks of Papias are often dated around AD 140, although some argue that they could actually be from as much as thirty years earlier, since Papias is associated with Polycarp, Ignatius, and Clement of Rome, and Eusebius’s discussion precedes his mention of Emperor Trajan’s persecution of around AD 110 (Gundry 1993:1027-1028). Papias claims that what he says goes back to John the elder (probably the apostle John), which moves the source of the information back one generation from his report. (Gundry, 1993:1032-1033, also discusses and rejects Eusebius’s distinction between John the apostle and John the elder.) This remark places us at the end of the first century. Papias, as reported by Eusebius, claimed that

Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said, he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but with no intention of giving a connected account of the Lord’s discourses, so that Mark committed no error while he thus wrote some things as he remembered them. For he was careful of one thing, not to omit any of the things which he had heard, and not to state any of them falsely.

We have other sources beyond Papias. The Anti-Marcionite Prologue (about AD 180), Irenaeus (Against Heresies 3.1.1-2), and Clement of Alexandria (Ecclesiastical History 6.14.6) confirm this identification. Clement is reported to have said the following concerning Mark:

The Gospel according to Mark had this occasion. As Peter had preached the word publicly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the Spirit, many who were present requested that Mark, who had followed him for a long time and remembered his sayings, should write them out. And having composed the Gospel he gave it to those who had requested it.

Irenaeus wrote that “after their [Peter and Paul’s] departure, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, did also hand down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter.” The Prologue calls Mark “stump-fingered,” giving us one of the most vivid and famous descriptions of any evangelist. Justin Martyr suggests that Mark was connected to Peter. In an allusion to Mark in Martyr’s Dialogue with Trypho 106, he calls material from Mark 3:17 “the memoirs of him,” referring to Peter. The superscriptions also confirm this connection (Hengel 1985:74-81). There is no external evidence for any other author. Taylor concludes, “There can be no doubt that the author of the Gospel was Mark, the attendant of Peter.” The conclusion that the author was Mark “may be accepted as sound” (Taylor 1966:26).

Many people identify Mark as John Mark, a known assistant to Peter, Paul, and Barnabas (Acts 12:12, 25; 13:13; 15:37-39; Col 4:10; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 24; 1 Pet 5:13). Mark was a common name, so this conclusion is dependent to some degree on early church testimony and on the association of John Mark with both Peter and Paul. There are, however, no good alternatives to this conclusion (Blomberg 1997:124).

DATE

Determining Mark’s date is somewhat difficult because the external testimony is not in agreement. Irenaeus, in Against Heresies 3.1.1-2, places the composition after the deaths of Peter and Paul around the late 60s, while Clement of Alexandria, as cited by Eusebius in Ecclesiastical History 2.15.2, dates it during Peter’s and Paul’s time in Rome, which could push the date back into the 50s. Most commentators opt for a date in the AD 65–70 range, while others place Mark just after AD 70. Those opting for the post-70 date argue unpersuasively that Mark 13, with its “prediction” of Jerusalem’s destruction, must have a post-AD 70 perspective, since they view the account as “prophecy historicized.” There is nothing in Mark 13 that points to such an “after the fact” prophecy. Rather, the chapter reflects the language of a covenantal judgment of God for covenantal unfaithfulness, something the exilic and post-exilic prophets taught (Gundry 1993:1042). However, if one accepts the testimony of Clement of Alexandria that Peter ratified Mark’s work, then a date in the late 50s to mid-60s is possible. A mid- to late 60s date argues that although Mark got his material from Peter, he took some time to compile and compose his Gospel. A date in the late 50s or early 60s is a good possibility, but one in the mid- to late 60s is also possible, although the impact of that date is to push Matthew and Luke beyond AD 70, which may be too late for those gospels. (On how AD 70 relates to the date of the gospels, see my introduction to Luke in Bock 1994.) As with each Gospel, the discussion turns on what part of the external testimony one accepts, as well as on one’s view of the order and date of composition among the Gospels.

AUDIENCE

The same text from Clement locates the Gospel’s original audience in Rome. Later tradition claims a setting as far away as Egypt (John Chrysostom Homilies on Matthew 1.3). However, the Latinisms in the book suggest Rome as the most likely locale, and this also finds support in Mark’s emphasis on suffering. The community in Rome experienced pressure both from Jews and from the empire (there was Roman pressure on the Jews in AD 49 and Nero persecuted Christians in AD 64). The Gospel of Mark indicates the tension that existed between the disciples and the Jews, especially those in charge of Judaism, realities that may well explain the Gospel’s emphasis on suffering. The early Roman Christian community was being made aware that they could not follow Jesus without suffering just as the rejected Jesus himself suffered (10:35-45). They also were being shown that discipleship failures in their past could be overcome by the same power that enabled Jesus to endure the cross.

