The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

city (philosophical)

In the tenth century, Muslim philosophers introduced the concept of the excellent city (al-madīna al-fāḍila), a utopian perfect polity created for the purpose of guiding its inhabitants toward perfection and felicity (typically understood as a conjunction [ittiṣāl] with the Active Intellect [the active principle of understanding that is an emanation of God] and separation from matter) and ruled by a single philosopher (also known as a sage) or by a group of them. All descriptions of the excellent city found in Islamic thought are based on Plato’s Republic (in particular, books V and VII–IX). The best known philosophers who discuss this issue are Farabi, the Brethren of Purity, and Ibn Rushd (Averroes). The description of the perfect city given by Farabi in his Principles of the Opinions of the Inhabitants of the Excellent City (Mabadi’ Ara’ Ahl al-Madina al-Fadila) is by far the most important. According to Farabi, the inhabitants of the excellent city assist each other to obtain true (i.e., intellectual) felicity. The city resembles a body whose parts assist each other in perfecting and protecting the life of the animal. The ruler of the city relates to the inhabitants as the heart relates to other bodily parts. The inhabitants of the city are ranked in accordance with the distance between them and the ruler. Those closest to the ruler possess qualities that allow them to pursue his objectives directly, while the lower ranks pursue the objectives of those above them and thus indirectly those of the ruler. While the inhabitants of the city differ from one another in their innate natures (fiṭra), which is why different kinds of people perform tasks that are suitable for them, they become perfected (within the limits of their own natures) through acquired voluntary habits (al-malakāt al-irādiyya) such as crafts and arts.

The ruler of the city must possess the acquired intellect (al-‘aql al-mustafād) by means of which he communicates with the Active Intellect, and his imaginative faculty must also be perfect. When the Active Intellect infuses his passive intellect with the knowledge of universals, such a ruler becomes a philosopher and, owing to the infusion of his imaginative faculty with the knowledge of particulars, also a prophet and warner (mundhir; of the punishment in the hereafter). A ruler who possesses all the aforementioned qualities is called “the true king” (al-malik fī al-ḥaqīqa). If, however, at a certain time no one is qualified to be a true king, the city must be ruled by the traditional king (al-malik bi-l-sunna)—one who does not issue new laws but preserves those issued by the previous leader or leaders. Although all inhabitants of the city share the same beliefs, seeking happiness, only a tiny minority—the philosophers—can establish the veracity of these beliefs by demonstrative proofs (proofs that consist of a chain of syllogisms). The majority—the common believers—know them only through their likenesses (muthul)—namely, imitations (muḥākāt) of their intelligible forms. These likenesses that exist in their imagination differ from one another in their degree of perfection and particular characteristics, which leads to differences of opinions among the inhabitants of different excellent cities.

There are also nonexcellent cities. Philosophers discuss a variety of them, but there are two main types: the ignorant city (al-madīna al-jāhila) and the sinful city (al-madīna al-fāsiqa). The inhabitants of the ignorant city have incorrect conceptions of happiness and adhere to corrupt practices. The inhabitants of the sinful city share the sound beliefs of the inhabitants of the excellent city but engage in the corrupt actions of the inhabitants of the ignorant city.

The Brethren of Purity (Ikhwān al Ṣafā’, who wrote their treatises somewhere in the tenth century) discuss the issue of the philosophical city in the 48th epistle of their encyclopedia, titled “On the manner of mission on behalf of God” (Fi Kayfiyyati Da‘wat ila Allah). As they address their epistles not to fellow philosophers (as Farabi did) but instead to a wider and less sophisticated audience, their account is simplified and more popular. They urge their followers to assist each other and to unite their bodily and spiritual powers in order to build an excellent and virtuous spiritual city (madīna fāḍila rūḥāniyya), “the refuge of spirits” (ma’wāt al-arwāḥ), in the country of the “Greatest Trusted One” (al-nāmūs al-akbar), in other words, the angel Gabriel. The inhabitants of this city must be a tribe of pious, wise, and virtuous men, discerning the affairs of the souls and their states. The city must rest on the foundations of sincerity (ṣidq) and the fear of God (taqwā) and must be supported by the pillars of fidelity (wafā’) and trust (amāna), the ultimate goal of its existence being eternal bliss (which consists of the separation from the world of generation and corruption).

The inhabitants of the city are divided into four ranks: craftsmen, chiefs (managers and administrators), rulers (those who command and forbid), and divines (the possessors of volition [mashī’a] and will [irāda]). The craftsmen must possess a purified soul, excellent receptivity, and a quick wit. These qualities are provided by the intellective faculty, which discerns the meanings of sensible affairs and typically develops by the age of 15. The possessors of this rank are referred to as “the merciful [and the] righteous” (al-abrār al-ruḥamā’). The chiefs, in turn, must possess a generous soul and take care of the brethren with compassion and mercy, employing the philosophical faculty, which develops by the age of 30. The possessors of this rank are called “the virtuous [and] pious” (al-akhyār al-fuḍalā’). The rulers must possess authority of command and prohibition and be able to eliminate obstinacy and resistance in a subtle and friendly way. This ability is provided by the legislative faculty (al-quwwa al-nāmūsiyya), which develops by age 40. The possessors of this rank are called “the noble [and the] virtuous” (al-fuḍalā’ al-karrām). Finally, the divines must embody a complete submission to God, receiving in return His support and the ability to witness Him. This ability is given by the angelic faculty, which develops by age 50. This division is based on the seventh book (537c–540c) of Plato’s Republic.

Ibn Rushd deals with the issue of the philosophical city in his commentary on Plato’s Republic (which survives only in Hebrew translation). He identifies the philosophical city with the perfect Islamic state based on the shari‘a. The city is ruled by the philosopher, because happiness can be achieved only through theoretical knowledge (however, no mention of his conjunction with the Active Intellect is made). The ruler-philosopher, who is also king, legislator, and imam, presents the elite with demonstrative arguments but addresses the common people with persuasive and poetical ones. His duty is to create and maintain an administrative hierarchy that would perfectly reproduce the natural hierarchy among the moral virtues and practical arts, all of which exist for the sake of perfecting theoretical virtues.