The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

Buyids (945–1062)

The Buyids, named after their ancestor ‘Ali b. Buyah, came from Daylam, the highlands south of the Caspian Sea. With the help of armed forces composed of Daylami footsoldiers and Turkish horsemen, from 935 onward they controlled an area that at the zenith of their power included modern-day Iraq, Oman, and Iran and reached as far as the borders of Baluchistan and Khurasan. The distribution of the territory among the members of the Buyid family, with their leader holding the position of amīr al-umarā’ (supreme commander) in Baghdad, brought about problems of unity and succession, which in the long run turned out to be unsolvable. Succumbing to the onslaught of the Seljuqs, Buyid rule came to an end in Baghdad in 1055 and in Fars in 1062.

According to the Sunni theory of state as formulated Mawardi, a leading contemporary authority, the caliph was supposed to be from among the Quraysh, the Prophet Muhammad’s clan. In contrast, Shi‘is of various denominations held the caliphate to be the prerogative of the ‘Alids, the progeny of ‘Ali’s marriage with Fatima, the Prophet’s daughter. The Buyids were Shi‘is of the Zaydi branch, which prevailed in their homeland of Daylam. Mu‘izz al-Dawla, the first Buyid to assume the office of supreme commander in Baghdad in 945, fearing a Zaydi imam might threaten his authority and considering the fact that the Samanids in the East were staunch supporters of the Abbasids, did not interfere with the caliphate in principle. His successors continued this policy. However, this did not prevent them from sympathizing with the Twelver (Imami) Shi‘is, promoting Shi‘i festivals, and choosing Shi‘i sanctuaries for their burial. As for the leadership of the Islamic community, the Twelver Shi‘is assumed an attitude of quietism, waiting for the return of the Twelfth Imam who had gone into hiding (ghayba) in 874. Eventually, Buyid amirs even had an eye for the Isma‘ilism of the Fatimids, which propagated activism in going ahead with the ‘Alid pretension to the caliphate.

The Buyids gave the supreme emirate, which had been established a decade before their takeover in Baghdad, a degree of stability after a period of unrest. The names of the leading amirs were mentioned together with that of the caliph in the Friday sermon (khuṭba) and put on coins according to their ranks. The Abbasids eventually transferred full powers to the Buyid leaders, confining their own rule to the administration of personal possessions, the enthronization of the supreme amir and the provincial rulers, and the settling of religious matters. In exchange, the Buyids assumed titles that expressed support of the Abbasid caliph (dawla), to which were later added titles that were meant to demonstrate protection of the community (milla, umma) and promotion of Islam (dīn). When the Buyids claimed descent from the Sasanids (224–642), the Zoroastrian rulers of Iran before the Arab conquest, the caliph found himself compelled to allow the Iranian title shāhānshāh (great king, malik al-mulūk), a title detestable to pious Muslims, to be mentioned in the khuṭba and put on the coins. Buyid power attained its apex under ‘Adud al-Dawla, and subsequent to his death in 983, Buyid power was beginning to wane and the authority of the caliphs increased once again, earning them the place of arbiters in internal Buyid disputes.

Throughout the Buyid century, Iraq, the center of Shi‘i activities since the early Islamic period, was stricken by unrest and riots, sometimes taking the shape of civil war, particularly in Baghdad. The Buyid army, composed of Shi‘i Daylamis and Sunni Turks, experienced the same problem within their ranks. In addition, there were the difficulties of financing the soldiers. They were paid in cash or kind, which is the assigning of land (iqṭā‘) in exchange for services rendered. Mismanagement, decay of the irrigation system in Mesopotamia, and the shift of the trade route from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea contributed to the downfall of the Buyid commonwealth.

As for their cultural achievements, the Buyids did not promote New Persian literature but gave the Iranian fine arts a lasting impetus. Scholars, writers, and high officials excelled in Arabic literature, philosophy, and natural sciences. Theologians like Ibn Babuya laid the foundations of Imami theology. Whereas the Buyids were a foreign occupying power in the eyes of modern Iraqi historians, Iranian authors view them as the first power possessing the dynasty of the Shi‘a. To define the place they deserve in history, one must take into account their achievements in various fields of culture. Depriving the caliph of his power without encroaching on his authority testifies to their sense of proportion in politics—a pattern that persisted under the subsequent and uncompromisingly Sunni Seljuqs.