OCCASION AND PURPOSE OF WRITING

Given the emphasis on suffering in Mark, this Gospel was probably associated with a period of persecution, especially against the church in Rome (Lane 1974:24-25). The Gospel should, then, encourage Christians who suffer for their faith. The fact that Nero burned Christians, blaming them for the great fire in Rome, underscores the severity of the situation (Suetonius Nero 38). Christians were also disliked because they refused to share in the adulation and worship of the emperor that were part of Roman nationalism. They were seen as disloyal citizens.

For Mark, the Roman conflict was less important than the larger spiritual battle with Satan and the forces of evil, referred to as early as chapter 1 in the temptation scene and the exorcisms. The Gospel calls its followers to be loyal to the gospel and its message about Jesus. This requires a devoted and sacrificial discipleship (1:17, 20; 2:14; 10:28), one that is supported by the realization that Jesus is indeed all he showed himself to be in his earthly ministry. Jesus’ vindication in resurrection is a precursor to his return.

Jesus’ nature is revealed as his story is told, not as a secret, but as a gradual disclosure based on what Jesus did more than on what he said (Evans 2001:lxxi-lxxii). Titles for Jesus abound at the end of the Gospel when the disclosure is complete. When Jesus speaks of himself, most of his sayings refer to him as the suffering Son of Man and point to his rejection (Bock 2002b:602). Jesus knew he would suffer, faced this reality, and became the ransom for the world, knowing that God would vindicate him in the end. Those who embrace his Gospel will follow in the same victorious and triumphant way.

CANONICITY AND TEXTUAL HISTORY

The close connection of the Gospel of Mark to Peter explains its acceptance and circulation in the early church. Sometimes people argue that Matthew would never have used this Gospel as a basis for his own Gospel because Matthew was an eyewitness and Mark was not. However, Mark’s strong association with Peter gives his Gospel credibility. It must have had apostolic links for the church to welcome it into the basic fourfold Gospel collection—a collection well established by the mid-second century—even though the church readily acknowledged that a non-apostle wrote it.

For solid summaries of the state of the ancient manuscripts of Mark, see Evans (2001:lix-lx). By way of summary, Mark is in only a few papyri: 45, 84, and 88. 45 (third century) contains Mark 4:36–9:31 and 11:27–12:28 (with lacunae); 84 (sixth century) preserves Mark 2:2-9 and 6:30-41 (with lacunae); 88 (fourth century) preserves Mark 2:1-26. Complete manuscripts appear in a (to 16:8), A (to 16:20), B (to 16:8), D (to 16:20), and W (to 16:20). The Alexandrian manuscripts are 88, A, and B. A few witnesses have been identified as “Caesarean” in the Gospel of Mark. These manuscripts probably came from the text that Origen took with him from Alexandria to Caesarea and bear a mixture of the so-called “Western” and Alexandrian readings. These witnesses are 45 W (in 5:31–16:20) Θ 28 565 700 f1 f13 arm geo.

LITERARY STYLE

There is a large debate about the genre of “Gospel.” Was it a new, unprecedented genre, or was it an extension of biography (Burridge 1992:107-274; Bauckham 1998)? The comparative study by Burridge argues that the closest ancient genre to the Gospels is ancient biography, because of how focused Mark is on describing the activity and teaching of a single figure. It has often been argued that biography is not appropriately compared with the Gospels, but the literary and semantic evidence Burridge brings forth indicates that Mark’s form is closest to this category. This means that Mark was concerned to tell us about Jesus and the significance of his person and actions. This is not to say that this Gospel is neutral in its presentation; ancient biography had the goal of lifting up the importance of the figure being discussed, and Mark fits this description well. Unlike modern biography, ancient biography is more focused on a person’s actions and teaching than on his psychology. Certain emphases make Mark’s work unique and reflect a distinct sub-genre within ancient biography. One important detail about the term “gospel,” as it came to be used in the church, is that the superscriptions to the Gospels are worded “the Gospel according to Mark,” not the “Gospel of Mark” (Guelich 1989:xxvi; Hengel 1985:65-67). This implies that there is one gospel in many versions. The one gospel is “of God,” and Mark gives but one representation of it, as the mediator of a much larger message. Although Mark’s work was probably the first of its kind, it was seen as but one example of the story that emerged from the early church that eventually became known as the “fourfold” gospel—one gospel in four versions.

MAJOR THEMES

Mark begins with a note that what he is telling is “the Good News.” As such, Mark’s goal was clearly to tell his readers what Jesus was about as he brought the Good News to people and thereby revealed himself as the Christ, the Son of God. Jesus is the story and the point of the story.

To a lesser degree than Matthew or Luke, Mark also traces the Kingdom of God as a theme. For Mark, the Kingdom has elements that indicate its initial presence as immediate, while the bulk of the emphasis is that it will come in fullness one day in the future. Kingdom entry, available now, requires one to be like a child. The “mystery” of the Kingdom is that it starts out small, but will grow into a full harvest, accomplishing all that God has appointed it to. Part of Mark’s goal is to explain what Jesus meant by the coming of God’s rule and to specify how his coming both does and will fulfill God’s plan. Jesus’ rejection caused confusion, so Mark explains how a promised Messiah could meet with rejection as a part of God’s plan (Guelich 1989:xlii). Mark corrects the danger that some would present the gospel in strictly triumphalist terms, since suffering rejection is also a part of the walk. For a community itself under duress, the cross marks the way ahead.

Mark is more a Gospel of action than of teaching. Things happen “immediately,” which is one of Mark’s favorite expressions. Mark has only two discourses, one on the parables of the Kingdom (4:1-33) and the eschatological discourse (13:1-37), but miracles abound—Mark includes twenty accounts. Combined with healing summaries, these units comprise a third of the Gospel and are nearly one-half of the first ten chapters (Twelftree 1999:57). These pictures of Jesus are important to Mark as he presents Jesus as one who displays authority both in his actions and his teachings. This authority underscores Jesus’ identity as the Messiah (or Christ), the Son of God (1:1; 8:29). Mark’s Christology presents Jesus as this promised figure. Jesus’ claims of authority over sin, relationships, practices tied to purity, the Sabbath, and the Temple get him into trouble with the Jewish leaders, who soon determine that they must stop him. This conflict emerging from Jesus’ claims is also a central feature of Mark’s Gospel.

Jesus’ authority was not based only on miraculous power. Mark highlights Jesus as the suffering Son of Man and Servant proportionately more than any other Gospel. In fact, nine of thirteen uses of the “Son of Man” title look to Jesus’ suffering. Although Isaiah 53 is not cited, the descriptions of Jesus clearly parallel the portrait of the suffering servant, especially in the claim that his mission was to give his life as “a ransom for many” (10:45). The importance of understanding the suffering role probably explains Mark’s record of the commands to silence given to those, including demons, who confessed Jesus as Messiah (1:44; 5:43; 9:9). Without an appreciation of his suffering, Jesus’ messianic calling is misunderstood. Some have called this the messianic secret, but it was not that Jesus’ identity as the Messiah was to be kept a secret but that it was not to be shared until it was more fully understood. Only as the cross drew near did the full scope of his divine promise and calling emerge. The disciples were not in a position to preach Jesus until they appreciated this aspect of his mission. The subsequent mission of the church makes this clear.

The servant Jesus is an example of how to walk with God in a world that rejects those sent by God. Here the pastoral demands of discipleship also appear (10:35-45). Mark is like Matthew in this respect. After suffering come glory and vindication. The same Son of Man will return one day to render judgment, as the eschatological discourse reveals. The need for discipleship and real listening to Jesus emerges clearly within Mark, since the evangelist unhesitatingly narrates the repeated failures of the disciples. Their instincts did not take them in the right direction; trust in God and his ways was required. Mark also notes the emotions of Jesus and the disciples more than any of the other Gospels.

Finally, Mark 6–14 shows that the experience of rejection and suffering challenged even the apostles’ committment to discipleship. There is a great deal of discipleship failure in these chapters. The disciples have much to learn and one suspects that Mark wants his readers to identify with the difficulty as a way of gaining strength from the fact that these apostles did overcome their past failures. If Mark is the John Mark of Acts 13:13, who abandoned Paul under pressure, then the theme may well be a reflection of his own experience and growth—in spite of the account of his failure in Acts, he persevered in discipleship as Colossians 4:10-11 bears witness.

In summary, Mark addresses a church under duress and suffering rejection as their Teacher had before them. The antidote to their stressful situation is to persevere and to look to Jesus as their example. The Gospel of Mark gives us one of the earliest glimpses as to how the church presented Jesus and his life to others who needed to be established in their walk with God.

OUTLINE

Many scholars today regard Mark as the first of the four canonical Gospels to be written. Its outline of Jesus’ ministry has become the basic structure through which his life has been traced, even though sections of it are probably given in topical, not chronological, order (e.g., the conflicts of Mark 2–3).

The first major section of this Gospel is on Jesus’ public ministry; Mark’s account cycles through a consistent structure in each of its three sub-parts. There is a story about the disciples at the beginning (1:16-20; 3:13-19; 6:7-13) and a note about rejection or a summary at the end (3:7-12; 6:1-6; 8:22-26; Guelich 1992:516) of each of these sub-sections.

The turning point of Mark’s Gospel is the confession that Jesus is the Christ (8:27-31). Before this confession, there is a miracle in which Jesus gives sight. After the confession comes the repeated information that he will suffer, a point the disciples struggle to grasp. Half of the Gospel treats the movement toward the final week of Jesus’ ministry, while a full quarter of it is on the suffering of the last week. For Mark, these events are central to his story and to the theme of Jesus’ sufferings.

I. Prologue on the Beginning of the Gospel (1:1-15)

A. John the Baptist Prepares the Way (1:1-8; cf. Matt 3:1-12; Luke 3:1-14)

B. The Baptism and Temptation of Jesus (1:9-15; cf. Matt 3:13-17; 4:1-11; Luke 3:21-23; 4:1-13)

II. Jesus’ Public Ministry (1:16–8:26)

A. Calling of Disciples and Beginning of Miracles (1:16–1:45)

1. The first disciples (1:16-20; cf. Matt 4:18-22)

2. Jesus casts out an evil spirit (1:21-28)

3. Jesus’ work continues in Capernaum and Galilee (1:29-45)

B. Controversy Leading to Rejection (2:1–3:12)

1. The first controversy: Jesus as Son of Man heals a paralytic and forgives sin (2:1-12; cf. Matt 9:1-8; Luke 5:17-26)

2. The second controversy: Jesus calls Levi and eats with sinners (2:13-17; cf. Matt 9:9-13; Luke 5:27-32)

3. The third controversy: Jesus’ disciples did not practice fasting (2:18-22; cf. Matt 9:14-17; Luke 5:33-39)

4. The fourth controversy: Jesus’ disciples violate the Sabbath (2:23-28; cf. Matt 12:1-8; Luke 6:1-5)

5. The fifth controversy: Jesus heals on the Sabbath (3:1-6; cf. Matt 12:9-14; Luke 6:6-11)

6. Summary of Jesus’ early ministry (3:7-12; cf. Matt 12:15-21; Luke 6:17-19)

C. Teaching on the Mystery-filled Kingdom and Miracles of Power Yield Rejection (3:13–6:6a)

1. The choosing of the Twelve (3:13-19; cf. Luke 6:12-16)

2. The debate over Jesus’ power: Is it from Satan or from God? (3:20-30; cf. Matt 12:22-24)

3. Jesus’ true family is those who do God’s will (3:31-35; cf. Matt 12:46-50)

4. Parable of the sower (4:1-20; cf. Matt 13:1-9)

5. Parable of the lamp (4:21-25)

6. Parable of the growing seed (4:26-29)

7. The mustard seed and a summary on parables (4:30-34; cf. Matt 13:31-35)

8. Jesus calms a storm (4:35-41; Luke 8:22-25)

9. The healing of the Gerasene demoniac (5:1-20; cf. Luke 8:26-39)

10. The woman with the hemorrhage and Jairus’s daughter (5:21-43; cf. Luke 8:40-56)

11. Jesus faces rejection at Nazareth (6:1-6a; cf. Matt 13:53-58)

D. Challenge, Misunderstanding, and Confession (6:6b–8:26)

1. The Twelve are sent out (6:6b-13; cf. Luke 9:1-6)

2. The death of John the Baptist (6:14-29; cf. Matt 14:3-12; Luke 9:7-10)

3. Jesus feeds five thousand (6:30-44; cf. Matt 14:13-21; Luke 9:10-17; John 6:1-13)

4. Jesus walks on water (6:45-52; cf. Matt 14:22-33; John 6:14-21)

5. Healing of the sick in Gennesaret (6:53-56; cf. Matt 14:34-36)

6. Jesus’ views on cleanliness and purity (7:1-23; cf. Matt 15:1-20)

7. The Syrophoenician woman’s faith leads to healing (7:24-30; cf. Matt 15:21-28)

8. Jesus heals a deaf and mute man (7:31-37; cf. Matt 15:29-31)

9. Jesus feeds four thousand (8:1-10; cf. Matt 15:32-39)

10. The Pharisees demand a sign (8:11-13; cf. Matt 16:1-4)

11. Dialogue about yeast among the Pharisees and Herod (8:14-21; cf. Matt 16:5-12)

12. A blind man’s healing at Bethsaida (8:22-26)

III. To Jerusalem, Passion and Vindication (8:27–16:8)

A. Passion Predictions and Discipleship Teaching (8:27–10:52)

1. Peter’s confession at Caesarea Philippi (8:27-30; cf. Matt 16:13-20; Luke 9:18-21)

2. Jesus begins to speak about his death and resurrection (8:31-33)

3. Following Jesus (8:34–9:1; cf. Matt 16:21-28; Luke 9:22-27)

4. Jesus’ transfiguration (9:2-13; cf. Matt 17:1-13; Luke 9:28-36)

5. Jesus performs an exorcism after the disciples’ failure (9:14-29; cf. Matt 17:14-21; Luke 9:37-43)

6. Jesus predicts his death again (9:30-32; cf. Matt 17:22-27; Luke 9:43-45)

7. The greatest in the Kingdom (9:33-37; cf. Matt 18:1-14; Luke 9:46-48)

8. Miscellaneous remarks about relationships and accountability (9:38-50)

9. Jesus’ remarks on divorce (10:1-12; cf. Matt 19:1-12)

10. Jesus blesses the children (10:13-16; cf. Luke 18:15-17)

11. Jesus encounters a rich man (10:17-31; cf. Matt 19:16-30; Luke 18:18-30)

12. Jesus predicts his death again (10:32-34; cf. Matt 20:17-28; Luke 18:31-33)

13. Jesus teaches about service (10:35-45)

14. Jesus heals the blind man Bartimaeus (10:46-52; cf. Matt 20:29-33; Luke 18:35-43)

B. Conflict in Jerusalem and Prediction of Judgment (11:1–13:37)

1. Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem (11:1-11; cf. Matt 21:1-11; Luke 19:29-44; John 12:12-19)

2. Jesus curses the fig tree and clears the Temple (11:12-25; cf. Matt 21:12-22; Luke 19:45-48)

3. Question about the source of Jesus’ authority (11:27-33; cf. Matt 21:23-32; Luke 20:1-8)

4. Parable of the evil tenants (12:1-12; cf. Matt 21:33-46; Luke 20:9-19)

5. Question concerning paying taxes to Caesar (12:13-17; cf. Matt 22:15-22; Luke 20:20-26)

6. Question about resurrection (12:18-27; cf. Matt 22:23-33; Luke 20:27-40)

7. The most important commandment (12:28-34; cf. Matt 22:34-40)

8. Question about the Messiah (12:35-37; cf. Matt 22:41-46; Luke 20:41-44)

9. Contrasting the scribes and a widow (12:38-44; cf. Matt 23:1-12; Luke 20:45-47)

10. The destruction of the Temple and return of the Son of Man (13:1-37; cf. Matt 24:1-36; Luke 21:5-36)

C. King of the Jews Executed for Blasphemy, Confessed as God’s Son, and Vindicated by God (14:1–16:8)

1. The plot to arrest Jesus (14:1-2; cf. Matt 26:1-5; Luke 21:37–22:1-2)

2. The anointing at Bethany (14:3-9; cf. Matt 26:6-13; John 12:2-11)

3. Judas betrays Jesus (14:10-11; cf. Matt 26:14-16; Luke 22:3-6)

4. The Last Supper (14:12-26; cf. Matt 26:17-30; Luke 22:7-20; John 13:21-30)

5. Peter’s denials predicted (14:27-31; cf. Matt 26:31-35; Luke 22:31-38; John 13:31-38)

6. Jesus at Gethsemane (14:32-42; cf. Matt 26:36-46; Luke 22:39-46)

7. Jesus is betrayed and arrested (14:43-52; cf. Matt 26:47-56; Luke 22:47-53; John 18:2-12)

8. The Jewish leaders examine Jesus (14:53-65; cf. Matt 26:57-68; Luke 22:54)

9. Peter’s denials (14:66-72; cf. Matt 26:69-75; Luke 22:55-65; John 18:25-27)

10. Jesus’ trial before Pilate (15:1-15; cf. Matt 27:11-26; Luke 23:1-25; John 18:28–19:16)

11. The soldiers mock Jesus (15:16-20; cf. Matt 27:27-31)

12. Jesus’ crucifixion and death (15:21-39; cf. Matt 27:32-56; Luke 23:26-49; John 19:17-37)

13. Jesus’ burial (15:40-47; cf. Matt 27:57-66; Luke 23:50-56; John 19:31-42)

14. The resurrection of Jesus (16:1-8; cf. Matt 28:1-10; Luke 24:1-12; John 20:1-18)

IV. The Added Endings to Mark (post-16:8)

A. The Shorter Ending (post-16:8)

B. The Longer Ending (16:9-20)